The document provides information about algorithms and programming fundamentals in C++. It discusses what algorithms are, how to write them, and examples of algorithms to determine if a number is even or odd or if a student passed an exam. It also covers flowcharts, programming languages, data types, variables, operators, and comments in C++.

3. MID-TERM PREPARATION
PROGRAMMING FUNDAMENTALS
C++
DAY FIRST LEARNING ALL ABOUT BASICS

4. What is Algorithm
• step-by-step Procedure to solve a problem
• Using algorithm problem solving become easier
• Its better to write algorithm before writing code
How to Write Algorithm
• Problem broke down into pieces in meaningful steps
• Step should be Numbered
• Step should be Descriptive
• Write in Simple English

5. More About Algorithm
• Algorithm is write language that is similar to Simple English called Pseudo Code
• It is used to simplify the Program logic
Two Main Parts of Pseudo Code
• Logic Design
Specify different steps
• Coding
Algorithm convert into code

6. Write a Algorithm input Two Numbers, calculate sum
and display on screen.
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Input A
Step 3: Input B
Step 4: Sum=A+B
Step 5: Display Sum
Step 6: End

7. Example 2: Determine and Output Whether Number N is Even or Odd.
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Read number N
Step 3: Set remainder as N modulo 2
Step 4: If remainder is equal to 0 then number N is even, else number N is odd
Step 5: Print output.
Step 6: End

8. Determine Whether A Student Passed the Exam or Not:
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Input grades of 4 courses M1, M2, M3 and M4,
Step 3: Calculate the average grade with formula "Grade=(M1+M2+M3+M4)/4"
Step 4: If the average grade is less than 60, print "FAIL", else print "PASS".
Step 5: End

9. Advantages of Algorithm
• Reduce Complexity
• Increase Flexibility
• Ease of Understand

10. What is Flowchart
• A type of diagram that represents an
algorithm
• workflow or process.
• It shows the steps as boxes of various kinds
• and their order by connecting the boxes with
arrows.
• Solution of given problem.

11. Symbols of Flowchart
Input / Output
Process
Selectio
n
Start / End

12. Flow Lines
Connectors
Function
Call

13. Make A Flowchart input Two Numbers, calculate sum and display.
Start
Input
A,B
Sum=A+B
Display
Sum
End

14. Determine and Output Whether Number N is Even or Odd

15. Determine Whether A Student Passed the Exam or Not:

16. Types of Programming Languages
procedural language
That follows, in order, a set of commands
Examples of computer procedural languages are BASIC,
C, FORTRAN and Pascal.
Non-procedural language
That does not require writing traditional programming
logicExamples of computer procedural languages are as C++ or Java
Object-oriented language (OOL)
programming language that implements objects and
their associated procedures within the programming
Examples of Object-oriented language are as php or
Java

17. High Level Language
• Language that is Near to Human Language and Far from Computer
• Computer Need a translator tom understand it
Low Level Language
• Language that is Near to Computer Language and Far
from Human
• Computer don’t Need a translator tom understand it

18. Translator
A program who translates from one language into another Language
Types Translator
Compiler
Interpreter
Assembler

19. Compiler
The Program that convert program High Level Language to
Low Level Language as a whole
It also Check Syntax Error

20. Interpreter
The Program that convert one Statement at a time
If there is a error stop working and till correct error
Execute first then move on next statement
It also make an object file

21. Assembler
It also convert program from Assembly Language to Low level Language

22. Structure of C++ Program
#include<iostream.h>
using namespace std
int main()
{
cout<<“Hello Learn 4 Earn”;
return 0;
}
Header Files
Preprocessor Directives
"std" namespace
Main Function
Body of program

23. Preprocessor Directives
Preprocessors are programs that process our
source code before compilation
Preprocessor commands begin with a hash symbol (#).
Compiler Directive
Types of Preprocessor Directives
#include
#define
Include header files
Define constant

24. Header Files
Collection of Library Functions
Include in start of program
Always enclose in < >
Header files always extension .h
Syntax
#include<header_file_name>

25. A namespace is a declarative region that provides a scope to the identifiers (the names of
types, functions, variables,
namespace
used to organize code into logical groups and to prevent name collisions that can occur
especially when your code base includes multiple libraries
Main Function
the entry point of any C++ program
It is the point at which execution of program is started
When a C++ program is executed, the execution control
goes directly to the main() function.
Without main() program will execute but not compile

26. Body of Program
In curly braces all the instruction written
Always start with opening brace {
Always End with closing brace }
Braces are known as Delimeters

27. A C++ identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, class,
module, or any other user-defined item
Identifiers
Rules For Identifiers
First Character must be Alphabet or Underscore ( _ )
Must consist of only underscore ( _ ) , alphabet or digit
Reserved Word can not use as identifiers

28. Keywords
Keyword is a predefined or reserved word in C++
library with a fixed meaning and used to perform an internal
operation
C++ Language supports more than 64 keywords
Every Keyword exists in lower case latter
Example
const float short unsigned
continue for signed void
default goto sizeof volatile
do if static while

29. Data Types
Data type is a keyword used to identify type of data
These are the data types whose variable can hold maximum one value at a time
in C++ language it can be achieve by int, float, double, char.
Primitive data types
These data type are derived from fundamental data type. Variables of
derived data type allow us to store multiple values of same type in one
variable but never allows to store multiple values of different types.
Derived data types
User defined data types related variables allows us to store multiple
values either of same type or different type or both.
User defined data types

31. Integer
Keyword used for integer data types is int
Integers typically requires 4 bytes of memory space
ranges from -2147483648 to 2147483647
Floating Point
Floating Point data type is used for storing single precision
floating point values or decimal values
Keyword used for floating point data type is float.
Float variables typically requires 4 byte of memory space.
Character
Character data type is used for storing characters
Keyword used for character data type is char
Characters typically requires 1 byte of memory space
ranges from -128 to 127 or 0 to 255

32. Double Floating Point
Double Floating Point data type is used for storing double
precision floating point values or decimal values
Keyword used for double floating point data type is double
Double variables typically requires 8 byte of memory space
Boolean
Boolean data type is used for storing boolean or logical values
A boolean variable can store either true or false
Keyword used for boolean data type is bool
void
Void means without any value
void datatype represents a valueless entity
Void data type is used for those function which does not
returns a value

33. Data Type Size (in bytes) Range
short int 2 -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned short int 2 0 to 65,535
unsigned int 4 0 to 4,294,967,295
int 4
-2,147,483,648 to
2,147,483,647
long int 4
-2,147,483,648 to
2,147,483,647
unsigned long int 4 0 to 4,294,967,295
long long int 8 -(2^63) to (2^63)-1
unsigned long long int 8
0 to
18,446,744,073,709,551,615
signed char 1 -128 to 127
unsigned char 1 0 to 255
float 4
double 8
long double 12
wchar_t 2 or 4 1 wide character

34. where operations on 2 numbers exceeds the maximum
value
Integer overflow
Integer underflow
where operations on 2 numbers decrees the minimum
value

35. Variables
A variable is a name given to a memory location
It is the basic unit of storage in a program
The value stored in a variable can be changed during
program execution
A variable is only a name given to a memory location
all the operations done on the variable effects that
memory location.

36. Variables declaration
Process of specifying variable name and Data type
Syntax
Data_Type Variable_Name;
Int number;
Variables Initialization
Process of assigning value to variable at time of declaration
Syntax
Data_Type Variable_Name = value ;
Int number = 10 ;

37. Rules for Variables declaration
1. A variable name can consist of Capital letters A-Z, lowercase letters a-z, digits 0-
9, and the underscore character.
2. The first character must be a letter or underscore
3. Blank spaces cannot be used in variable names
4. Special characters like #, $ are not allowed.
5. C++ keywords cannot be used as variable names
6. Variable names are case-sensitive.
7. A variable name can be consisting of 31 characters only if we declare a variable
more than one characters compiler will ignore after 31 characters.
8. Variable type can be bool, char, int, float, double, void
or wchar_t

38. Constant
like a variable, is a memory location where a value can be
storedconstants never change in value
You must initialize a constant when it is created
Way to Create Constant
Using const Keyword
const type variable = value;
const int PI= 3.1415;
Using #define Directive
#define identifier value
#define PI 3.1415

39. Expression
Expression in C++ is a combination of Operands and
Operators
Evaluate a Single Value
A = 10 , b = 5.0 , c = 4.4 , Result
Result= a+b(a*c) / (a-b)
Example

40. An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific
mathematical or logical manipulations
Operators
Operands are expressions or values on which an operator operates or
works (often constants or variables but sub-expressions are also
permitted).
Operands
1. Arithmetic Operators
a. Unary Operator
b. Binary Operator
2. Relational Operators
3. Logical Operators
4. Assignment Operators
5. Compound Assignment Operators
Types of Operators

41. These are the operators used to perform arithmetic/mathematical operations on
operands.
Arithmetic operator
Operator Description Example
+ Adds two operands A + B will give 30
-
Subtracts second operand from
the first
A - B will give -10
* Multiplies both operands A * B will give 200
/
Divides numerator by de-
numerator
B / A will give 2
%
Modulus Operator and
remainder of after an integer
division
B % A will give 0

42. These are used for comparison of the values of two operands.
Relational operator
Also Known as Comparison Operator
Operator Description Example
==
Checks if the values of two operands are
equal or not
(A == B) is not true.
!=
Checks if the values of two operands are
equal or not
(A != B) is true.
>
Checks if the value of left operand is
greater than the value of right operand
(A > B) is not true.
<
Checks if the value of left operand is less
than the value of right operand
(A < B) is true.
>=
Checks if the value of left operand is
greater than or equal to the value of
operand
(A >= B) is not true.
<=
Checks if the value of left operand is less
than or equal to the value of right
operand,
(A <= B) is true.

43. Logical Operators are used to combine two or more conditions/constraints or to
complement the evaluation of the original condition in consideration. The result of the
operation of a logical operator is a boolean value either true or false
Logical Operator
Operator Description Example
&&
Called Logical AND operator. If
the operands are non-zero, then
condition becomes true.
(A && B) is false.
||
Called Logical OR Operator. If any
the two operands is non-zero, then
condition becomes true.
(A || B) is true.
!
Called Logical NOT Operator. Use to
reverses the logical state of its
operand. If a condition is true, then
Logical NOT operator will make
!(A && B) is true.

44. Increment operators are used to increase the value of the variable by one .
Increment operators
Prefix Increment
Postfix Increment
Decrement operators
Decrement operators are used to decrease the value of the variable by one.
Prefix Decrement
Postfix Decrement

45. Assignment Operators
Operator Description Example
=
Simple assignment operator, Assigns
values from right side operands to left
operand.
C = A + B will assign value of A + B into C
+=
Add AND assignment operator, It adds
right operand to the left operand and
assign the result to left operand.
C += A is equivalent to C = C + A
-=
Subtract AND assignment operator, It
subtracts right operand from the left
operand and assign the result to left
operand.
C -= A is equivalent to C = C - A
*=
Multiply AND assignment operator, It
multiplies right operand with the left
operand and assign the result to left
operand.
C *= A is equivalent to C = C * A
/=
Divide AND assignment operator, It
left operand with the right operand and
assign the result to left operand.
C /= A is equivalent to C = C / A
%=
Modulus AND assignment operator, It
takes modulus using two operands and
assign the result to left operand.
C %= A is equivalent to C = C % A

46. Operator Precedence
operator is a property that determines how operators of the higher and
lower Priority
Category Operator
Parentheses
( )
Division and Multiplication * , /
Plus and Minus + , -
Additive + -

47. operator is a property that determines how operators of the same precedence
are grouped in the absence of parentheses
Certain operators have higher precedence than others
Operator Associativity
This affects how an expression is evaluated.
Category Operator Associativity
Postfix () [] -> . ++ - - Left to right
Unary + - ! ~ ++ - - (type)* & sizeof Right to left
Multiplicative * / % Left to right
Additive + -
Left to right
Relational < <= > >= Left to right
Equality == !=
Left to right

48. Category Operator
Associativity
Logical AND
&&
Left to right
Logical OR
||
Left to right
Conditional
?:
Right to left
Assignment
= += -= *= /= %=>>= <<= &= ^=
|=
Right to left
Comma
, Left to right
Operator Associativity

49. Type Casting
A type cast is basically a conversion from one type to another.
Also known as ‘automatic type conversion’.
Implicit Type Casting
Done by the compiler on its own,
All the data types of the variables are upgraded to the data
type of the variable with largest data type.
bool -> char -> short int -> int -> unsigned int -> long -> unsigned -> long long -> float -> double -> long double

50. Explicit Type Casting
This process is also called type casting and it is user-defined. Here the
user can typecast the result to make it of a particular data type.
This is done by explicitly defining the required type in front of the expression in
parenthesis. This can be also considered as forceful casting.
Syntax:
(type) expression
double x = 1.2;
int sum = (int)x + 1;

51. The C++ comments are statements that are not executed by the
compiler.
Comments
The comments in C++ programming can be used to provide
explanation of the code, variable, method or class
C++ Single Line Comment
The single line comment starts with // (double slash). Let's see an
example of single line comment in C++
The C++ multi line comment is used to comment multiple
lines of code. It is surrounded by slash and asterisk (/∗ .....
∗/). Let's see an example of multi line comment in C++.
C++ Multi Line Comment