This document discusses the phenomenon of negative inversion in English grammar. It begins by providing examples of negative inversion and defining the types of negative phrases that can trigger inversion. It then discusses properties of negative inversion such as downward entailment, differences from plain topicalization, arguments versus adjuncts, and cases of apparent optional inversion. The document aims to explain examples where inversion seems optional by arguing they involve structurally distinct sentences that are string-identical.
GAT NTS SAMPLE PAPERS MATERIAL PART 1. You will find more GAT NTS material on my profile. Some sample papers and some important website links from which you can prepare. Good Luck =)
Seminar on ELT_Meeting 1 Course Overview_Edi Brata
This document provides an overview of the Seminar on English Language Teaching course. The 3-credit, 16-session course aims to provide students opportunities to acquire knowledge and experience in running, participating in, and presenting papers at seminars on English language teaching. Grading will be based on attendance, assignments, a midterm exam, and a final exam. The course outline details the topics to be covered in each session, including impromptu speeches, article presentations, research paper overviews, and formal paper presentations. References for additional reading are also provided.
Introduction to Linguistics_1 Syllabus OverviewEdi Brata
This document provides an overview of the Introduction to Linguistics course being taught. It includes information about the course identity, description, objectives, outline, topics to be covered over 16 sessions, assessment criteria including assignments, exams and class participation, grading policy, and references for further resources. The course aims to provide students with foundational knowledge of linguistics to help them understand subsequent related courses.
This document provides guidance on writing effective introductory, body, and conclusion paragraphs for essays and research papers. It discusses the purpose and components of the introductory paragraph, including the hook, transition, and thesis statement. It also explains the structure and elements of a strong body paragraph, including topic, support, and proof sentences as well as a concluding sentence. Finally, it outlines the key goals and components of a conclusion paragraph, such as restating the thesis and main ideas and leaving the reader with a final impression.
This document provides examples of propositional and predicate logic. It introduces basic logical concepts like propositions, truth values, connectives like "if...then" and "and", and quantifiers like "all" and "some". Propositional logic examples use letters like p and q to represent simple statements without internal structure. Predicate logic examples assign predicates like "loves" and "crazy" to arguments to represent statements with meaning, like "Loves(John, Mary)". The document explains how to represent quantified statements using predicates, arguments, and quantifiers.
Intro. to Linguistics_14 SociolinguisticsEdi Brata
Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. It examines how factors like region, social status, and ethnicity can impact language use between groups and individuals. Code-switching occurs when speakers fluidly switch between two or more languages or language varieties during conversation. Code-mixing is similar but involves integrating elements of other languages into sentences. Sociolinguistic concepts like diglossia, bilingualism, and language interference help explain language variation and use within multilingual communities and societies.
Word meaning, sentence meaning, and syntactic meaningNick Izquierdo
This document discusses the relationship between word meaning, sentence meaning, and syntactic meaning. It challenges the view that word meaning is the sole source of conceptual content in sentences, and that syntactic structures only provide instructions for combining word meanings. The document argues that syntactic constructions have intrinsic meanings distinct from the words that make them up, and that construction meaning can override word meaning in some cases. It provides examples to demonstrate this, and argues that appeal to constructional meaning enhances theories of sentence semantics.
GAT NTS SAMPLE PAPERS MATERIAL PART 1. You will find more GAT NTS material on my profile. Some sample papers and some important website links from which you can prepare. Good Luck =)
Seminar on ELT_Meeting 1 Course Overview_Edi Brata
This document provides an overview of the Seminar on English Language Teaching course. The 3-credit, 16-session course aims to provide students opportunities to acquire knowledge and experience in running, participating in, and presenting papers at seminars on English language teaching. Grading will be based on attendance, assignments, a midterm exam, and a final exam. The course outline details the topics to be covered in each session, including impromptu speeches, article presentations, research paper overviews, and formal paper presentations. References for additional reading are also provided.
Introduction to Linguistics_1 Syllabus OverviewEdi Brata
This document provides an overview of the Introduction to Linguistics course being taught. It includes information about the course identity, description, objectives, outline, topics to be covered over 16 sessions, assessment criteria including assignments, exams and class participation, grading policy, and references for further resources. The course aims to provide students with foundational knowledge of linguistics to help them understand subsequent related courses.
This document provides guidance on writing effective introductory, body, and conclusion paragraphs for essays and research papers. It discusses the purpose and components of the introductory paragraph, including the hook, transition, and thesis statement. It also explains the structure and elements of a strong body paragraph, including topic, support, and proof sentences as well as a concluding sentence. Finally, it outlines the key goals and components of a conclusion paragraph, such as restating the thesis and main ideas and leaving the reader with a final impression.
This document provides examples of propositional and predicate logic. It introduces basic logical concepts like propositions, truth values, connectives like "if...then" and "and", and quantifiers like "all" and "some". Propositional logic examples use letters like p and q to represent simple statements without internal structure. Predicate logic examples assign predicates like "loves" and "crazy" to arguments to represent statements with meaning, like "Loves(John, Mary)". The document explains how to represent quantified statements using predicates, arguments, and quantifiers.
Intro. to Linguistics_14 SociolinguisticsEdi Brata
Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. It examines how factors like region, social status, and ethnicity can impact language use between groups and individuals. Code-switching occurs when speakers fluidly switch between two or more languages or language varieties during conversation. Code-mixing is similar but involves integrating elements of other languages into sentences. Sociolinguistic concepts like diglossia, bilingualism, and language interference help explain language variation and use within multilingual communities and societies.
Word meaning, sentence meaning, and syntactic meaningNick Izquierdo
This document discusses the relationship between word meaning, sentence meaning, and syntactic meaning. It challenges the view that word meaning is the sole source of conceptual content in sentences, and that syntactic structures only provide instructions for combining word meanings. The document argues that syntactic constructions have intrinsic meanings distinct from the words that make them up, and that construction meaning can override word meaning in some cases. It provides examples to demonstrate this, and argues that appeal to constructional meaning enhances theories of sentence semantics.
The document contains short, unrelated sentences about various people and situations. A man's kindness is questioned. A drill was boring. A woman cannot have children. Liz bought a pen. A small girls' school is mentioned. A girl found a book on Main Street. A man is known who has a dog with fleas. A boy watched a girl in the park with a telescope. An Iraqi head seeks arms. A teacher strikes idle kids. A stolen painting was found by a tree. Children should be included when baking cookies. Lung cancer is rising in women. Miners refuse to work after a death.
The documents discuss unity and coherence in essays. Unity means all ideas in an essay are connected to a single topic or thesis. Coherence means ideas are arranged in a clear, logical way to make them easy for readers to understand. Some ways to achieve unity include editing the outline to remove irrelevant ideas and reviewing the essay to check for off-topic ideas. Coherence can be created through organized structures, transition signals between sentences and paragraphs, repeating important words, and pronoun references to connect ideas.
Masa khulafa al rasyidin (usman ibn affan dan ali ibn abi thalib)Agradjaya Agradjaya
Teks tersebut membahas masa kekhalifahan Usman bin Affan dan Ali bin Abi Thalib. Usman diangkat melalui proses pemilihan oleh tim formatur, sementara Ali dibaiat langsung oleh umat. Usman berhasil memperluas wilayah dan menyatukan al-Quran, namun kebijakannya didominasi keluarga. Ali menghadapi berbagai konflik bersenjata seperti Perang Jamal, Shiffin, dan Nahrawan sehingga tidak banyak menerap
This document discusses key concepts in sentence semantics and propositional logic. It defines sentences, utterances and propositions. A proposition is conceived as an abstract string of words that can be true or false depending on the state of affairs. The document also discusses truth conditions and how knowing the meaning of a sentence involves knowing when it is true or false. It introduces concepts of formal semantics like models and model theory. Finally, it discusses word meaning, propositions, entailment, predicate logic and propositional logic.
Structural semantics examines the relationships between the meanings of terms within language. It views meaning as composed of smaller structural units that are defined through social interactions, and may become meaningless without such contexts. Structuralism studies the underlying systems of signification that occur wherever there are meaningful events or actions, such as discussions, texts, or social practices, and views meaning as a product of shared signification systems rather than private experience. Ferdinand de Saussure's semiotic theory analyzed how elements of language relate synchronically in a system, with the basic unit of the sign composed of the signifier and signified.
This document provides an overview of semantics, which is the study of meaning in language. It discusses key concepts such as utterances, sentences, propositions, semantic roles including agent and patient. It also covers lexical relations like synonyms and antonyms, and how word meanings can change based on context. The document is intended as an introduction to linguistics concepts related to semantics.
Introduction to Linguistics_2 Linguistics, Language and the Origin of Languag...Edi Brata
This document provides an introduction to the field of linguistics. It defines linguistics as the scientific study of language and notes that while humans naturally develop language, it requires scientific study to understand. The document outlines some key aspects of linguistics, including that it is descriptive rather than prescriptive, regards spoken language as primary, and does not force languages into a Latin-based framework like traditional grammar does. It also summarizes different theories about the origin of human language.
An introduction to systemic functional linguisticsiendah lestari
The document provides an overview of systemic functional linguistics, which views language as a strategic meaning-making resource that is influenced by social and cultural context. It discusses 21 potential applications of systemic theory and lists four main claims: that language use is functional, its function is to make meanings, these meanings are influenced by context, and language use is a semiotic process of making meanings through choice. The document also describes how context impacts language use through registers, genres, and ideology. Systemic analysis seeks to demonstrate that linguistic texts make multiple meanings simultaneously through experiential, interpersonal, and textual meanings.
Intro. to Linguistics_16 Psycholinguistics 2 (Language Acquisition)Edi Brata
Edi Brata discusses language acquisition in three sessions:
1) First language acquisition - Children acquire language naturally through exposure and without formal teaching. Nativist theories posit an innate language acquisition device.
2) Second language acquisition - Similar to first language but with native language interference. Requires sufficient exposure and practice using the new language.
3) Foreign language acquisition - Children can acquire any language like L1 if the environment provides sufficient exposure and use, though adults face disadvantages like a lack of a critical period. Both children and adults learn via similar cognitive mechanisms.
Word Meaning (Semantics, Semantic Features and Prototype)Huseyin Kirik
This document provides an overview of key concepts in semantics, including:
- Entailment and hyponymy relationships between words and sentences. Entailment means one sentence necessarily implies the truth of another. Hyponymy is a hierarchical relationship where a word is a type of another word.
- Other semantic relationships like synonymy, antonymy, complementarity, and meronymy. Synonyms have the same meaning, antonyms have opposite meanings, and complementaries have mutually exclusive meanings. Meronyms refer to part-whole relationships.
- How semantic features can help explain why some sentences seem odd, by looking at the conceptual features words have like [+/- animate].
- Prototype theory
Semanticists study the foundations of everyday communication by examining properties of sentences like being analytic, synthetic, or contradictory. These properties depend on the sense and relationships between words. The sense of a word is its core meaning, while a stereotype includes typical characteristics. Complete definitions of word meanings are difficult, but stereotypes and necessary/sufficient conditions provide partial understanding. Effective communication relies on shared understandings of word senses and stereotypes.
This document discusses various types of semantic relationships between words. It defines synonymy as words with the same meaning, and antonymy as words with opposite meanings. Other relationships covered include hyponymy (specific to general), homonymy (distinct meanings), meronymy (part-whole), metonymy (associated substitution), retronymy (new names for old concepts), polysemy (related meanings), and converseness (reciprocal pairs). Examples are provided for each relationship type.
This document discusses how words and sentences derive meaning. It explains that word meanings are constructed through relationships like synonyms, antonyms, and polysemy. Figurative language like metaphor, metonymy and idioms allow words to take on nonliteral meanings. Sentence meaning comes from structure, while utterance meaning depends on context. Pragmatics studies how context shapes the implied meaning of an utterance. Overall, the document examines how semantics and pragmatics work together to help people construct and understand meanings from language.
This document defines and provides examples of seven common types of essays: descriptive, narrative, cause and effect, compare and contrast, process, expository, and persuasive/argumentative. A descriptive essay provides sensory details about a person, place, or thing. A narrative essay tells a story, often from a first-person perspective. A cause and effect essay examines how various factors influence an outcome or event. A compare and contrast essay analyzes the similarities and differences between two or more subjects. A process essay outlines the steps to complete a task or achieve a goal. An expository essay explains or informs on a topic. A persuasive essay aims to convince the reader of a particular opinion or argument.
This document discusses speech act theory and politeness in speech acts. It begins with an introduction to speech acts and J.L. Austin's speech act theory. Direct and indirect speech acts are explained, along with how to categorize different types of speech acts such as representatives, directives, commissives, etc. Felicity conditions for speech acts are presented. The concept of politeness and how it relates to maintaining face is discussed. Indirect speech acts are explained as a way to be polite. Sentence types and identifying them is also covered. In the end, references used in the document are listed.
Unit 6 - Predicates, Referring Expressions, and Universe of DiscourseAshwag Al Hamid
- Speakers refer to things in their utterances using referring expressions. Referring expressions give clues to help the hearer identify the referent. Predicates may be embedded in referring expressions.
- Generic sentences make statements about whole unrestricted classes rather than particular individuals.
- While semantics is concerned with meaning and existence, imagination allows us to refer to nonexistent things. The universe of discourse is the world, real or imaginary, being discussed. Successful communication requires assuming the same universe of discourse.
This document discusses different types of sense relations, including antonymy and contradictoriness. It defines four types of antonymy:
1) Binary antonymy, where predicates come in pairs that exhaust all relevant possibilities.
2) Converses, where predicates describe relationships in opposite orders.
3) Multiple incompatibles, where terms in a system are mutually incompatible.
4) Gradable antonymy, where predicates are at opposite ends of a continuous scale.
It also discusses contradictoriness between sentences. The document examines ambiguity, distinguishing between homonymy, polysemy, and vague words. It describes lexical and structural ambiguity in sentences.
This document discusses different types of sense relations between linguistic expressions, including synonymy, hyponymy, paraphrase, and entailment.
1) Synonymy is defined as the relationship between two predicates that have the same sense. Hyponymy is a sense relation where the meaning of one predicate is included within the meaning of another more general predicate.
2) Paraphrase is the relationship between two sentences that express the same proposition. Entailment is where the truth of one proposition necessarily follows from the truth of another.
3) The relationships are interdependent. Synonymy is a special case of symmetrical hyponymy. Paraphrase is symmetrical entailment. The basic
Unit 2: Sentences, Utterances, and PropositionsAshwag Al Hamid
The document discusses the key concepts of utterance, sentence, and proposition in semantics. It defines an utterance as a physical act of saying by a speaker on a particular occasion. A sentence is an abstract linguistic object composed of words arranged according to grammatical rules. A proposition is the aspect of a declarative sentence's meaning that describes a state of affairs in the world that can be true or false. Propositions are central to semantics as the meanings of sentences involve propositions.
The document discusses various key concepts in semantics, including:
- Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It examines how meaning is constructed and interpreted.
- Semantic roles describe the functions that words play in sentences, such as agent, theme, and experiencer.
- Relationships between words include synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, homophony, and polysemy. Synonyms have similar meanings, antonyms have opposite meanings, hyponyms have a broader term that includes them, and polysemy refers to a word having multiple related meanings.
- Richard Montague pioneered formal semantics which used logic to represent meanings of sentences. Semantics analyzes meaning at various linguistic levels
The document discusses negation in language. It defines negation as contradicting or negating the meaning of a sentence. Negation is commonly expressed through words like "not" or contractions with "n't". Negation can also be expressed through prefixes like "un-", "a-", "de-", "dis-", "in-", or "-less". The scope of negation, whether sentential or constituent, can be tested through truth value, tags, and licensing of negative polarity items. Negation is a fundamental part of human language but is not present in animal communication systems.
This document discusses negation in syntax. It begins by defining negation as a grammatical construction that contradicts or negates a sentence's meaning. Negation is a universal linguistic category that exists in all languages. The document then discusses three types of negation: sentential negation, which negates the whole clause; constituent negation, which has narrow scope over parts of a sentence; and meta-negation, which has the widest scope above the clause level. The rest of the document provides examples and tests to distinguish between these negation types and establish sentential negation as a key topic.
The document contains short, unrelated sentences about various people and situations. A man's kindness is questioned. A drill was boring. A woman cannot have children. Liz bought a pen. A small girls' school is mentioned. A girl found a book on Main Street. A man is known who has a dog with fleas. A boy watched a girl in the park with a telescope. An Iraqi head seeks arms. A teacher strikes idle kids. A stolen painting was found by a tree. Children should be included when baking cookies. Lung cancer is rising in women. Miners refuse to work after a death.
The documents discuss unity and coherence in essays. Unity means all ideas in an essay are connected to a single topic or thesis. Coherence means ideas are arranged in a clear, logical way to make them easy for readers to understand. Some ways to achieve unity include editing the outline to remove irrelevant ideas and reviewing the essay to check for off-topic ideas. Coherence can be created through organized structures, transition signals between sentences and paragraphs, repeating important words, and pronoun references to connect ideas.
Masa khulafa al rasyidin (usman ibn affan dan ali ibn abi thalib)Agradjaya Agradjaya
Teks tersebut membahas masa kekhalifahan Usman bin Affan dan Ali bin Abi Thalib. Usman diangkat melalui proses pemilihan oleh tim formatur, sementara Ali dibaiat langsung oleh umat. Usman berhasil memperluas wilayah dan menyatukan al-Quran, namun kebijakannya didominasi keluarga. Ali menghadapi berbagai konflik bersenjata seperti Perang Jamal, Shiffin, dan Nahrawan sehingga tidak banyak menerap
This document discusses key concepts in sentence semantics and propositional logic. It defines sentences, utterances and propositions. A proposition is conceived as an abstract string of words that can be true or false depending on the state of affairs. The document also discusses truth conditions and how knowing the meaning of a sentence involves knowing when it is true or false. It introduces concepts of formal semantics like models and model theory. Finally, it discusses word meaning, propositions, entailment, predicate logic and propositional logic.
Structural semantics examines the relationships between the meanings of terms within language. It views meaning as composed of smaller structural units that are defined through social interactions, and may become meaningless without such contexts. Structuralism studies the underlying systems of signification that occur wherever there are meaningful events or actions, such as discussions, texts, or social practices, and views meaning as a product of shared signification systems rather than private experience. Ferdinand de Saussure's semiotic theory analyzed how elements of language relate synchronically in a system, with the basic unit of the sign composed of the signifier and signified.
This document provides an overview of semantics, which is the study of meaning in language. It discusses key concepts such as utterances, sentences, propositions, semantic roles including agent and patient. It also covers lexical relations like synonyms and antonyms, and how word meanings can change based on context. The document is intended as an introduction to linguistics concepts related to semantics.
Introduction to Linguistics_2 Linguistics, Language and the Origin of Languag...Edi Brata
This document provides an introduction to the field of linguistics. It defines linguistics as the scientific study of language and notes that while humans naturally develop language, it requires scientific study to understand. The document outlines some key aspects of linguistics, including that it is descriptive rather than prescriptive, regards spoken language as primary, and does not force languages into a Latin-based framework like traditional grammar does. It also summarizes different theories about the origin of human language.
An introduction to systemic functional linguisticsiendah lestari
The document provides an overview of systemic functional linguistics, which views language as a strategic meaning-making resource that is influenced by social and cultural context. It discusses 21 potential applications of systemic theory and lists four main claims: that language use is functional, its function is to make meanings, these meanings are influenced by context, and language use is a semiotic process of making meanings through choice. The document also describes how context impacts language use through registers, genres, and ideology. Systemic analysis seeks to demonstrate that linguistic texts make multiple meanings simultaneously through experiential, interpersonal, and textual meanings.
Intro. to Linguistics_16 Psycholinguistics 2 (Language Acquisition)Edi Brata
Edi Brata discusses language acquisition in three sessions:
1) First language acquisition - Children acquire language naturally through exposure and without formal teaching. Nativist theories posit an innate language acquisition device.
2) Second language acquisition - Similar to first language but with native language interference. Requires sufficient exposure and practice using the new language.
3) Foreign language acquisition - Children can acquire any language like L1 if the environment provides sufficient exposure and use, though adults face disadvantages like a lack of a critical period. Both children and adults learn via similar cognitive mechanisms.
Word Meaning (Semantics, Semantic Features and Prototype)Huseyin Kirik
This document provides an overview of key concepts in semantics, including:
- Entailment and hyponymy relationships between words and sentences. Entailment means one sentence necessarily implies the truth of another. Hyponymy is a hierarchical relationship where a word is a type of another word.
- Other semantic relationships like synonymy, antonymy, complementarity, and meronymy. Synonyms have the same meaning, antonyms have opposite meanings, and complementaries have mutually exclusive meanings. Meronyms refer to part-whole relationships.
- How semantic features can help explain why some sentences seem odd, by looking at the conceptual features words have like [+/- animate].
- Prototype theory
Semanticists study the foundations of everyday communication by examining properties of sentences like being analytic, synthetic, or contradictory. These properties depend on the sense and relationships between words. The sense of a word is its core meaning, while a stereotype includes typical characteristics. Complete definitions of word meanings are difficult, but stereotypes and necessary/sufficient conditions provide partial understanding. Effective communication relies on shared understandings of word senses and stereotypes.
This document discusses various types of semantic relationships between words. It defines synonymy as words with the same meaning, and antonymy as words with opposite meanings. Other relationships covered include hyponymy (specific to general), homonymy (distinct meanings), meronymy (part-whole), metonymy (associated substitution), retronymy (new names for old concepts), polysemy (related meanings), and converseness (reciprocal pairs). Examples are provided for each relationship type.
This document discusses how words and sentences derive meaning. It explains that word meanings are constructed through relationships like synonyms, antonyms, and polysemy. Figurative language like metaphor, metonymy and idioms allow words to take on nonliteral meanings. Sentence meaning comes from structure, while utterance meaning depends on context. Pragmatics studies how context shapes the implied meaning of an utterance. Overall, the document examines how semantics and pragmatics work together to help people construct and understand meanings from language.
This document defines and provides examples of seven common types of essays: descriptive, narrative, cause and effect, compare and contrast, process, expository, and persuasive/argumentative. A descriptive essay provides sensory details about a person, place, or thing. A narrative essay tells a story, often from a first-person perspective. A cause and effect essay examines how various factors influence an outcome or event. A compare and contrast essay analyzes the similarities and differences between two or more subjects. A process essay outlines the steps to complete a task or achieve a goal. An expository essay explains or informs on a topic. A persuasive essay aims to convince the reader of a particular opinion or argument.
This document discusses speech act theory and politeness in speech acts. It begins with an introduction to speech acts and J.L. Austin's speech act theory. Direct and indirect speech acts are explained, along with how to categorize different types of speech acts such as representatives, directives, commissives, etc. Felicity conditions for speech acts are presented. The concept of politeness and how it relates to maintaining face is discussed. Indirect speech acts are explained as a way to be polite. Sentence types and identifying them is also covered. In the end, references used in the document are listed.
Unit 6 - Predicates, Referring Expressions, and Universe of DiscourseAshwag Al Hamid
- Speakers refer to things in their utterances using referring expressions. Referring expressions give clues to help the hearer identify the referent. Predicates may be embedded in referring expressions.
- Generic sentences make statements about whole unrestricted classes rather than particular individuals.
- While semantics is concerned with meaning and existence, imagination allows us to refer to nonexistent things. The universe of discourse is the world, real or imaginary, being discussed. Successful communication requires assuming the same universe of discourse.
This document discusses different types of sense relations, including antonymy and contradictoriness. It defines four types of antonymy:
1) Binary antonymy, where predicates come in pairs that exhaust all relevant possibilities.
2) Converses, where predicates describe relationships in opposite orders.
3) Multiple incompatibles, where terms in a system are mutually incompatible.
4) Gradable antonymy, where predicates are at opposite ends of a continuous scale.
It also discusses contradictoriness between sentences. The document examines ambiguity, distinguishing between homonymy, polysemy, and vague words. It describes lexical and structural ambiguity in sentences.
This document discusses different types of sense relations between linguistic expressions, including synonymy, hyponymy, paraphrase, and entailment.
1) Synonymy is defined as the relationship between two predicates that have the same sense. Hyponymy is a sense relation where the meaning of one predicate is included within the meaning of another more general predicate.
2) Paraphrase is the relationship between two sentences that express the same proposition. Entailment is where the truth of one proposition necessarily follows from the truth of another.
3) The relationships are interdependent. Synonymy is a special case of symmetrical hyponymy. Paraphrase is symmetrical entailment. The basic
Unit 2: Sentences, Utterances, and PropositionsAshwag Al Hamid
The document discusses the key concepts of utterance, sentence, and proposition in semantics. It defines an utterance as a physical act of saying by a speaker on a particular occasion. A sentence is an abstract linguistic object composed of words arranged according to grammatical rules. A proposition is the aspect of a declarative sentence's meaning that describes a state of affairs in the world that can be true or false. Propositions are central to semantics as the meanings of sentences involve propositions.
The document discusses various key concepts in semantics, including:
- Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It examines how meaning is constructed and interpreted.
- Semantic roles describe the functions that words play in sentences, such as agent, theme, and experiencer.
- Relationships between words include synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, homophony, and polysemy. Synonyms have similar meanings, antonyms have opposite meanings, hyponyms have a broader term that includes them, and polysemy refers to a word having multiple related meanings.
- Richard Montague pioneered formal semantics which used logic to represent meanings of sentences. Semantics analyzes meaning at various linguistic levels
The document discusses negation in language. It defines negation as contradicting or negating the meaning of a sentence. Negation is commonly expressed through words like "not" or contractions with "n't". Negation can also be expressed through prefixes like "un-", "a-", "de-", "dis-", "in-", or "-less". The scope of negation, whether sentential or constituent, can be tested through truth value, tags, and licensing of negative polarity items. Negation is a fundamental part of human language but is not present in animal communication systems.
This document discusses negation in syntax. It begins by defining negation as a grammatical construction that contradicts or negates a sentence's meaning. Negation is a universal linguistic category that exists in all languages. The document then discusses three types of negation: sentential negation, which negates the whole clause; constituent negation, which has narrow scope over parts of a sentence; and meta-negation, which has the widest scope above the clause level. The rest of the document provides examples and tests to distinguish between these negation types and establish sentential negation as a key topic.
This document provides a list of cohesive devices that can be used when writing a composition. It includes logical devices like addition, comparison, contrast and concession. It also lists grammatical and lexical linking devices such as using pronominal forms to replace nouns, adverbials, clauses and sentences. Determiners and repetition of key words, synonyms and related word forms are also discussed as ways to link ideas cohesively.
The document provides instructions and content for a booklet on key skills including paraphrasing, reading comprehension, vocabulary, editing, and grammar exercises. It contains multiple sections with tasks like rewriting sentences from a provided text, answering questions about a passage, matching words to definitions, correcting errors in writing, and completing grammar activities. The document serves as a study guide and assessment tool for language learners.
The role of context in interpretation chapter (2) mohammad fayez al-habbalFayez Habbal
The document discusses key concepts in pragmatics and discourse analysis, including reference, presupposition, implicature, and inference. It provides definitions and examples for each concept. Reference refers to how speakers use linguistic expressions to refer to entities. Presupposition refers to assumptions speakers make about a hearer's background knowledge. Implicature involves implied meanings beyond literal meaning, based on conversational maxims. Inference in discourse analysis relies on socio-cultural knowledge rather than formal logic.
Columbia Mba Essay Topic. Online assignment writing service.Heather Wilkins
This document analyzes Hitler's Operation Barbarossa, which was the German invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II. It discusses how Germany launched the invasion in June 1941, hoping to quickly defeat the Soviet Red Army. However, the Germans were unprepared for the harsh Russian winter and the strength of the Soviet resistance. While they were initially successful, taking large amounts of Soviet territory, the German advance eventually stalled short of Moscow. The operation ultimately failed in its goal of defeating the Soviet Union, and instead ended up strengthening the alliance between the Soviet Union and the United States against Germany.
This document provides information about complex and compound-complex sentences. It defines complex sentences as containing one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses, including noun clauses, adjective clauses, and adverbial clauses. It then focuses on adverbial clauses, providing their characteristics and examples of different types including manner, time, place, reason, contrast, purpose, result, comparison, and participle clauses. The document also defines compound-complex sentences as containing two or more independent clauses as well as one or more dependent clauses.
This document discusses dependent prepositions in English. It explains that prepositions show the relationship between words and phrases in a sentence. Some key points:
- Prepositions provide information about position, time, direction, and location.
- Common English prepositions include before, behind, from, beneath, across, below, down, throughout, with, past, among, near, above, during, under, outside, toward, upon, over, and after.
- Prepositions can be used at the beginning of sentences. They are also used with certain verbs, adjectives, and nouns.
- The meaning of an expression can change depending on the preposition used.
- Examples are given showing the
1. Gob Bluth often uses his Segway to change the topic of conversation to what he wants to talk about by seamlessly segueing into a new subject.
2. In the children's TV show Simple Samosa, characters take part in a race inspired by the famous annual Dakar Rally held since 1978.
3. The number 4 is feared in Chinese culture due to being a homophone for "death" in some Chinese dialects, leading companies to avoid using it in product lines and buildings across China.
Student ID 21722970 Exam 250483RR - The Reading and Writing Proc.docxsimba35
Student ID: 21722970
Exam: 250483RR - The Reading and Writing Process
When you have completed your exam and reviewed your answers, click Submit Exam. Answers will not be recorded until you hit Submit Exam. If you need to exit before completing the exam, click Cancel Exam.
Questions 1 to 30: Select the best answer to each question. Note that a question and its answers may be split across a page break, so be sure that you have seen the entire question and all the answers before choosing an answer.
1. Your topic is courtesy, and you're writing from the point of view of a caring mentor. Which of the following sentences is most persuasive for an audience of high school graduates from a working-class neighborhood?
A. Courtesy to others shows self-respect as much as it does respect for others.
B. Remember that you can catch more flies with honey than with vinegar.
C. Courtesy yields profits to the impecunious as well as to the wealthy.
D. Courtesy is the oil that lubricates the machinery of discourse.
2. As a general rule, where in your essay is it best to place your thesis statement?
A. In the first, introductory paragraph of the essay
B. In the second or third paragraph of the body of the essay
C. At the end of the essay, as part of the conclusion
D. Anywhere at all, because the best thesis statement is implied, not specified
3. Bette and Juan are choosing a topic for their writing assignment. In doing so, Bette will take the time necessary to choose a good topic. Juan will focus on narrowing his topic ideas. Who is using guidelines to choose a successful topic?
A. Only Bette
B. Only Juan
C. Both Bette and Juan
D. Neither Better nor Juan
4. Which of the following methods is used to narrow a broad essay topic?
A. Wikipedia
B. Polling classmates
C. Branching and questioning
D. Brainstorming
5. Ron and Quincy are organizing the facts in their essays. Ron says putting details in spatial order means to organize them according to the order in which they happened. Quincy says it means putting the details in order according to their location. Who is correct?
A. Neither is correct.
B. Only Ron is correct.
C. Only Quincy is correct.
D. Both are correct.
6. Please read the following excerpt from an essay, and answer the question that follows. In the passage, the sentences are numbered to help you respond to the question. (1) Biologically, adolescence is marked by hormonal changes that produce secondary sexual characteristics. (2) These include breast development in females and beard growth in males. (3) Psychologically, however, adolescence is a concept that applies only to modern industrial societies. (4) In fact, in most preliterate or tribal societies, the modern American idea of adolescence simply does not exist. (5) In such societies, the social roles of adulthood are to be learned during childhood. (6) Then, around the time of biological puberty, a child becomes an adult through a ritual anthropologists call a rite of passage. (7) By contrast,.
This document discusses different approaches to defining the coreference-like relation that Binding Theory conditions were originally meant to constrain.
[1] Early approaches tried to define "coreference" precisely but faced problems distinguishing between binding and coreference. Later approaches treated Binding Theory as a purely syntactic concept not necessarily matching semantic relations.
[2] The author proposes revisiting the definition of "covaluation", which replaces "coreference" in Binding Theory formulations. A first definition generalizes over binding and coreference but rules out too little and too much. Contingent identity statements are correctly allowed under a revised definition using a "subjective" context.
[3] However, the system still allows "code
1. In the following sentence, which words are used as adjectivesT.docxcorbing9ttj
1. In the following sentence, which words are used as adjectives?
The golden rays of the bright sun reflected off the clear waters of the calm lake.
A. The, of, in, clear, and calm
B. Golden, rays, clear, and waters
C. The, rays, the, sun, the, waters, the, and lake
D. The, golden, the, bright, the, clear, the, and calm
2. In the following sentence, identify the prepositional phrase, and tell whether it acts as an adjective or
adverb.
The children found the pictures in the book interesting.
A. The children; adjective
B. in the book; adjective
C. found the pictures; adverb
D. the pictures in; adjective
3. In the following sentence, which words are nouns?
During their vacation, Sarah and Matthew read the same book.
A. vacation, Sarah, Matthew, and book
B. their and book
C. vacation and book
D. Sarah, Matthew, the, and book
4. A common term for photographs, cartoons, advertisements, illustrations, drawings, PowerPoint slides,
and graphics used to help present information is
A. representers.
B. sight perks.
C. ocular enhancements.
D. visuals.
5. Which of the following is not a common sentence error?
A. Mixed construction
B. Prepositional phrase
C. Fragment
D. Run-on
6. Which of the following words would require the article a, instead of an?
A. Hotel
B. Honest
C. Elderly
D. Igloo
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A. An implied meaning of word understood by language users
B. The meaning of a word that has never changed
C. A new word added to the dictionary
D. The pronunciation of a word
8. What is the difference between abstract nouns and concrete nouns?
A. Abstract nouns describe something, but concrete nouns don't.
B. Concrete nouns can be identified by the senses, but abstract nouns can't.
C. There is no difference.
D. Abstract nouns are specific, but concrete nouns aren't.
9. Which of the following is an antonym of the word happy?
A. Joyful
B. Miserable
C. Jovial
D. Blissful
10. Which of the following is a false statement about a basic dictionary?
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B. Various types of words are included a basic dictionary.
C. The pronunciation of words is provided in a basic dictionary.
D. A basic dictionary is organized in alphabetical order.
11. Which of the following is not a synonym of the word beautiful?
A. Gorgeous
B. Attractive
C. Gritty
D. Stunning
12. In the following sentence, to which antecedent is the pronoun referring?
After Denise went to the grocery store, she stopped at the gas station.
A. store
B. Denise
C. she
D. station
13. Which of the following is an example of a third-person pronoun?
A. Ourselves
B. Yourselves
C. Them
D. Us
14. Which of the following is a correct statement about punctuation?
A. Each direct question should end with a period.
B. Punctuation marks show pauses, inflection, and emphasis.
C. Punctuation is usually an extra, unnecessary part of a sentence.
D. The two types of punctuation are beginning and external.
15. Which of the following is.
The document discusses various ways of rearranging basic sentence structures in English, including cleft sentences, extraposed subjects, and existential sentences. Cleft sentences emphasize certain elements using "it" and rearranging elements into two clauses. Extraposed subjects shift the real subject to the end and replace it with "it" for emphasis. Existential sentences use "there" to assert existence and place the verb before the subject. Other rearrangements covered are left and right dislocation, inversion, and exchanging the positions of a direct object and object predicative.
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Buring.negative.inversion
1. Negative Inversion
Daniel B¨ring (UCLA)
u
buring@humnet.ucla.edu
Dec. 2004; prefinal draft; t.a. in the proceedings of NELS 2004
1 The Phenomenon
1.1 Basic Data
Negative Inversion (NI), illustrated in (1) through, has been discussed widely
in the syntactic literature, but has received very little attention from seman-
ticists:1
(1) a. Not until the next morning did she realise how serious it was.
b. Seldom has so much been owed by so many to so few. (BNC)
(2) a. None of them did he find useful.
b. Nowhere does he mention my book. (CGEL)
(3) a. Never had the Cardinal’s policy been more triumphantly vindi-
cated.
b. Nowhere is this so noticeable as in the South of France.
c. In no case can such a course be justified merely by success. (KE)
I will term the constituent preceding the auxiliary in these cases the negative
phrase. Negative phrases include what I call no-DPs and PPs such as never,
nowhere, no NP, none of , overtly negated phrases such as not until, not
even, phrases prefixed with only, DPs headed by fewer than, less than, at
most, n or less, and PPs containing such DPs or no-DPs.
1
Examples are from the British National Corpus (BNC), Huddleston and Pullum (2002)
(CGEL), Google searches (GGL), and H.W. Fowler (1908) The King’s English (KE); all
other examples are made up, unless otherwise noted.
1
2. 1.2 Negativity
What makes a phrase negative in this sense? First note that many of these
phrases are downward entailing (DE):
(4) a. None of them did he find useful ⇒ None of them did he find
useful and interesting.
b. Nowhere does he mention my book. ⇒ Nowhere does he praise
my book.
c. With no woman was he content ⇒ With no woman was he happy.
Some of the elements above are not DE, but nonetheless license NPIs; these
include only, and, at least for some speakers, non-monotonic DPs expressing
low numbers (% marks examples that not all speakers accept):
(5) a. Only two of them did he find useful. (CGE)
b. Only two of them lifted a finger to help.
(6) a. %In exactly two of these cases did we find traces of the virus.
b. %Exactly two of the cases ever showed traces of the virus.
In sum, DE-ness seems a sufficient condition for NI, but more in general, all
NPI licensing phrases are negative phrases in our sense (this is essentially
the generalization argued for in Klima (1964)).
1.3 Negative Inversion v. Topicalization
Non-negative phrases do not trigger inversion when preposed; for those cases
I will speak of (plain) topicalization (i.e. preposing without inversion):
(7) a. Nowhere does he mention my book. (CGE)
b. *Somewhere does he mention my book.
c. Somewhere, he mentions my book.
(8) a. In no case can such a course be justified merely by success. (KE)
b. *In some cases can such a course be justified merely by success.
c. In some cases, such a course can be justified merely by success.
Apart from inversion, plain topicalization and NI differ in their intonational
properties. Though I haven’t investigated these systematically, it seems ac-
curate to say that topicalization typically shows an intonational phrase break
2
3. (‘comma intonation’, indicated by %); NI doesn’t tolerate that kind of sep-
aration:
(9) a. Nowhere does he mention my book.
b. Somewhere % he mentions my book.
c. ?*Nowhere % does he mention my book.
(10) a. In no case can such a course be justified merely by success.
b. In some cases, such a course can be justified merely by success.
c. ?*In no case % can such a course be justified merely by success.
1.4 Arguments v. Adjuncts
Do all negative phrases trigger inversion? At least for non-arguments, inver-
sion seems obligatory with preposing:
(11) a. *Not until the next morning she realised how serious it was.
b. *Seldom so much has been owed by so many to so few.
(12) a. *Never the Cardinal’s policy had been more triumphantly vindi-
cated.
b. *Nowhere this is so noticeable as in the South of France.
c. *In no case such a course can be justified merely by success.
Examples of NI with arguments are rare, and most speakers find them formal,
literal, or stilted (I use § to indicate that):
(13) a. § None of them did he find useful. (CGEL)
b. § None of them can we afford to loose. (Google)
c. § To none of them could she have begun to say what was on her
mind.
d. § At none of them did I seem to do well. (BNC)
Some speakers accept argument examples without inversion like (14a) (in
sharp contrast to adjunct examples like (14b)), others reject them, too:
(14) a. %None of them he found useful.
b. *Nowhere in there he mentions my book.
It is worth noting, though, that for those speakers who do accept examples
like (14a), the intonation of the non-NI examples doesn’t involve a separated
3
4. intonation:
(15) a. Most of them % he found useful.
b. ?*None of them % he found useful.
c. None of them he found useful.
In what follows, I will only consider adjunct examples. I tentatively assume
that examples with preposed negative argument have the semantic properties
of inverted structures, whether inversion takes place or not.
2 Optional Inversion
Given what was said so far, we should expect that at least with adjuncts,
inversion occurs with all and only the negative phrases. And this is indeed
what I think is correct. On the face of it, though, this picture is challenged by
examples of what appears to be optional inversion. In the following sections
and subsections I will discuss and explain some of these cases.
2.1 Not even 10 years ago
My first example has been brought to my attention by Ivano Caponigro
(p.c.), who attributes them to Jon Sprouse, who attributes them to Edwin
Williams. Consider (16):
(16) a. Not even 10 years ago, you could buy a house for less than 50k.
b. Not even 10 years ago could you buy a house for less than 50k.
Native speakers find both of these examples fully acceptable, but report a
clear meaning difference (which, incidentally, non-native speakers generally
find harder to discern): The topicalized version (16a) says that less than 10
years ago, you could buy a house for less than 50K (and probably something
like: even if it had been 10 years ago, that would be remarkably short). The
NI version (16b) on the other hand means that even 10 years ago, you could
not buy a house for less than 50k.
Tellingly, only the inverted example behaves like a bona fide negative
sentences, both with regard to DE-ness, and according to standard tests
(Klima (1964); Huddleston and Pullum (2002)):
(17) Not even 10 years ago could you buy a house for 10k.
4
5. a. ⇒ Not even ten years ago could you buy a craftsman house for
less than 10k.
b. Nor/neither/*as/*so could uncle Charles.
c. Not even a shack.
(18) Not even 10 years ago you could buy a house for 10k.
a. ⇒ Not even ten years ago could you buy a craftsman house for
less than 10k.
b. *Nor/*neither/as/so could uncle Charles.
c. #Not even a shack.
The reason for this becomes clear if we compare this example with one in-
volving a preposition:
a. In not even ten years, you will be able to buy a house for 50k.
(*. . . will you be . . . )
b. Not even in ten years will you be able to buy a house for 50k.
(*. . . you will be. . . )
What these examples reveal is that in the non-inverted sentence, not only
modifies the DP within the PP (or perhaps the numeral within that DP),
whereas in the inverted cases, not only modifies the entire PP. The structures
for those are thus:
inversion topicalization
not even [PP in [DP 10 years ] ] [PP in [DP not even 10 years ]
not even [PP [DP 10 years ] ago ] [PP [DP not even 10 years ] ago ]
When embedded within the PP, not even does not negate the main clause,
and the entire PP is not negative. Whence the lack of inversion. When
modifying the PP, not even PP is equivalent to even PP . . . not, hence neg-
ative, and worthy of inversion.2 The apparent optionality of inversion is
thus reflective of two structurally different sentences, which happen to be
string-identical with a postposition like ago.
2
I don’t know exactly how not even ten years comes to mean what it does; fortunately,
this question, very interesting though I find it, is orthogonal to the issue at hand.
5
6. 2.2 with
Examples involving with have been discussed in Klima (1964); the following
are variants on Liberman (1974)’s:
(19) a. With no job, Kim would be happy.
b. With no job would Kim be happy.
Again, these sentences are all equally acceptable, but differ in meaning: (19a)
(topicalization) is synonymous with If Kim had no job, Kim would be happy,
or simply Without a job Kim would be happy. (19b), with NI, means that
there is no job Kim would be happy with. Similarly for the examples in (20):
(20) a. With no clothes, Jo will look good.
b. With no clothes will Jo look good.
Intuitively, there is a scopal difference here. In the inverted examples, ‘there
is no job’ seems to scope outside of the modal, whereas in the topicalized
example, it appears to be within the modal’s scope. But I believe that more
is going on here; note that in the non-inverted case, the PP is interpreted
‘propositionally’:
(21) a. with no job = having no job = if Kim had no job
b. with no clothes = with no clothes on = wearing no clothes =
when Jo wears no clothes
If we take this observation into account, we arrive at a picture not unlike
the case of not even 10 years ago: The negative DP does not scope over the
PP, and a fortiori not over the entire clause (this is effectively the conclu-
sion reached by Liberman (1974), and, for comparable examples, McCawley
(1988)). And indeed I want to suggest to take this quite literally and assume
structures along the lines of (22) for these examples:
PP PP
with with
(22) PRO PRO
have DP DP on
no job no clothes
6
7. The preposed PP is a simple modifier, and the rest of the clause is in fact an
upward entailing context.
It is worth noting that this ‘hidden embedding’ is a peculiarity of the
English preposition with on its ‘given that’ meaning. Other prepositions do
not allow similar construals, and hence require NI:
(23) a. With no job, Kim would be happy.
b. ?*In no job, Kim would be happy
c. *After no party, Kim would be happy.
In the inverted version of these sentences, on the other hand, the with PP is a
VP adverbial or even an argument to happy. Accordingly, this construction
is marginal with verbs that don’t go well with such adverbials:
(24) *?With no job did Kim forget the answer.
2.3 less than
The two cases discussed thus far have illustrated the general strategy, as
well as some analytical specifics, I intent to use in the analysis of optional
inversion in the rest of this paper: Look for meaning differences between
the two version, account for them, and then show that the two construals
differ in the crucial property: Negativity (i.e. DE-ness, or whatever the best
characterization of this class will turn out to be). This sets the stage for the
discussion of my last and most recalcitrant set of data, which haven’t been
discussed in the literature at all: Downward monotonic DPs such as Less
than n. . . :3
(25) a. In less than 5% of these sentences can you see a truth conditional
difference.
b. In less than 5% percent of these sentences you can see a truth
conditional difference.
c. *In none of these cases you can see a truth conditional difference.
What makes these cases hard is that no meaning difference seems discernible
in (25). It is also worth noting that unlike in the previous examples, no-
3
Some speakers prefer fewer than with count nouns; the following discussion applies to
those cases as well.
7
8. DPs are not allowed without inversion here, cf. (25c). In less than is much
more frequent with plain topicalization, cf. (26), but can be found with NI
as in (27) as well:
(26) a. After less than three weeks a squirrel chewed thru the gas line.
(GGL)
b. Within less than two generations they had transferred their faith
to socialism. (BNC)
c. For less than £10 you can buy an approved 80mm (3inch) tank
jacket to cut down on heat loss. (BNC)
d. In less than a year I would reach retirement age and I had nothing
to fall back on. (BNC)
(27) In less than 4 per cent of cases did teachers think that teachers and
schools contributed to problems of disruption. (BNC)
In what follows, I will analyze two cases in which inversion with less than
does produce a truth conditional difference. It is shown how a proper anal-
ysis of the two readings yields an account of the inversion facts that is in
keeping with our hypothesis that negative phrases must trigger inversion,
and additionally suggests an explanation for the intonational facts.
3 In less than 30 lockers
Let us start by observing that (28) has two different readings, as paraphrased
below:
(28) We found more than 10 adult magazines in less than 30 lockers.
a. independent/cumulative reading: with less than 30 lockers searched,
the total of adult magazines found is more than 10
b. dependent/distributive reading: the number of lockers that con-
tained more then 10 adult magazines was less than 30 (still prob-
ably about 300 magazines found)
Strikingly, each of the two preposed variants has only one of these two read-
ings:
(29) a. In less than 30 lockers, we found more than 10 adult magazines.
(non-NI: cumulative)
8
9. b. In less than 30 lockers did we find more than 10 adult magazines.
(NI: distributive)
3.1 The dependent reading, first stab
It is easy to derive the dependent or distributive reading of (28)/(29b) (with
NI). We assume that the DP is scoped out of the clause, yielding a logical
form as in (30):
(30) [less than 30 lockers] [λx.there are more than 10 adult magazines we
found in x]
If we assume a standard meaning for less than 30 lockers — λP. there are less
than 30 lockers x such that P (x) (a.k.a. λP.|locker ∩ P | < 30) — we derive
the correct reading: the property of having more than 10 adult magazines
(found by us) in them is one that less than 30 lockers have.
Given that less than 30 lockers is interpreted as a standard DE quantifier,
we straightforwardly derive that the main clause is a DE environment, as is
indeed the case:
(31) In less than 30 lockers did we find adult magazines. ⇒ In less than
30 lockers did we find Swedish adult magazines.
Furthermore, less than 30 lockers is a genuinely singular/atomic quantifier;
it will therefore automatically yield a distributive/dependent reading: there
are more than 10 magazine in each locker.
To get this reading, the DP and its containing PP must be separated at
LF. Furthermore, it needs to be assumed that inversion is triggered because
the DP is downward entailing, i.e. surface inversion has to be triggered by a
constituent that is available only at LF. Both these points don’t strike me as
very attractive, but since this will not be my final analysis of the distributive
reading, I will not dwell on them any further here.
3.2 Cumulative readings with less than
Turning to the other reading, it is well known that sentences with two (or
more) numeral quantifiers can be interpreted cumulatively readings. A cu-
mulative reading for (32) is one on which it means that ten lockers between
them contained 42 adult magazines:
9
10. (32) Ten lockers contained 42 adult magazines.
The standard way to derive such a reading is to cumulate the transitive
predicate ‘contain’ by a cumulation operator **, which is defined in (33),
where a ∪ b is the smallest group containing a and b (‘the sum of a and b’):
(33) for any 2-place predicate Q, **Q is the smallest relation such that
a. if Q(a)(c) then **Q(a)(c)
b. if **Q(a)(c) and **Q(b)(d), then **Q(a b)(c d)
We then say that a group of ten lockers **contained a group of 42 magazines,
formally (where AM abbreviates ‘adult magazine’):
(34) ∃X, Y [∗locker(X)∧10 = |X|∧∗AM(Y )∧42 = |Y |∧**contain(Y )(X)]
|X| = n is true if the group or individual X has 10 atomic parts. The
predicates locker and AM are pluralized by the Link star , which is defined
as:
(35) for any one-place predicate Q: *Q = { X | X ⊆ Q}
Cumulative readings occur with less than (and other DE quantifiers) as well.
For example, (36) says that the richest four-point-some percent between them
control 80% of the wealth, not that each of them does:
(36) Less than 5% of the population control 80% of the wealth.
(37) Less than 10 lockers contained 42 adult magazines.
Similarly, (37) has a prominent reading that involves less than 10 lockers and
42 magazines. A lf analogous to (30) above — less-than-10(*locker)(λX.∃Y
[∗AM(Y) ∧ |Y| = 42 ∧ ∗ ∗ contain(Y)(X)]) — will not at all yield that
reading. Rather, we want a lf like (38):
(38) ∃X[∗locker(X) ∧ |X| < 10 ∧ ∃Y [∗AM(Y ) ∧ |Y | = 42∧
a. **contain(Y )(X)∧
b. X = (λZ.[ **contain(Y )(Z) ∧ ∗locker(Z)]) ]]
‘There is a group X of less than 10 lockers, and a group Y of 42 adult
magazines, and (a) X between them contained Y, and (ii) X is the
collection of all locker groups who between them contained these adult
magazines.’
10
11. As the paraphrase suggests, this lf consists of an existential statement (that
less than 10 lockers between them contain 42 magazines), and a maximality
statement (that those are the only lockers that contain those magazines).4
One worry about this treatment may be whether less than still yields a
DE quantifier. The answer will be that it depends. Look at a distributive
case first:
(39) Less than ten lockers have two locks.
∃X[∗locker(X)∧|X| < 10∧∗have2locks(X)∧X = (λY.∗locker(Y )∧
∗have2locks(Y ))]
At first glance, the new lf appears to contain an existential statement: there
is a group X of less than ten lockers. But this is effectively neutralized by
our treatment of pluralization. By the definition of the star operator, ∗P
will contain any plurality that corresponds to a subset of P . This includes
{}, the empty set, which is a subset of every set. I will call the individual
({}) the zero-group. So to say that there is some group of lockers that have
two locks isn’t saying much: it is trivially true since the zero-group has any
property *P.5 We will say that the *-operator is not existential .
To say that that group has less than 10 atomic parts is trivial, too. The
only bite in this formula comes from the maximization clause: the group in
question must be the biggest group of lockers with two locks. There can’t
be more than 9 such lockers. This is exactly what we want the meaning of
this sentence to be. For a more detailed exposition of this analysis, I have to
refer the reader to Landman (2004).
Let us then turn to the cumulative case:
(40) Less than 10 lockers contained 42 adult magazines.
∃X, Y [∗locker(X)∧X < |10|∧∗AM(Y )∧|Y | = 42∧∗∗contain(Y )(X)]∧
4
The latter seems redundant in this example: if a magazine is contained in one of
the lockers mentioned, how would it be contained in any other lockers in addition? But
consider a situation in which we have to open four doors to get to the treasure. In this
situation it would be false to say less than three doors separate us from the treasure, though
of course there is some group of less than three doors between us and the treasure; the
maximization clause will take care of this, since it demands that that group be the biggest
group of doors between us and the treasure.
5
It doesn’t have any singular properties, since singular predicates don’t contain the
zero-group in their extension. Note, too, that plural some and its ilk will have to be
interpreted as ‘one or more’, lest sentences like some mean arrived be trivially true; see,
again, Landman (2004).
11
12. X = (λZ. ∗ ∗contain(Y )(Z) ∧ ∗locker(Z))]
Will this zero-group make this true on the cumulative reading? If so, this
would yield rather bizarre truth conditions; among other things, the sentence
would be true if there is a set of 42 magazines that are not contained in a
locker (since the zero-group would be the largest locker group containing
them). Fortunately, this won’t happen, for the following reason: The cumu-
lation operator ** in (33) is defined in such a way that it won’t include the
zero-group in any tuple in the extension of a cumulative predicate **P. As
a result, (40) will only be true if there is a group of 42 magazines that is
**contained in a group of less than 10, and more than zero lockers. In other
words, the **-operator is existential (but see the aside below).
One might think that these truth conditions are too weak. Shouldn’t the
sentence say that no other lockers contain adult magazines, or at least not
42 of them? I submit that it shouldn’t. Consider the sentences in (41):
(41) a. Less than 300 Americans control half of the country’s wealth.
b. Less than 3 authors wrote half of the episodes.
Clearly, there must be other Americans who, between them, control the
other half of the country’s wealth, and other authors who wrote the other
half of the episodes. All it takes for these sentences to be true is that you
can find a group Y containing half the episodes (the country’s wealth), and
another group X of less than three authors (300 Americans), such that X
between them wrote (control) Y . These are precisely the truth conditions
our treatment of cumulation and less than delivers.
In a nutshell, then, cumulative readings always have an existential impact,
but distributive readings do not. In a slogan:
Distribution: one star Q
Zero Group will make it true
Cumulation: star is double
Zero Group will make no trouble
As an aside, we might ask whether the definitions of * and ** could be
otherwise, say so as to make *, but not **, existential. The answer is that
* would be existential, too, if defined analogously to **: *P is the smallest
set such that i) if x ∈ P , then x ∈ ∗P , and ii) if x, y ∈ ∗P , then x y ∈ ∗P .
12
13. Obviously, we can’t opt for this definition if we want to treat less than the
way we do, and we need to treat less than the way we do if want to get
cumulative readings for it.
As for the cumulation operator, suppose that we represent predicates in
a neo-Davidsonian way, e.g. as λxλyλe.find(e) ∧ AG(e) = y ∧ TH(e) = x.
We can then pluralize the event predicate as usual, yielding *find(e), which
does include the zero-group (of events). Assume then that AG maps any
event plurality E onto the set of all agents of atomic events e E, i.e.
AG(E) = ({AG(e) | e E}), and analogously for TH. Then the triple
zero-group, zero-group, zero-group will be in the extension of λXλYλE.
∗find(E) ∧ AG(E) = Y ∧ TH(e) = Y (since AG( ({}) = ({})).
This does not, however, change our result from above, that sentences
like (40) on their cumulative reading are existential, simply because the ob-
ject 42 adult magazines is existential. The only way such a sentence could
be true by virtue of zero groups is if both quantifiers are DE; I am inclined
to think that that is correct. For example, if I predict If they keep on cutting
the budget like this, in ten years less than 10 libraries will hold less than
10,000 books, and subsequently all libraries close within the next 10 years,
was I right? I think so, though I would want to study sentences like that
more thoroughly before attaching much weight to this claim.
In any event, neo-Davidsonian cumulation would treat * and ** on a par
by including zero-groups in their extension, but cumulative sentences would
be existential still, unless all arguments are DE. I will thus stick with simple
cumulation as defined in (33) throughout this paper, if only for the sake of
simplicity. End of aside.
3.3 A cumulative lf for the in less than sentence
With a semantics for cumulative readings in place, we can now go back to
our original example — In less than 30 lockers, we found 52 adult magazines.
— which receives the lf in (42):
(42) ∃X, Y [∗locker(X)∧|X| > 30∧∗AM(Y )∧|Y | = 52∧∗∗∗f indin(Y )(X)(we)∧
X = (λZ. ∗ ∗ ∗ f indin(Y )(Z)(we) ∧ ∗locker(Z))]
‘there is a group X of less than 30 lockers, and a group Y of 52 adult
magazines, we found the magazines in those lockers (and those are all
the lockers in which we found those magazines)’
13
14. Due to the nature of cumulation, this sentence entails that there is at least
one locker in which we found magazines. As a consequence, the sentential
argument to (in) no locker is no longer DE; this seems adequate:
(43) a. In less than 30 lockers, we found 52 adult magazines.
⇒ In less than 30 lockers, we found 52 Swedish adult magazines.
b. *In less than 30 lockers, we found any adult magazines.
It stands to hope that we can derive the lack of inversion with this construal
from this fact. As a first stab, consider LF (44):
(44) S
DP S
less than 30 lockers λX S
DP S
52 adult magazines λY S
we VP
***found-in X Y
(45) less than 30 lockers: λP.∃X[∗locker(X) ∧ |X| < 30 ∧ P (X) ∧ X =
(λZ.P (Z) ∧ ∗locker(Z))]
(46) X 52 adult magazinesY we ***found Y in X:
λY.∃Y [∗AM(Y ) ∧ |Y | = 52 ∧ ∗ ∗ ∗f indin(X)(Y )(we) =find52AMin
(47) S: ∃X[∗locker(X) ∧ |X| < 30∧
a. f ind52AMin(X)∧
b. X = (λZ.f ind52AMin(Z) ∧ ∗locker(Z)) ]
’there is a group of less than 30 lockers, we found 52 adult magazines
in them, and those are all the lockers in which we found 52 adult
magazines’
As the paraphrase indicates, this sentence entails that no other lockers con-
tained 52 magazines. I argued above that this is too strong and runs into
14
15. problems with sentences like those in (41) above. I suspect, though, that this
can be remedied by scoping 52 adult magazines above less than 30 lockers.
My main worry with this LF is rather that the DP that is fronted here is still
DE. It is merely a property of the predicate find52AMin that it doesn’t
hold of zero-groups. How, then, are we going to specify the conditions on
negative inversion, if in each case the preposed phrase (at LF) is DE? I will
therefore refine the analysis one last time.
3.4 The final proposal: in. . . as an event modifier
On the final proposal, the entire PP stays in preposed position; it denotes
a predicate of events and functions as a modifier, composed with the main
clause denotation by predicate modification/set intersection:
S
∃E S
PP S
**in(E) DP we VP
less than 30 lockers
***found(E) DP
42 adult magazines
In denotes a relation between individuals and events; we cumulate its
meaning and then combine it with less than 30 lockers:
(48) a. in: in(= λxλe.in(x)(e))
b. **in: ∗ ∗ in (=∗ ∗ [λxλe.in(x)(e)])
c. **in less than 30 lockers:
λE.∃X[∗locker(X) ∧ |X| < 30 ∧ ∗ ∗ in(X)(E) ∧ X = (λY. ∗
∗in(Y )(E) ∧ ∗locker(Y ))]
‘E is a group of events such that there is a group of less than 30
lockers, each e E takes place in one of those lockers, each of those
lockers hosts one e E (, and those lockers are all the lockers that
hosts these events)’
15
16. The meaning of the main clause is simply a set of event-groups:
(49) we ***found(E) 42 adult magazines:
λE.∃Y [∗AM(Y ) ∧ |Y | = 42 ∧ ∗ ∗ ∗f ound(E)(Y )(we)]
‘E is a group of events s.t. there are 42 adult magazines, each e E
is a finding of one or more of those magazines (by us), and each of
those magazines is found in some e E’
These two simply combine by modification/intersection, to yield the meaning
in (50):
(50) E is a group of events such that there is a group of less than 30 lockers,
each e E takes place in one of those lockers, each of those lockers
hosts one e E, and there are 42 adult magazines, each e E is a
finding of one or more of those magazines (by us), and each of those
magazines is found in some e E
On this, final, analysis, the preposed PP is of type e,t , a property of
events; therefore, it is not (and could not be) DE, and hence no inversion is
triggered. Given the way I’ve set things up, we also get existential impact: if
there is an event group E s.t. **in(X)(E), there has to be at least one finding
event e E, and one locker x X.6
Given that the PP is a modifier, we also get a handle on the intonation
facts. As is well known, coordinative and modificational structures in general
show separated intonation (references).
3.5 The distributive reading once more
We can derive the dependent reading without separating DP and P, too. The
event-analysis makes that very easy. All we need is a regular Geach/shift
operation (‘don’t be looking for me — I’m looking for you’).
(51) in every locker
a. in: in(= λxλe.in(x)(e)) e, e,t
b. S(in): λxλP.P (λe.in(x)(e)) e, et,t ,t
6
By the same token, the PP denotation is not downward closed: it doesn’t follow
from PP’(E) that PP’(E*) for all E∗ E.
16
17. On this construal, a PP like, say, in five lockers, on its distributive reading,
is a predicate of predicates of events:
(52) a. *S(in): ∗[λxλP.P (λe.in(x)(e))]
b. *S(in) five lockers: λP.∃X[∗locker(X)∧|X| = 5∧∗[λx.P (λe.in(x)(e))](X)]]
The LF for the distributive construal looks as in (53):
(53) S
PP S
*S(in) DP λPet S
less than 30 lockers DP S
42 adult magazines ∗λz S
∃e S
S tP
we VP
found(e) tz
Note that here, the PP scopes over the event quantifier. It is extracted
from the main clause, and leaves a trace of type et (event modifier). The
meaning of the PP, after undergoing the shift rule S, is not of type et ,
however; rather, it is a predicate of things that are looking for an event
modifier (it is to type et what a generalized quantifier is to type e). The
denotations for the PP, S, and the whole sentence are given below:
(54) *S(in) less than 30 lockers: λP.∃X[∗locker(X)∧|X| < 30∧∗[λx.P (λe.in(x)(e))](X)∧
(λY. ∗ [λx.P (λe.in(x)(e))](Y ) ∧ ∗locker(Y ))]
(55) we found(e) 42 adult magazines
λpet .∃Z[∗AM(Z) ∧ |Z| = 42 ∧ [∗λz.∃e[f ound(e)(z)(we) ∧ P (e)]](Z)]
(56) *S(in) less than 30 lockers: ∃X[∗locker(X) ∧ |X| < 30∧
a. ∗[λx.[∃Z[∗AM(Z)∧|Z| = 42∧[∗λz.∃e[f ound(e)(z)(we)∧in(x)(e)]](Z)]]](X)∧
17
18. b. (λY. ∗ [λx.∃Z[∗AM(Z) ∧ |Z| = 42 ∧ [∗λz.∃e[f ound(e)(z)(we) ∧
in(x)(e)]](Z)]](Y ) ∧ ∗locker(Y )]) = X
‘there is a group of less than 30 lockers, (a) in each of them, we found
42 adult magazines, and (b) those are the only lockers in which 42
adult magazines were found’
This analysis preserves all the properties if the first stab in subsection 3.1.
The preposed PP is downward entailing. There is no existential impact, since
the predicates are simply pluralized, not cumulated. Finally, the preposed
phrase takes scope over the rest of the clause, in fact: takes it as its argument;
one consequence of that is that we get integrated intonation.
4 No
As observed in section 2, no-quantifiers do not ever occur in plain topicaliza-
tion structures, but always trigger inversion.
(57) a. In no locker did we find adult magazines.
b. *In no locker we found adult magazines.
The inversion examples work exactly like the case of in every locker or the
distributive construal of in less than 30 lockers. What we should look into,
though, is if we couldn’t, falsely, derive a cumulative meaning with no-DPs
which wouldn’t trigger inversion. All other things being equal, (57b) should
get the interpretation in (58):
(58) ¬∃x[locker(x)∧∃E, Z[∗AM(Z)∧∗∗∗f ound(E)(Z)(we)∧∗∗in(x)(E)]]
‘We found adult magazines, but not in a/one locker.’
As indicated by the paraphrase, this would be true if we found adult mag-
azines, but not in any lockers, or in more than one locker. Clearly not an
available reading for this sentence with or without inversion.
The reason this reading doesn’t exists is likely to be related to the reason
why a sentence like (59) cannot mean that I talked, but not to someone you
know.7
(59) I talked to no one you know.
7
To be sure, the sentence is compatible with such a scenario, but doesn’t require it; it
is not false, not on any reading, if I didn’t talk to anyone at all.
18
19. The absence of such a reading is standardly taken to indicate that no- DPs
cannot scope underneath ∃e, the event quantifier. No similar restrictions are
observed with other DE quantifiers such as in less than. . . .
The cumulative versions of In no locker. . . sentences, (58), would be of
that structure. I thus submit that whatever blocks the pertinent construal
of (59) also blocks a cumulative reading of in no locker , and hence forces
inversion.
5 after less than 30 experiments
Let us finally look at the examples involving temporal PPs. As in the locker
examples, we start by observing two distinct readings for non-preposed ex-
amples:
(60) We found radioactive residue after less than 30 experiments.
a. ‘sequential’ reading: less than 30 experiments had been con-
ducted when radioactive residue was (first) found
b. proportional reading: out of all the experiments, less than 30
resulted in radioactive residue
Again, preposing with and without inversion disambiguates between the two
readings:
(61) a. After less than 30 experiments, we found radioactive residue.
(sequential)
b. After less than 30 experiments did we find radioactive residue.
(proportional)
The analysis I offer proceeds just as with in: QDP and P are kept together in
both structures. The inverted structure is the regular distributive construal,
on which PP is a predicate of predicates of events, and DE. The non-inverted
structure is a cumulative construal, on which PP is an intersective modifier
of an event predicate. The novelty is that the cumulative readings ends up
being ‘sequential’, which is a consequence of the nature of time.
5.1 The distributive reading
Let us start by looking at the distributive/proportional reading:
19
20. (62) a. after: λxλe.τ (x) < τ (e)
b. S(after): λxλP.P (λe.τ (x) < τ (e))
c. *S(after): ∗[λxλP.P (λe.τ (x) < τ (e))]
d. *S(after) less than 20 experiments:
λP.∃X[∗experiment(X) ∧ |X| < 20∧
(i) [∗[λx.P (λe.τ (x) < τ (e))]](X)∧
(ii) X = [λY.[∗[λxλP.P (λe.τ (x) < τ (e))]](Y )∧∗experiment(Y )]]
Let P be the property of finding radioactive residue, then we get the correct
meaning that the overall number of experiments that produced radioactive
residue is less than 30. Those less than 30 experiments may be distributed
in any way across the total number of experiments, i.e. the first 25, the last
25, every third experiment, etc. etc.
5.2 The sequential reading
For the sequential reading, we start again by cumulating the relation denoted
by the P, and then combine that with the DP meaning:
(63) a. **after: [∗ ∗ λxλe.τ (x) < τ (e)]
b. **after less than 30 experiments:
λE.∃X[∗experiment(X) ∧ |X| < 30
(i) ∧[∗ ∗ λxλe.τ (x) < τ (e)](E)(X)∧
(ii) X = [λY.[∗∗λxλe.τ (x) < τ (e)](Y )(E)∧∗experiment(Y )]]
‘there is a group E of less than 20 experiments, each event e
E took place after one of those experiments, each experiment
preceded one of the events, and no further experiments preceded
any of these events’
Now again we take the property P of being an event of us finding radioactive
residue, and intersect that with (63), followed by existential closure. For the
whole sentence After less than 30 experiments, we found radioactive residue,
we then get the following denotation:
(64) There is a group of less than 20 experiments, each event e E took
place after one of those experiments, each experiment preceded one of
the events, and no further experiments preceded any of these events.
20
21. At first glance, this looks like a uselessly weak statement. In short, it says
that radioactive residue was found at least once before experiment #30. It
may have been found any time before experiment #30, radioactivity may
have been found after later experiments as well, as long as it has been found
at least once before experiment #30.
But if you think about it, this is exactly what this sentence actually says:
That there was a finding before experiment #30. (64) does sound ‘more
plural’ than that, but of course the statement that there is a group of such
events entails the simple version. (64) indeed is the sequential reading.
6 Summary
In this paper I set out to explore the conditions under which preposed phrases
trigger inversion. Pushing the hypothesis that all and only those phrases that
can license NPIs trigger inversion, I was then forced to come up with a story
for all those cases in which an otherwise attestedly negative element seemed
to fail to trigger inversion. This strategy revealed a number of straightforward
ambiguities that distinguished seemingly minimal pairs such as the with no
clothes and not even ten years ago cases.
Extending this line of analysis to the case of less than and its kin (at most,
not more than. . . ) lead to the discovery of two distinct semantic construals of
these quantifiers, modifying and cumulative v. scope taking and distributive.
The analysis I provided for these cases maintains the initial hypothesis that
all negative phrases obligatorily trigger inversion, and that, conversely, the
non-inverted cases are not DE. An account was given for the subtly, yet clear
meaning-differences, the lack of DE, and the difference in prosodic patterning.
Finally, the impossibility of no-quantifiers in plain topicalization was traced
back to a more general restriction on the relative scope of these and the event
quantifier.
References
Huddleston, Rodney and Geoffrey K. Pullum (2002). The Cambridge Gram-
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Klima, Edward (1964). “Negation in English.” In Jerry A. Fodor and Jerrold
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22. Katz, eds., The Structure of Language, 246–323. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Landman, Fred (2004). Indefinites and the Type of Sets. Blackwell.
Liberman, Mark (1974). “On Conditioning the Rule of Subj.-Aux. Inversion.”
In Ellen Kaisse and Jorge Hankamer, eds., Papers from the Fifth Anual
Meeting: North Eastern Linguistic Society, 77–91.
McCawley, James D. (1988). The Syntactic Phenomena of English. Chicago
& London: The University of Chicago Press.
22