Traditional standards and security protocols are recognized as unable to solve the security, privacy, and availability of services of the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) ecosystem, especially during the Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. Blockchain technology has then emerged as a distributed ledger technology that can manage many intelligent transactions and ensure greater security in data management. The Blockchain-based security mechanisms with specific adaptation and additional layers of authentication and verification can offer a complete resources' management system. It has demonstrated it’s superlatively as the core component of the Bitcoin cryptocurrency. In this paper, we propose a ThreeTier Blockchain Architecture in a hierarchical clustering network, with a lightweight authentication system-based API Gateway model that provides network and communication security. Reasonable implementation is proposed and the obtained results demonstrate that our approach shows satisfactory performances in terms of transfer time, energy consumption, and CPU impacts. The traffic analysis also shows that the proposed model can meet the requested security, integrity, and confidentiality of user data.
A STUDY ON ADOPTION OF BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY IN CYBERSECURITYIRJET Journal
This document discusses adopting blockchain technology in cybersecurity. It begins by introducing blockchain and its potential benefits for cybersecurity. These include decentralized data storage, improved availability against DDoS attacks, and enhanced security for IoT systems. The document then outlines the objectives of using blockchain to enhance cybersecurity by making systems more secure and tamper-proof. It presents the methodology and block diagram of how blockchain would work in a cybersecurity system. Several use cases are described, such as decentralized storage, availability, and IoT security. The document concludes by discussing common cybersecurity threats on blockchain networks and outlining the two-part workflow of an integrated blockchain-cybersecurity system.
A survey on security and policy aspects of blockchain technologyTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
This survey talks about the problem of security and privacy in the blockchain ecosystem which is currently a hot issue in the blockchain community. The survey intended to study this problem by considering different types of attacks in the blockchain network with respect to algorithms presented. After a preliminary literature review it seems that some focus has been given to study the first use case while, to the best of my knowledge, the second use case requires more attention when blockchain is applied to study it. The research is also interested in exploring the link between these two use cases to study the overall data ownership preserving accountable system which will be a novel contribution of this work. However, due to the subsequent government mandated secrecy around the implementation of data encryption standard (DES), and the distrust of the academic community because of this, a movement was spawned that put a premium on individual privacy and decentralized control. This movement brought together the top minds in encryption and spawned the technology we know of as blockchain today. This survey explores the genesis of encryption, its early adoption, and the government meddling which eventually spawned a movement which gave birth to the ideas behind blockchain.
It acts as a proxy between applications and AAMs. It is in charge
of forwarding authentication requests from applications to the proper AAM
(either Core or Platform) and returning the issued tokens. It also handles
8 [S.Sciancalepore et. al]
the authorization procedure by validating tokens against access policies and
resources metadata.
Attributes Mapping Function (AMF): With reference to Scenario #3, it
manages the translation between attributes stored in tokens issued by dif-
ferent AAMs. This allows applications to access resources in domains where
they are not directly registered to.
Resource Manager (RM): It stores metadata describing resources exposed
by the IoT platform, including their access
Blockchain technology and internet of things: review, challenge and security...IJECEIAES
Blockchain (BC) has received high attention from many researchers recently because it has decentralization, trusted auditability, and transparency as its main properties. BC has contributed fundamentally to the development of applications like cryptocurrencies, health care, the internet of things (IoT), and so on. The IoT is envisioned to include billions of pervasive and mission-critical sensors and actuators connected to the internet. This network of smart devices is expected to generate and have access to vast amounts of information, creating unique opportunities for new applications, but significant security and privacy issues emerge concurrently because it does not contain robust security systems. BC provides many services like privacy, security, and provenance to the systems that depends on. This research includes analyzing and a comprehensive review of BC technologies. Moreover, the proposed solutions in academia with the methodologies that used to integrate blockchain with IoT are presented. Also, the types of attacks on blockchain are collected and classified. Furthermore, the main contributions and challenges that are included in the literature are explored, then the relevant recommendations for solving the explored challenges are proposed. In conclusion, the integration of BC with IoT could produce promising results in enhancing the security and privacy of IoT environment.
IRJET- An Approach to Authenticating Devise in IoT using BlockchainIRJET Journal
The document proposes using blockchain technology to authenticate devices in the Internet of Things (IoT) and address major security issues. It describes how IoT currently lacks adequate authentication of entities and integrity of exchanged information due to its decentralized nature. The approach suggests an initial decentralized system using blockchain's security elements to guarantee solid device identification and authentication while preserving integrity and accessibility of information. This would help generate secure virtual environments where devices can identify and trust each other. The document provides background on IoT security issues, blockchain technology, and smart contracts before reviewing related literature on authentication in IoT.
IBchain: Internet of Things and Blockchain Integration Approach for Secure Co...AlAtfat
Introducing IBchain, a new blockchain architecture with the Internet of Things (IoT), could be an
attractive framework regarding improvements in connectivity implementation through the smart cities.
Instead of meriting innovation and security, the IoT links people, sites, and products and provides
opportunities. Everything that transfers information to the IoT system is integrated by advanced
microchips, sensors, and actuators in actual things. The analytical ability of the IoT converts observations
into actions, impacting business advancements and significant ways of activity. IoT enables connected
objects to transmit information to personal blockchain systems to create tamper-resistant transaction
records. The information from sensors and microchips is progressing rapidly with blockchain ledgers,
making them more portable and relevant for immediate conversations. In IBchain methodology, the smart
objects are permissible to connect securely with other smart objects in diverse situations. IBchain creates
an innovative blockchain-based processing configuration through the IoT. The IBchain could analyze
blockchain to the main expertise or supports the IoT validation and trustworthiness. It reinforces
blockchain and cloud to build an empowering IoT ubiquitous situation for secure communication among
the smart devices.
IRJET- Secure Online Voting Systems using Block of ChunksIRJET Journal
This document proposes a blockchain-based online voting system called Blockchain Voting System (BVS) to address the issues of slow voting processes and corruption in existing systems. BVS allows voters to simultaneously transmit their votes by assigning votes to pre-defined blocks on the blockchain. This significantly reduces delays in vote collection and tallying. BVS uses cryptography and message authentication to secure votes against hacking or manipulation. Analytical models show that BVS voting robustness increases with larger block parameters. The system could help achieve secure and transparent election results in less time.
IRJET- Consensus Mechanism on Secure Challenges in Blockchain NetworksIRJET Journal
This document discusses consensus mechanisms for blockchain networks and the security challenges they present. It begins with an introduction to blockchain technology and its applications like Bitcoin and Ethereum. The properties of blockchain like decentralization and tamper-proof records are described. The document then examines the consensus algorithm used to validate transactions and adds new blocks. It evaluates the performance of different consensus mechanisms and discusses issues like scalability, costs, and attacks. The conclusion is that consensus algorithms need to be tailored to specific blockchain applications and further work is still needed to solve challenges of reliability, throughput, and delays simultaneously.
A STUDY ON ADOPTION OF BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY IN CYBERSECURITYIRJET Journal
This document discusses adopting blockchain technology in cybersecurity. It begins by introducing blockchain and its potential benefits for cybersecurity. These include decentralized data storage, improved availability against DDoS attacks, and enhanced security for IoT systems. The document then outlines the objectives of using blockchain to enhance cybersecurity by making systems more secure and tamper-proof. It presents the methodology and block diagram of how blockchain would work in a cybersecurity system. Several use cases are described, such as decentralized storage, availability, and IoT security. The document concludes by discussing common cybersecurity threats on blockchain networks and outlining the two-part workflow of an integrated blockchain-cybersecurity system.
A survey on security and policy aspects of blockchain technologyTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
This survey talks about the problem of security and privacy in the blockchain ecosystem which is currently a hot issue in the blockchain community. The survey intended to study this problem by considering different types of attacks in the blockchain network with respect to algorithms presented. After a preliminary literature review it seems that some focus has been given to study the first use case while, to the best of my knowledge, the second use case requires more attention when blockchain is applied to study it. The research is also interested in exploring the link between these two use cases to study the overall data ownership preserving accountable system which will be a novel contribution of this work. However, due to the subsequent government mandated secrecy around the implementation of data encryption standard (DES), and the distrust of the academic community because of this, a movement was spawned that put a premium on individual privacy and decentralized control. This movement brought together the top minds in encryption and spawned the technology we know of as blockchain today. This survey explores the genesis of encryption, its early adoption, and the government meddling which eventually spawned a movement which gave birth to the ideas behind blockchain.
It acts as a proxy between applications and AAMs. It is in charge
of forwarding authentication requests from applications to the proper AAM
(either Core or Platform) and returning the issued tokens. It also handles
8 [S.Sciancalepore et. al]
the authorization procedure by validating tokens against access policies and
resources metadata.
Attributes Mapping Function (AMF): With reference to Scenario #3, it
manages the translation between attributes stored in tokens issued by dif-
ferent AAMs. This allows applications to access resources in domains where
they are not directly registered to.
Resource Manager (RM): It stores metadata describing resources exposed
by the IoT platform, including their access
Blockchain technology and internet of things: review, challenge and security...IJECEIAES
Blockchain (BC) has received high attention from many researchers recently because it has decentralization, trusted auditability, and transparency as its main properties. BC has contributed fundamentally to the development of applications like cryptocurrencies, health care, the internet of things (IoT), and so on. The IoT is envisioned to include billions of pervasive and mission-critical sensors and actuators connected to the internet. This network of smart devices is expected to generate and have access to vast amounts of information, creating unique opportunities for new applications, but significant security and privacy issues emerge concurrently because it does not contain robust security systems. BC provides many services like privacy, security, and provenance to the systems that depends on. This research includes analyzing and a comprehensive review of BC technologies. Moreover, the proposed solutions in academia with the methodologies that used to integrate blockchain with IoT are presented. Also, the types of attacks on blockchain are collected and classified. Furthermore, the main contributions and challenges that are included in the literature are explored, then the relevant recommendations for solving the explored challenges are proposed. In conclusion, the integration of BC with IoT could produce promising results in enhancing the security and privacy of IoT environment.
IRJET- An Approach to Authenticating Devise in IoT using BlockchainIRJET Journal
The document proposes using blockchain technology to authenticate devices in the Internet of Things (IoT) and address major security issues. It describes how IoT currently lacks adequate authentication of entities and integrity of exchanged information due to its decentralized nature. The approach suggests an initial decentralized system using blockchain's security elements to guarantee solid device identification and authentication while preserving integrity and accessibility of information. This would help generate secure virtual environments where devices can identify and trust each other. The document provides background on IoT security issues, blockchain technology, and smart contracts before reviewing related literature on authentication in IoT.
IBchain: Internet of Things and Blockchain Integration Approach for Secure Co...AlAtfat
Introducing IBchain, a new blockchain architecture with the Internet of Things (IoT), could be an
attractive framework regarding improvements in connectivity implementation through the smart cities.
Instead of meriting innovation and security, the IoT links people, sites, and products and provides
opportunities. Everything that transfers information to the IoT system is integrated by advanced
microchips, sensors, and actuators in actual things. The analytical ability of the IoT converts observations
into actions, impacting business advancements and significant ways of activity. IoT enables connected
objects to transmit information to personal blockchain systems to create tamper-resistant transaction
records. The information from sensors and microchips is progressing rapidly with blockchain ledgers,
making them more portable and relevant for immediate conversations. In IBchain methodology, the smart
objects are permissible to connect securely with other smart objects in diverse situations. IBchain creates
an innovative blockchain-based processing configuration through the IoT. The IBchain could analyze
blockchain to the main expertise or supports the IoT validation and trustworthiness. It reinforces
blockchain and cloud to build an empowering IoT ubiquitous situation for secure communication among
the smart devices.
IRJET- Secure Online Voting Systems using Block of ChunksIRJET Journal
This document proposes a blockchain-based online voting system called Blockchain Voting System (BVS) to address the issues of slow voting processes and corruption in existing systems. BVS allows voters to simultaneously transmit their votes by assigning votes to pre-defined blocks on the blockchain. This significantly reduces delays in vote collection and tallying. BVS uses cryptography and message authentication to secure votes against hacking or manipulation. Analytical models show that BVS voting robustness increases with larger block parameters. The system could help achieve secure and transparent election results in less time.
IRJET- Consensus Mechanism on Secure Challenges in Blockchain NetworksIRJET Journal
This document discusses consensus mechanisms for blockchain networks and the security challenges they present. It begins with an introduction to blockchain technology and its applications like Bitcoin and Ethereum. The properties of blockchain like decentralization and tamper-proof records are described. The document then examines the consensus algorithm used to validate transactions and adds new blocks. It evaluates the performance of different consensus mechanisms and discusses issues like scalability, costs, and attacks. The conclusion is that consensus algorithms need to be tailored to specific blockchain applications and further work is still needed to solve challenges of reliability, throughput, and delays simultaneously.
CAN BLOCKCHAIN BE A SOLUTION TO IOT TECHNICAL AND SECURITY ISSUESIJNSA Journal
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a growing trend in technology that interconnects millions of physical devices from any location anytime. Currently, IoT devices have become an integral part of human lives, as such organizations are deeply concerned with its security and technical issues. Blockchain system comprises a distributed digital ledger which is shared among community of users on the Internet; validated and recorded transactions in the ledger which cannot be altered or removed. We presented the challenges of IoT devices and how blockchain can be used to alleviate these problems. An outline of how to integrate blockchain with IoT was tackled, highlighting the challenges of IoT and how blockchain can remedy the issues. It was concluded that blockchain has the capability to curb the challenges posed by IoT devices.
Io t security_review_blockchain_solutionsShyam Goyal
This document reviews security issues related to the Internet of Things (IoT) and potential blockchain solutions. It presents a survey of emerging topics in IoT security and blockchain technology. The document maps major IoT security issues to possible solutions and reviews how blockchain could help address challenging security problems in IoT. It also identifies open challenges for IoT security.
IRJET- Photogroup: Decentralized Web Application using Ethereum BlockchainIRJET Journal
This document describes a proposed decentralized photo sharing application called Photogroup that is built using blockchain technology. Photogroup allows users to view, like, comment on and share photos in a peer-to-peer network without a central server. It uses Ethereum for the blockchain platform and smart contracts to manage transactions and the addition of new blocks. When a user shares a photo, the transaction is added to the blockchain through smart contracts to ensure the data is distributed and immutable across all nodes. The system aims to provide more security than centralized social networks by avoiding single points of failure and making the data difficult to hack or tamper with.
[A REVIEW ON ENACTMENT OF BLOCKCHAIN IN IOT]IRJET Journal
This document provides an overview of how blockchain technology can be used to enhance security and privacy in IoT networks. It discusses some of the key challenges with centralized IoT systems, such as lack of user control over data and single points of failure. Blockchain offers a decentralized alternative that allows for immutable and traceable records, authentication without single authorities, and more scalable networks. The document reviews benefits of blockchain for IoT like increased trust, transparency and security. It also provides illustrations of blockchain structure and how blocks are interconnected in a blockchain.
"Unravelling the Challenges: A Deep Dive into the Problems of Blockchain Tech...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes the key challenges of blockchain technology discussed in a research paper, including scalability, security, interoperability, regulation/governance, trust among users, financial resources, skills gaps, public perception, energy consumption, privacy issues, and inefficient technology design. It provides details on the causes and potential solutions for each challenge. The research methodology used surveys and statistical analysis to test hypotheses about blockchain technologies and the use of solutions like layer 2 scaling.
Running head BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY BEYOND CRYPTOCURRENCY1B.docxtoddr4
Running head: BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: BEYOND CRYPTOCURRENCY
1
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: BEYOND CRYPTOCURRENCY
7
Block-chain Technology: Beyond Crypto-currency
Christophe Bassono
University of Nebraska Omaha
CYBR-4360-860-Foundation of IA
Assignment: Semester Project Presentation
Block-chain Technology: Beyond the Crypto-currency
Contents
Contents
2
Abstract
3
Introduction
3
Fundamentals of Block-chain Technology
4
Application of Block-chain Beyond Crypto-currency
5
Future of Block-chain
8
Conclusion
8
Abstract
Block-chain is relatively new; therefore, a representative research sample is presented that spans over the last couple of years from the earlier literature addressing the field. The different usage types of Block-chain, as well as the digital ledger methods, applications, challenges privacy, and security issues, are examined. The technology constitutes two distinct components including block and transaction. Block refers to the collection of data, transaction recording, as well as other related details such as the creation of timestamp, correct sequence, et cetera. Blockchain which is the digital technology fundamental for crypto-currency has managed to bring forth a novel revolution through the provision of a mechanism that can be used for peer-to-peer transactions (P2P). The blockchain is a globally accepted ledger that is capable of achieving numerous new applications beyond transaction verification. Bitcoin that is progressively gaining awareness around the world is a vital example of Blockchain in practice. The block-chain technology is still at the stage of building up and is expected to be full-blown in the next few years. Introduction
The predominant goal of this proposal is to outline the literature on the functionality of Block-chain and other techniques of the digital ledger in several different spheres of influence beyond its use to crypto-currency and to come up with an appropriate conclusion. The technology of block-chain is relatively new; therefore, a representative research sample is presented that spans over the last couple of years from the earlier literature addressing the field. The different usage types of Block-chain, as well as the digital ledger methods, applications, challenges privacy, and security issues, are examined. However, the main focus of this proposal is to determine the most auspicious for future application of Block-chain beyond crypto-currency.
Block-chain is the technology that facilitates the system of Bitcoin crypto-currency, which is also regarded to be important in the formation of the backbone that guarantees privacy and security of several applications in different areas such as the eco-system of the Internet of Things. The block-chain technology has also been successfully applied in the industrial and the educational sectors (Pilkington, 2016). A Proof-of-Work, which is a mathematical challenge, guarantees the security of the chain-block by maintaining the transactions of the digital le.
Improving blockchain security for the internet of things: challenges and sol...IJECEIAES
Due to its uniquely suited to the knowledge era, the blockchain technology has currently become highly appealing to the next generation. In addition, such technology has been recently extended to the internet of things (IoT). In essence, the blockchain concept necessitates the use of a decentralized data operation system to store as well as to distribute data and the transactions across the net. Therefore, this study examines the specific concept of the blockchain as a decentralized data management system in the face of probable protection threats. Furthermore, it discusses the present solutions that can be used to counteract those attacks. The blockchain security enhancement solutions are included in this study by summarizing the key points of these solutions. Several blockchain systems and safety devices that register security defenselessness can be developed using such key points. At last, this paper discusses the pending matters and the outlook research paths of blockchain-IoT systems.
Design of a Hybrid Authentication Technique for User and Device Authenticatio...IRJET Journal
The document proposes a hybrid authentication technique using blockchain authentication and artificial intelligence for user and device authentication in an integrated Internet of Things (IoT) environment. It discusses challenges with IoT security and reviews existing literature on blockchain and AI approaches for IoT authentication. The proposed technique aims to create a decentralized authentication system using a blockchain to store authentication records that are then used to train a neural network model. This trained model can authenticate new users and devices in the IoT network. The document outlines the objectives, methodology, and potential benefits of the proposed hybrid authentication approach for improving IoT security.
Implementing Blockchain based Architecture for Securing Electronic Health Rec...IRJET Journal
The document proposes implementing a blockchain-based architecture to secure electronic health record (EHR) systems. Key benefits of using blockchain for EHRs include improved data sharing and interoperability between healthcare providers, increased data access for patients, and enhanced security and privacy of patient medical records and data. The proposed system would use blockchain instead of a traditional client-server architecture for EHRs to increase efficiency and security. It discusses related work applying blockchain to healthcare and EHR systems and potential issues that need to be addressed.
This document provides a literature review of blockchain-based solutions for issues in the Internet of Things (IoT). It first discusses features of IoT and issues it faces related to security, privacy, and centralized control. Blockchain is proposed as a technology that can address these issues due to its decentralized, immutable, and traceable nature. The review then outlines features of blockchain like decentralization, immutability, and traceability that make it suitable for addressing IoT issues. Specific issues in IoT that could benefit from blockchain solutions are also discussed. Finally, potential issues with implementing blockchain in IoT are acknowledged.
The document provides a comprehensive overview of security and privacy on blockchain technology. It begins by introducing blockchain concepts and how blockchains work, using Bitcoin as an example. It then discusses basic security attributes like preventing double spending, as well as additional desired security and privacy properties. Finally, it reviews techniques for achieving these properties, such as consensus algorithms, hash chained storage, mixing protocols, and zero-knowledge proofs. The goal is to help readers gain an in-depth understanding of blockchain security and privacy.
A signature-based data security and authentication framework for internet of...IJECEIAES
This document presents a research paper that proposes a signature-based data security and authentication framework for Internet of Things (IoT) applications. The paper introduces a novel computational model that establishes a unique authentication process using a simplified encryption strategy. The model considers both local and global IoT environments and implements an authentication mechanism using challenge-response exchanges between communicating nodes. A digital signature is generated using parameters like random seeds, secret keys, prime values, and data packets. Simulation results show that the proposed system offers efficient security and data transmission performance in the presence of unknown adversaries, performing better than commonly used security solutions in vulnerable IoT environments.
Applications of Blockchains in the Internet of Things: A Comprehensive SurveyDavid Bess
This document provides a comprehensive survey of applications of blockchains in the Internet of Things (IoT). It begins with an overview of blockchain technology and how it can help address challenges with centralized IoT models, such as single points of failure, lack of user control over data, and limited scalability. The document then surveys recent advances by industry and research to leverage blockchains to provide a decentralized, secure, and tamper-proof system for IoT data and communications. It discusses how blockchains can enhance fault tolerance, device autonomy, accountability, and enable features like smart contracts and programmable logic for IoT applications and interactions.
IRJET- A Survey on IoT Reference Architecture with Block Chain for Automatic ...IRJET Journal
This document discusses using blockchain technology to secure data management for supply chain management applications that utilize Internet of Things (IoT). It first provides background on IoT and blockchain individually, explaining how IoT connects devices to share data but also raises security and privacy issues, while blockchain provides a distributed ledger to securely record transactions without a central authority. The document then reviews related work applying blockchain to areas like crowdsensing and supply chains. It proposes that blockchain could help address some security issues in IoT by providing secure identity management, product traceability, automated smart contracts, and time-stamped records for supply chain applications. However, challenges remain to implement these solutions in practice.
IRJET- Blockchain Technology in Cloud Computing : A Systematic ReviewIRJET Journal
This document summarizes a research paper on blockchain technology in cloud computing. The paper provides an overview of blockchain technology, including how it creates a distributed ledger to record transactions across a network. It also discusses how blockchain could provide higher security than centralized databases by making data tampering difficult. The paper then reviews related work on blockchain security and applications in areas like finance and the Internet of Things. It aims to investigate how blockchain could be applied securely in cloud computing environments.
Creating An E-Commerce web application using BlockchainIRJET Journal
This document summarizes a research paper that explores using blockchain technology to develop e-commerce platforms. It discusses how blockchain can solve security issues, lack of trust in intermediaries, intermediary fees, and high transaction costs that are problems in the e-commerce sector. The paper describes using the Truffle framework, Solidity programming language, and Ethereum smart contracts to build a blockchain-based e-commerce application. It also discusses integrating the application with front-end tools like React JS and Web3.js. In summary, the paper proposes that a blockchain-powered e-commerce platform can provide a secure, trustworthy and cost-effective solution for online shopping.
A Novel Security Approach for Communication using IOTIJEACS
The Internet of Things (IOT) is the arrangement of physical articles or "things" introduced with equipment, programming, sensors, and framework accessibility, which enables these things to accumulate and exchange data. Here outlining security convention for the Internet of Things, and execution of this relating security convention on the inserted gadgets. This convention will cover the honesty of messages and verification of every customer by giving a productive confirmation component. By this venture the protected correspondence is executed on implanted gadgets.
Challenges In BlockChain Technology For Future Supply Chain- Future Research ...PhD Assistance
This document discusses challenges and future research opportunities in applying blockchain technology to supply chain management. It outlines several areas where blockchain could transform supply chains, including increasing transparency, enhancing security, and enabling traceability. However, issues around interoperability, standardization, and integrating blockchain with other technologies still exist. The document proposes topics for future research, such as how blockchain and IoT can impact supply chain performance, reengineering supply chains with blockchain, and ensuring security and privacy in blockchain-based systems.
The document summarizes a literature review on the use of blockchain technology for the Internet of Things (IoT). It finds 18 documented use cases of blockchain beyond cryptocurrencies, with 4 cases explicitly designed for IoT applications. Regarding implementation differences from Bitcoin, it identifies variations in data stored on-chain and mining techniques used. The review also examines issues with blockchain integrity from attacks, and degrees of anonymity and adaptability.
IRJET- Blockchain for Large-Scale Internet of Things Data Storage and ProtectionIRJET Journal
This document proposes using blockchain technology for large-scale Internet of Things (IoT) data storage and protection. It discusses issues with centralized cloud-based IoT structures, including high computation and storage demands on cloud servers and security/trust issues from dependencies on centralized servers. The proposed system uses a distributed data storage scheme employing blockchain to eliminate centralized servers. IoT device data would be stored in a distributed hash table (DHT) using the blockchain to manage storage addresses. Edge computing is also incorporated to enable real-time computations and communications from nearby edge servers, addressing limitations of IoT devices' low computational power. The goal is to achieve distributed data storage, protection, and complex computations through storing data in DHT using blockchain and
Call for Papers -International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications ...IJCNCJournal
International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC)
Citations, h-index, i10-index of IJCNC
---- Scopus, ERA Listed, WJCI Indexed ----
Scopus Cite Score 2022--1.8
https://airccse.org/journal/ijcnc.html
IJCNC is listed in ERA 2023 as per the Australian Research Council (ARC) Journal Ranking
Scope & Topics
The International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) is a bi monthly open access peer-reviewed journal that publishes articles which contribute new results in all areas of Computer Networks & Communications. The journal focuses on all technical and practical aspects of Computer Networks & data Communications. The goal of this journal is to bring together researchers and practitioners from academia and industry to focus on advanced networking concepts and establishing new collaborations in these areas.
Authors are solicited to contribute to this journal by submitting articles that illustrate research results, projects, surveying works and industrial experiences that describe significant advances in the Computer Networks & Communications.
Topics of Interest
· Network Protocols & Wireless Networks
· Network Architectures
· High speed networks
· Routing, switching and addressing techniques
· Next Generation Internet
· Next Generation Web Architectures
· Network Operations & management
· Adhoc and sensor networks
· Internet and Web applications
· Ubiquitous networks
· Mobile networks & Wireless LAN
· Wireless Multimedia systems
· Wireless communications
· Heterogeneous wireless networks
· Measurement & Performance Analysis
· Peer to peer and overlay networks
· QoS and Resource Management
· Network Based applications
· Network Security
· Self-Organizing Networks and Networked Systems
· Optical Networking
· Mobile & Broadband Wireless Internet
· Recent trends & Developments in Computer Networks
Paper Submission
Authors are invited to submit papers for this journal through E-mail: ijcnc@airccse.org or through Submission System. Submissions must be original and should not have been published previously or be under consideration for publication while being evaluated for this Journal.
Important Dates
· Submission Deadline : June 22, 2024
· Notification : July 22, 2024
· Final Manuscript Due : July 29, 2024
· Publication Date : Determined by the Editor-in-Chief
Contact Us
Here's where you can reach us: ijcnc@airccse.org or ijcnc@aircconline.com
For other details please visit - http://airccse.org/journal/ijcnc.html
Rendezvous Sequence Generation Algorithm for Cognitive Radio Networks in Post...IJCNCJournal
Recent natural disasters have inflicted tremendous damage on humanity, with their scale progressively increasing and leading to numerous casualties. Events such as earthquakes can trigger secondary disasters, such as tsunamis, further complicating the situation by destroying communication infrastructures. This destruction impedes the dissemination of information about secondary disasters and complicates post-disaster rescue efforts. Consequently, there is an urgent demand for technologies capable of substituting for these destroyed communication infrastructures. This paper proposes a technique for generating rendezvous sequences to swiftly reconnect communication infrastructures in post-disaster scenarios. We compare the time required for rendezvous using the proposed technique against existing methods and analyze the average time taken to establish links with the rendezvous technique, discussing its significance. This research presents a novel approach enabling rapid recovery of destroyed communication infrastructures in disaster environments through Cognitive Radio Network (CRN) technology, showcasing the potential to significantly improve disaster response and recovery efforts. The proposed method reduces the time for the rendezvous compared to existing methods, suggesting that it can enhance the efficiency of rescue operations in post-disaster scenarios and contribute to life-saving efforts.
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The Internet of Things (IoT) is a growing trend in technology that interconnects millions of physical devices from any location anytime. Currently, IoT devices have become an integral part of human lives, as such organizations are deeply concerned with its security and technical issues. Blockchain system comprises a distributed digital ledger which is shared among community of users on the Internet; validated and recorded transactions in the ledger which cannot be altered or removed. We presented the challenges of IoT devices and how blockchain can be used to alleviate these problems. An outline of how to integrate blockchain with IoT was tackled, highlighting the challenges of IoT and how blockchain can remedy the issues. It was concluded that blockchain has the capability to curb the challenges posed by IoT devices.
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This document reviews security issues related to the Internet of Things (IoT) and potential blockchain solutions. It presents a survey of emerging topics in IoT security and blockchain technology. The document maps major IoT security issues to possible solutions and reviews how blockchain could help address challenging security problems in IoT. It also identifies open challenges for IoT security.
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This document provides an overview of how blockchain technology can be used to enhance security and privacy in IoT networks. It discusses some of the key challenges with centralized IoT systems, such as lack of user control over data and single points of failure. Blockchain offers a decentralized alternative that allows for immutable and traceable records, authentication without single authorities, and more scalable networks. The document reviews benefits of blockchain for IoT like increased trust, transparency and security. It also provides illustrations of blockchain structure and how blocks are interconnected in a blockchain.
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This document summarizes the key challenges of blockchain technology discussed in a research paper, including scalability, security, interoperability, regulation/governance, trust among users, financial resources, skills gaps, public perception, energy consumption, privacy issues, and inefficient technology design. It provides details on the causes and potential solutions for each challenge. The research methodology used surveys and statistical analysis to test hypotheses about blockchain technologies and the use of solutions like layer 2 scaling.
Running head BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY BEYOND CRYPTOCURRENCY1B.docxtoddr4
Running head: BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: BEYOND CRYPTOCURRENCY
1
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: BEYOND CRYPTOCURRENCY
7
Block-chain Technology: Beyond Crypto-currency
Christophe Bassono
University of Nebraska Omaha
CYBR-4360-860-Foundation of IA
Assignment: Semester Project Presentation
Block-chain Technology: Beyond the Crypto-currency
Contents
Contents
2
Abstract
3
Introduction
3
Fundamentals of Block-chain Technology
4
Application of Block-chain Beyond Crypto-currency
5
Future of Block-chain
8
Conclusion
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Abstract
Block-chain is relatively new; therefore, a representative research sample is presented that spans over the last couple of years from the earlier literature addressing the field. The different usage types of Block-chain, as well as the digital ledger methods, applications, challenges privacy, and security issues, are examined. The technology constitutes two distinct components including block and transaction. Block refers to the collection of data, transaction recording, as well as other related details such as the creation of timestamp, correct sequence, et cetera. Blockchain which is the digital technology fundamental for crypto-currency has managed to bring forth a novel revolution through the provision of a mechanism that can be used for peer-to-peer transactions (P2P). The blockchain is a globally accepted ledger that is capable of achieving numerous new applications beyond transaction verification. Bitcoin that is progressively gaining awareness around the world is a vital example of Blockchain in practice. The block-chain technology is still at the stage of building up and is expected to be full-blown in the next few years. Introduction
The predominant goal of this proposal is to outline the literature on the functionality of Block-chain and other techniques of the digital ledger in several different spheres of influence beyond its use to crypto-currency and to come up with an appropriate conclusion. The technology of block-chain is relatively new; therefore, a representative research sample is presented that spans over the last couple of years from the earlier literature addressing the field. The different usage types of Block-chain, as well as the digital ledger methods, applications, challenges privacy, and security issues, are examined. However, the main focus of this proposal is to determine the most auspicious for future application of Block-chain beyond crypto-currency.
Block-chain is the technology that facilitates the system of Bitcoin crypto-currency, which is also regarded to be important in the formation of the backbone that guarantees privacy and security of several applications in different areas such as the eco-system of the Internet of Things. The block-chain technology has also been successfully applied in the industrial and the educational sectors (Pilkington, 2016). A Proof-of-Work, which is a mathematical challenge, guarantees the security of the chain-block by maintaining the transactions of the digital le.
Improving blockchain security for the internet of things: challenges and sol...IJECEIAES
Due to its uniquely suited to the knowledge era, the blockchain technology has currently become highly appealing to the next generation. In addition, such technology has been recently extended to the internet of things (IoT). In essence, the blockchain concept necessitates the use of a decentralized data operation system to store as well as to distribute data and the transactions across the net. Therefore, this study examines the specific concept of the blockchain as a decentralized data management system in the face of probable protection threats. Furthermore, it discusses the present solutions that can be used to counteract those attacks. The blockchain security enhancement solutions are included in this study by summarizing the key points of these solutions. Several blockchain systems and safety devices that register security defenselessness can be developed using such key points. At last, this paper discusses the pending matters and the outlook research paths of blockchain-IoT systems.
Design of a Hybrid Authentication Technique for User and Device Authenticatio...IRJET Journal
The document proposes a hybrid authentication technique using blockchain authentication and artificial intelligence for user and device authentication in an integrated Internet of Things (IoT) environment. It discusses challenges with IoT security and reviews existing literature on blockchain and AI approaches for IoT authentication. The proposed technique aims to create a decentralized authentication system using a blockchain to store authentication records that are then used to train a neural network model. This trained model can authenticate new users and devices in the IoT network. The document outlines the objectives, methodology, and potential benefits of the proposed hybrid authentication approach for improving IoT security.
Implementing Blockchain based Architecture for Securing Electronic Health Rec...IRJET Journal
The document proposes implementing a blockchain-based architecture to secure electronic health record (EHR) systems. Key benefits of using blockchain for EHRs include improved data sharing and interoperability between healthcare providers, increased data access for patients, and enhanced security and privacy of patient medical records and data. The proposed system would use blockchain instead of a traditional client-server architecture for EHRs to increase efficiency and security. It discusses related work applying blockchain to healthcare and EHR systems and potential issues that need to be addressed.
This document provides a literature review of blockchain-based solutions for issues in the Internet of Things (IoT). It first discusses features of IoT and issues it faces related to security, privacy, and centralized control. Blockchain is proposed as a technology that can address these issues due to its decentralized, immutable, and traceable nature. The review then outlines features of blockchain like decentralization, immutability, and traceability that make it suitable for addressing IoT issues. Specific issues in IoT that could benefit from blockchain solutions are also discussed. Finally, potential issues with implementing blockchain in IoT are acknowledged.
The document provides a comprehensive overview of security and privacy on blockchain technology. It begins by introducing blockchain concepts and how blockchains work, using Bitcoin as an example. It then discusses basic security attributes like preventing double spending, as well as additional desired security and privacy properties. Finally, it reviews techniques for achieving these properties, such as consensus algorithms, hash chained storage, mixing protocols, and zero-knowledge proofs. The goal is to help readers gain an in-depth understanding of blockchain security and privacy.
A signature-based data security and authentication framework for internet of...IJECEIAES
This document presents a research paper that proposes a signature-based data security and authentication framework for Internet of Things (IoT) applications. The paper introduces a novel computational model that establishes a unique authentication process using a simplified encryption strategy. The model considers both local and global IoT environments and implements an authentication mechanism using challenge-response exchanges between communicating nodes. A digital signature is generated using parameters like random seeds, secret keys, prime values, and data packets. Simulation results show that the proposed system offers efficient security and data transmission performance in the presence of unknown adversaries, performing better than commonly used security solutions in vulnerable IoT environments.
Applications of Blockchains in the Internet of Things: A Comprehensive SurveyDavid Bess
This document provides a comprehensive survey of applications of blockchains in the Internet of Things (IoT). It begins with an overview of blockchain technology and how it can help address challenges with centralized IoT models, such as single points of failure, lack of user control over data, and limited scalability. The document then surveys recent advances by industry and research to leverage blockchains to provide a decentralized, secure, and tamper-proof system for IoT data and communications. It discusses how blockchains can enhance fault tolerance, device autonomy, accountability, and enable features like smart contracts and programmable logic for IoT applications and interactions.
IRJET- A Survey on IoT Reference Architecture with Block Chain for Automatic ...IRJET Journal
This document discusses using blockchain technology to secure data management for supply chain management applications that utilize Internet of Things (IoT). It first provides background on IoT and blockchain individually, explaining how IoT connects devices to share data but also raises security and privacy issues, while blockchain provides a distributed ledger to securely record transactions without a central authority. The document then reviews related work applying blockchain to areas like crowdsensing and supply chains. It proposes that blockchain could help address some security issues in IoT by providing secure identity management, product traceability, automated smart contracts, and time-stamped records for supply chain applications. However, challenges remain to implement these solutions in practice.
IRJET- Blockchain Technology in Cloud Computing : A Systematic ReviewIRJET Journal
This document summarizes a research paper on blockchain technology in cloud computing. The paper provides an overview of blockchain technology, including how it creates a distributed ledger to record transactions across a network. It also discusses how blockchain could provide higher security than centralized databases by making data tampering difficult. The paper then reviews related work on blockchain security and applications in areas like finance and the Internet of Things. It aims to investigate how blockchain could be applied securely in cloud computing environments.
Creating An E-Commerce web application using BlockchainIRJET Journal
This document summarizes a research paper that explores using blockchain technology to develop e-commerce platforms. It discusses how blockchain can solve security issues, lack of trust in intermediaries, intermediary fees, and high transaction costs that are problems in the e-commerce sector. The paper describes using the Truffle framework, Solidity programming language, and Ethereum smart contracts to build a blockchain-based e-commerce application. It also discusses integrating the application with front-end tools like React JS and Web3.js. In summary, the paper proposes that a blockchain-powered e-commerce platform can provide a secure, trustworthy and cost-effective solution for online shopping.
A Novel Security Approach for Communication using IOTIJEACS
The Internet of Things (IOT) is the arrangement of physical articles or "things" introduced with equipment, programming, sensors, and framework accessibility, which enables these things to accumulate and exchange data. Here outlining security convention for the Internet of Things, and execution of this relating security convention on the inserted gadgets. This convention will cover the honesty of messages and verification of every customer by giving a productive confirmation component. By this venture the protected correspondence is executed on implanted gadgets.
Challenges In BlockChain Technology For Future Supply Chain- Future Research ...PhD Assistance
This document discusses challenges and future research opportunities in applying blockchain technology to supply chain management. It outlines several areas where blockchain could transform supply chains, including increasing transparency, enhancing security, and enabling traceability. However, issues around interoperability, standardization, and integrating blockchain with other technologies still exist. The document proposes topics for future research, such as how blockchain and IoT can impact supply chain performance, reengineering supply chains with blockchain, and ensuring security and privacy in blockchain-based systems.
The document summarizes a literature review on the use of blockchain technology for the Internet of Things (IoT). It finds 18 documented use cases of blockchain beyond cryptocurrencies, with 4 cases explicitly designed for IoT applications. Regarding implementation differences from Bitcoin, it identifies variations in data stored on-chain and mining techniques used. The review also examines issues with blockchain integrity from attacks, and degrees of anonymity and adaptability.
IRJET- Blockchain for Large-Scale Internet of Things Data Storage and ProtectionIRJET Journal
This document proposes using blockchain technology for large-scale Internet of Things (IoT) data storage and protection. It discusses issues with centralized cloud-based IoT structures, including high computation and storage demands on cloud servers and security/trust issues from dependencies on centralized servers. The proposed system uses a distributed data storage scheme employing blockchain to eliminate centralized servers. IoT device data would be stored in a distributed hash table (DHT) using the blockchain to manage storage addresses. Edge computing is also incorporated to enable real-time computations and communications from nearby edge servers, addressing limitations of IoT devices' low computational power. The goal is to achieve distributed data storage, protection, and complex computations through storing data in DHT using blockchain and
Similar to Blockchain-based Security Mechanisms for Internet of Medical Things (IOMT) (20)
Call for Papers -International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications ...IJCNCJournal
International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC)
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Scope & Topics
The International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) is a bi monthly open access peer-reviewed journal that publishes articles which contribute new results in all areas of Computer Networks & Communications. The journal focuses on all technical and practical aspects of Computer Networks & data Communications. The goal of this journal is to bring together researchers and practitioners from academia and industry to focus on advanced networking concepts and establishing new collaborations in these areas.
Authors are solicited to contribute to this journal by submitting articles that illustrate research results, projects, surveying works and industrial experiences that describe significant advances in the Computer Networks & Communications.
Topics of Interest
· Network Protocols & Wireless Networks
· Network Architectures
· High speed networks
· Routing, switching and addressing techniques
· Next Generation Internet
· Next Generation Web Architectures
· Network Operations & management
· Adhoc and sensor networks
· Internet and Web applications
· Ubiquitous networks
· Mobile networks & Wireless LAN
· Wireless Multimedia systems
· Wireless communications
· Heterogeneous wireless networks
· Measurement & Performance Analysis
· Peer to peer and overlay networks
· QoS and Resource Management
· Network Based applications
· Network Security
· Self-Organizing Networks and Networked Systems
· Optical Networking
· Mobile & Broadband Wireless Internet
· Recent trends & Developments in Computer Networks
Paper Submission
Authors are invited to submit papers for this journal through E-mail: ijcnc@airccse.org or through Submission System. Submissions must be original and should not have been published previously or be under consideration for publication while being evaluated for this Journal.
Important Dates
· Submission Deadline : June 22, 2024
· Notification : July 22, 2024
· Final Manuscript Due : July 29, 2024
· Publication Date : Determined by the Editor-in-Chief
Contact Us
Here's where you can reach us: ijcnc@airccse.org or ijcnc@aircconline.com
For other details please visit - http://airccse.org/journal/ijcnc.html
Rendezvous Sequence Generation Algorithm for Cognitive Radio Networks in Post...IJCNCJournal
Recent natural disasters have inflicted tremendous damage on humanity, with their scale progressively increasing and leading to numerous casualties. Events such as earthquakes can trigger secondary disasters, such as tsunamis, further complicating the situation by destroying communication infrastructures. This destruction impedes the dissemination of information about secondary disasters and complicates post-disaster rescue efforts. Consequently, there is an urgent demand for technologies capable of substituting for these destroyed communication infrastructures. This paper proposes a technique for generating rendezvous sequences to swiftly reconnect communication infrastructures in post-disaster scenarios. We compare the time required for rendezvous using the proposed technique against existing methods and analyze the average time taken to establish links with the rendezvous technique, discussing its significance. This research presents a novel approach enabling rapid recovery of destroyed communication infrastructures in disaster environments through Cognitive Radio Network (CRN) technology, showcasing the potential to significantly improve disaster response and recovery efforts. The proposed method reduces the time for the rendezvous compared to existing methods, suggesting that it can enhance the efficiency of rescue operations in post-disaster scenarios and contribute to life-saving efforts.
Blockchain Enforced Attribute based Access Control with ZKP for Healthcare Se...IJCNCJournal
The relationship between doctors and patients is reinforced through the expanded communication channels provided by remote healthcare services, resulting in heightened patient satisfaction and loyalty. Nonetheless, the growth of these services is hampered by security and privacy challenges they confront. Additionally, patient electronic health records (EHR) information is dispersed across multiple hospitals in different formats, undermining data sovereignty. It allows any service to assert authority over their EHR, effectively controlling its usage. This paper proposes a blockchain enforced attribute-based access control in healthcare service. To enhance the privacy and data-sovereignty, the proposed system employs attribute-based access control, zero-knowledge proof (ZKP) and blockchain. The role of data within our system is pivotal in defining attributes. These attributes, in turn, form the fundamental basis for access control criteria. Blockchain is used to keep hospital information in public chain but EHR related data in private chain. Furthermore, EHR provides access control by using the attributed based cryptosystem before they are stored in the blockchain. Analysis shows that the proposed system provides data sovereignty with privacy provision based on the attributed based access control.
EECRPSID: Energy-Efficient Cluster-Based Routing Protocol with a Secure Intru...IJCNCJournal
A revolutionary idea that has gained significance in technology for Internet of Things (IoT) networks backed by WSNs is the " Energy-Efficient Cluster-Based Routing Protocol with a Secure Intrusion Detection" (EECRPSID). A WSN-powered IoT infrastructure's hardware foundation is hardware with autonomous sensing capabilities. The significant features of the proposed technology are intelligent environment sensing, independent data collection, and information transfer to connected devices. However, hardware flaws and issues with energy consumption may be to blame for device failures in WSN-assisted IoT networks. This can potentially obstruct the transfer of data. A reliable route significantly reduces data retransmissions, which reduces traffic and conserves energy. The sensor hardware is often widely dispersed by IoT networks that enable WSNs. Data duplication could occur if numerous sensor devices are used to monitor a location. Finding a solution to this issue by using clustering. Clustering lessens network traffic while retaining path dependability compared to the multipath technique. To relieve duplicate data in EECRPSID, we applied the clustering technique. The multipath strategy might make the provided protocol more dependable. Using the EECRPSID algorithm, will reduce the overall energy consumption, minimize the End-to-end delay to 0.14s, achieve a 99.8% Packet Delivery Ratio, and the network's lifespan will be increased. The NS2 simulator is used to run the whole set of simulations. The EECRPSID method has been implemented in NS2, and simulated results indicate that comparing the other three technologies improves the performance measures.
Analysis and Evolution of SHA-1 Algorithm - Analytical TechniqueIJCNCJournal
A 160-bit (20-byte) hash value, sometimes called a message digest, is generated using the SHA-1 (Secure Hash Algorithm 1) hash function in cryptography. This value is commonly represented as 40 hexadecimal digits. It is a Federal Information Processing Standard in the United States and was developed by the National Security Agency. Although it has been cryptographically cracked, the technique is still in widespread usage. In this work, we conduct a detailed and practical analysis of the SHA-1 algorithm's theoretical elements and show how they have been implemented through the use of several different hash configurations.
Optimizing CNN-BiGRU Performance: Mish Activation and Comparative AnalysisIJCNCJournal
Deep learning is currently extensively employed across a range of research domains. The continuous advancements in deep learning techniques contribute to solving intricate challenges. Activation functions (AF) are fundamental components within neural networks, enabling them to capture complex patterns and relationships in the data. By introducing non-linearities, AF empowers neural networks to model and adapt to the diverse and nuanced nature of real-world data, enhancing their ability to make accurate predictions across various tasks. In the context of intrusion detection, the Mish, a recent AF, was implemented in the CNN-BiGRU model, using three datasets: ASNM-TUN, ASNM-CDX, and HOGZILLA. The comparison with Rectified Linear Unit (ReLU), a widely used AF, revealed that Mish outperforms ReLU, showcasing superior performance across the evaluated datasets. This study illuminates the effectiveness of AF in elevating the performance of intrusion detection systems.
An Hybrid Framework OTFS-OFDM Based on Mobile Speed EstimationIJCNCJournal
The Future wireless communication systems face the challenging task of simultaneously providing high-quality service (QoS) and broadband data transmission, while also minimizing power consumption, latency, and system complexity. Although Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) has been widely adopted in 4G and 5G systems, it struggles to cope with a significant delay and Doppler spread in high mobility scenarios. To address these challenges, a novel waveform named Orthogonal Time Frequency Space (OTFS). Designers aim to outperform OFDM by closely aligning signals with the channel behaviour. In this paper, we propose a switching strategy that empowers operators to select the most appropriate waveform based on an estimated speed of the mobile user. This strategy enables the base station to dynamically choose the waveform that best suits the mobile user’s speed. Additionally, we suggest retaining an Integrated Sensing and Communication (ISAC) radar approach for accurate Doppler estimation. This provides precise information to facilitate the waveform selection procedure. By leveraging the switching strategy and harnessing the Doppler estimation capabilities of an ISAC radar.Our proposed approach aims to enhance the performance of wireless communication systems in high mobility cases. Considering the complexity of waveform processing, we introduce an optimized hybrid system that combines OTFS and OFDM, resulting in reduced complexity while still retaining performance benefits.This hybrid system presents a promising solution for improving the performance of wireless communication systems in higher mobility.The simulation results validate the effectiveness of our approach, demonstrating its potential advantages for future wireless communication systems. The effectiveness of the proposed approach is validated by simulation results as it will be illustrated.
Enhanced Traffic Congestion Management with Fog Computing - A Simulation-Base...IJCNCJournal
Accurate latency computation is essential for the Internet of Things (IoT) since the connected devices generate a vast amount of data that is processed on cloud infrastructure. However, the cloud is not an optimal solution. To overcome this issue, fog computing is used to enable processing at the edge while still allowing communication with the cloud. Many applications rely on fog computing, including traffic management. In this paper, an Intelligent Traffic Congestion Mitigation System (ITCMS) is proposed to address traffic congestion in heavily populated smart cities. The proposed system is implemented using fog computing and tested in a crowdedCairo city. The results obtained indicate that the execution time of the simulation is 4,538 seconds, and the delay in the application loop is 49.67 seconds. The paper addresses various issues, including CPU usage, heap memory usage, throughput, and the total average delay, which are essential for evaluating the performance of the ITCMS. Our system model is also compared with other models to assess its performance. A comparison is made using two parameters, namely throughput and the total average delay, between the ITCMS, IOV (Internet of Vehicle), and STL (Seasonal-Trend Decomposition Procedure based on LOESS). Consequently, the results confirm that the proposed system outperforms the others in terms of higher accuracy, lower latency, and improved traffic efficiency.
Rendezvous Sequence Generation Algorithm for Cognitive Radio Networks in Post...IJCNCJournal
Recent natural disasters have inflicted tremendous damage on humanity, with their scale progressively increasing and leading to numerous casualties. Events such as earthquakes can trigger secondary disasters, such as tsunamis, further complicating the situation by destroying communication infrastructures. This destruction impedes the dissemination of information about secondary disasters and complicates post-disaster rescue efforts. Consequently, there is an urgent demand for technologies capable of substituting for these destroyed communication infrastructures. This paper proposes a technique for generating rendezvous sequences to swiftly reconnect communication infrastructures in post-disaster scenarios. We compare the time required for rendezvous using the proposed technique against existing methods and analyze the average time taken to establish links with the rendezvous technique, discussing its significance. This research presents a novel approach enabling rapid recovery of destroyed communication infrastructures in disaster environments through Cognitive Radio Network (CRN) technology, showcasing the potential to significantly improve disaster response and recovery efforts. The proposed method reduces the time for the rendezvous compared to existing methods, suggesting that it can enhance the efficiency of rescue operations in post-disaster scenarios and contribute to life-saving efforts.
Vehicle Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) have become a viable technology to improve traffic flow and safety on the roads. Due to its effectiveness and scalability, the Wingsuit Search-based Optimised Link State Routing Protocol (WS-OLSR) is frequently used for data distribution in VANETs. However, the selection of MultiPoint Relays (MPRs) plays a pivotal role in WS-OLSR's performance. This paper presents an improved MPR selection algorithm tailored to WS-OLSR, designed to enhance the overall routing efficiency and reduce overhead. The analysis found that the current OLSR protocol has problems such as redundancy of HELLO and TC message packets or failure to update routing information in time, so a WS-OLSR routing protocol based on improved-MPR selection algorithm was proposed. Firstly, factors such as node mobility and link changes are comprehensively considered to reflect network topology changes, and the broadcast cycle of node HELLO messages is controlled through topology changes. Secondly, a new MPR selection algorithm is proposed, considering link stability issues and nodes. Finally, evaluate its effectiveness in terms of packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, and control message overhead. Simulation results demonstrate the superior performance of our improved MR selection algorithm when compared to traditional approaches.
May 2024, Volume 16, Number 3 - The International Journal of Computer Network...IJCNCJournal
The International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) is a bi monthly open access peer-reviewed journal that publishes articles which contribute new results in all areas of Computer Networks & Communications. The journal focuses on all technical and practical aspects of Computer Networks & data Communications. The goal of this journal is to bring together researchers and practitioners from academia and industry to focus on advanced networking concepts and establishing new collaborations in these areas.
Vehicle Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) have become a viable technology to improve traffic flow and safety on the roads. Due to its effectiveness and scalability, the Wingsuit Search-based Optimised Link State Routing Protocol (WS-OLSR) is frequently used for data distribution in VANETs. However, the selection of MultiPoint Relays (MPRs) plays a pivotal role in WS-OLSR's performance. This paper presents an improved MPR selection algorithm tailored to WS-OLSR, designed to enhance the overall routing efficiency and reduce overhead. The analysis found that the current OLSR protocol has problems such as redundancy of HELLO and TC message packets or failure to update routing information in time, so a WS-OLSR routing protocol based on improved-MPR selection algorithm was proposed. Firstly, factors such as node mobility and link changes are comprehensively considered to reflect network topology changes, and the broadcast cycle of node HELLO messages is controlled through topology changes. Secondly, a new MPR selection algorithm is proposed, considering link stability issues and nodes. Finally, evaluate its effectiveness in terms of packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, and control message overhead. Simulation results demonstrate the superior performance of our improved MR selection algorithm when compared to traditional approaches.
A Novel Medium Access Control Strategy for Heterogeneous Traffic in Wireless ...IJCNCJournal
So far, Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs) have played a pivotal role in driving the development of intelligent healthcare systems with broad applicability across various domains. Each WBAN consists of one or more types of sensors that can be embedded in clothing, attached directly to the body, or even implanted beneath an individual's skin. These sensors typically serve asingle application. However, the traffic generated by each sensor may have distinct requirements. This diversity necessitates a dual approach: tailored treatment based on the specific needs of each traffic typeand the fulfillment of application requirements, such asreliability and timeliness. Never the less, the presence of energy constraints and the unreliable nature of wireless communications make QoS provisioning under such networks a non-trivial task. In this context, the current paper introduces a novel Medium AccessControl (MAC) strategy for the regular traffic applications of WBANs, designed to significantly enhance efficiency when compared to the established MAC protocols IEEE 802.15.4 and IEEE 802.15.6, with a particular focus on improving reliability, timeliness, and energy efficiency.
May_2024 Top 10 Read Articles in Computer Networks & Communications.pdfIJCNCJournal
The International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) is a bi monthly open access peer-reviewed journal that publishes articles which contribute new results in all areas of Computer Networks & Communications. The journal focuses on all technical and practical aspects of Computer Networks & data Communications. The goal of this journal is to bring together researchers and practitioners from academia and industry to focus on advanced networking concepts and establishing new collaborations in these areas.
A Topology Control Algorithm Taking into Account Energy and Quality of Transm...IJCNCJournal
The efficient use of energy in wireless sensor networks is critical for extending node lifetime. The network topology is one of the factors that have a significant impact on the energy usage at the nodes and the quality of transmission (QoT) in the network. We propose a topology control algorithm for software-defined wireless sensor networks (SDWSNs) in this paper. Our method is to formulate topology control algorithm as a nonlinear programming (NP) problem with the objective to optimizing two metrics, maximum communication range, and desired degree. This NP problem is solved at the SDWSN controller by employing the genetic algorithm (GA) to determine the best topology. The simulation results show that the proposed algorithm outperforms the MaxPower algorithm in terms of average node degree and energy expansion ratio.
Multi-Server user Authentication Scheme for Privacy Preservation with Fuzzy C...IJCNCJournal
The integration of artificial intelligence technology with a scalable Internet of Things (IoT) platform facilitates diverse smart communication services, allowing remote users to access services from anywhere at any time. The multi-server environment within IoT introduces a flexible security service model, enabling users to interact with any server through a single registration. To ensure secure and privacy preservation services for resources, an authentication scheme is essential. Zhao et al. recently introduced a user authentication scheme for the multi-server environment, utilizing passwords and smart cards, claiming resilience against well-known attacks. This paper conducts cryptanalysis on Zhao et al.'s scheme, focusing on denial of service and privacy attacks, revealing a lack of user-friendliness. Subsequently, we propose a new multi-server user authentication scheme for privacy preservation with fuzzy commitment over the IoT environment, addressing the shortcomings of Zhao et al.'s scheme. Formal security verification of the proposed scheme is conducted using the ProVerif simulation tool. Through both formal and informal security analyses, we demonstrate that the proposed scheme is resilient against various known attacks and those identified in Zhao et al.'s scheme.
Advanced Privacy Scheme to Improve Road Safety in Smart Transportation SystemsIJCNCJournal
In -Vehicle Ad-Hoc Network (VANET), vehicles continuously transmit and receive spatiotemporal data with neighboring vehicles, thereby establishing a comprehensive 360-degree traffic awareness system. Vehicular Network safety applications facilitate the transmission of messages between vehicles that are near each other, at regular intervals, enhancing drivers' contextual understanding of the driving environment and significantly improving traffic safety. Privacy schemes in VANETs are vital to safeguard vehicles’ identities and their associated owners or drivers. Privacy schemes prevent unauthorized parties from linking the vehicle's communications to a specific real-world identity by employing techniques such as pseudonyms, randomization, or cryptographic protocols. Nevertheless, these communications frequently contain important vehicle information that malevolent groups could use to Monitor the vehicle over a long period. The acquisition of this shared data has the potential to facilitate the reconstruction of vehicle trajectories, thereby posing a potential risk to the privacy of the driver. Addressing the critical challenge of developing effective and scalable privacy-preserving protocols for communication in vehicle networks is of the highest priority. These protocols aim to reduce the transmission of confidential data while ensuring the required level of communication. This paper aims to propose an Advanced Privacy Vehicle Scheme (APV) that periodically changes pseudonyms to protect vehicle identities and improve privacy. The APV scheme utilizes a concept called the silent period, which involves changing the pseudonym of a vehicle periodically based on the tracking of neighboring vehicles. The pseudonym is a temporary identifier that vehicles use to communicate with each other in a VANET. By changing the pseudonym regularly, the APV scheme makes it difficult for unauthorized entities to link a vehicle's communications to its real-world identity. The proposed APV is compared to the SLOW, RSP, CAPS, and CPN techniques. The data indicates that the efficiency of APV is a better improvement in privacy metrics. It is evident that the AVP offers enhanced safety for vehicles during transportation in the smart city.
April 2024 - Top 10 Read Articles in Computer Networks & CommunicationsIJCNCJournal
The International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) is a bi monthly open access peer-reviewed journal that publishes articles which contribute new results in all areas of Computer Networks & Communications. The journal focuses on all technical and practical aspects of Computer Networks & data Communications. The goal of this journal is to bring together researchers and practitioners from academia and industry to focus on advanced networking concepts and establishing new collaborations in these areas.
DEF: Deep Ensemble Neural Network Classifier for Android Malware DetectionIJCNCJournal
Malware is one of the threats to security of computer networks and information systems. Since malware instances are available sufficiently, there is increased interest among researchers on usage of Artificial Intelligence (AI). Of late AI-enabled methods such as machine learning (ML) and deep learning paved way for solving many real-world problems. As it is a learning-based approach, accumulated training samples help in improving thequality of training and thus leveraging malware detection accuracy. Existing deep learning methods are focusing on learning-based malware detection systems. However, there is need for improving the state of the art through ensemble approach. Towards this end, in this paper we proposed a framework known as Deep Ensemble Framework (DEF) for automatic malware detection. The framework obtains features from training samples. From given malware instance a grayscale image is generated. There is another process to extract the opcode sequences. Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) and Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) techniques are used to obtain grayscale image and opcode sequence respectively. Afterwards, a stacking ensemble is employed in order to achieve efficient malware detection and classification. Malware samples collected fromthe Internet sources and Microsoft are used for theempirical study. An algorithm known as Ensemble Learning for Automatic Malware Detection (EL-AML) is proposed to realize our framework. Another algorithm named Pre-Process is proposed to assist the EL-AML algorithm for obtaining intermediate features required by CNN and LSTM.Empirical study reveals that our framework outperforms many existing methods in terms of speed-up and accuracy.
High Performance NMF Based Intrusion Detection System for Big Data IOT TrafficIJCNCJournal
With the emergence of smart devices and the Internet of Things (IoT), millions of users connected to the network produce massive network traffic datasets. These vast datasets of network traffic, Big Data are challenging to store, deal with and analyse using a single computer. In this paper we developed parallel implementation using a High Performance Computer (HPC) for the Non-Negative Matrix Factorization technique as an engine for an Intrusion Detection System (HPC-NMF-IDS). The large IoT traffic datasets of order of millions samples are distributed evenly on all the computing cores for both storage and speedup purpose. The distribution of computing tasks involved in the Matrix Factorization takes into account the reduction of the communication cost between the computing cores. The experiments we conducted on the proposed HPC-IDS-NMF give better results than the traditional ML-based intrusion detection systems. We could train the HPC model with datasets of one million samples in only 31 seconds instead of the 40 minutes using one processor), that is a speed up of 87 times. Moreover, we have got an excellent detection accuracy rate of 98% for KDD dataset.
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
This presentation was provided by Racquel Jemison, Ph.D., Christina MacLaughlin, Ph.D., and Paulomi Majumder. Ph.D., all of the American Chemical Society, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
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Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptx
Blockchain-based Security Mechanisms for Internet of Medical Things (IOMT)
1. International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) Vol.14, No.6, November 2022
DOI: 10.5121/ijcnc.2022.14608 115
BLOCKCHAIN-BASED SECURITY MECHANISMS FOR
INTERNET OF MEDICAL THINGS (IOMT)
JAMAL Elhachmi and ABDELLATIF Kobbane
National High School for Computer Science and Systems Analysis (ENSIAS),
Mohammed V University in Rabat, Morocco
ABSTRACT
Traditional standards and security protocols are recognized as unable to solve the security, privacy, and
availability of services of the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) ecosystem, especially during the
Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. Blockchain technology has then emerged as a distributed ledger
technology that can manage many intelligent transactions and ensure greater security in data
management. The Blockchain-based security mechanisms with specific adaptation and additional layers of
authentication and verification can offer a complete resources' management system. It has demonstrated
it’s superlatively as the core component of the Bitcoin cryptocurrency. In this paper, we propose a Three-
Tier Blockchain Architecture in a hierarchical clustering network, with a lightweight authentication
system-based API Gateway model that provides network and communication security.
Reasonable implementation is proposed and the obtained results demonstrate that our approach shows
satisfactory performances in terms of transfer time, energy consumption, and CPU impacts. The traffic
analysis also shows that the proposed model can meet the requested security, integrity, and confidentiality
of user data.
KEYWORDS
Internet of things, Blockchain, Internet of Medical Things, IoT Security, Data Privacy.
1. INTRODUCTION
The internet of Things ecosystem is composed of a large number of enabled smart devices that
cooperate among themselves by using embedded systems to collect, send, and act on data they
acquire from their environments [1]. This type of network has become more and more
successfully unavoidable in many different areas, such as the scientific, industrial, medical, and
military fields. An Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) network as described in Figure.1, consists
of a set of heterogeneous smart medical devices such as sensors, wearables, processors, etc., that
collect, process, and transmit data to the Smart Gateways Server(SGS) or fog servers, which act
as a bridge to the cloud. These data are aggregated, processed, and stored in the cloud and can be
used by users including healthcare applications, doctors, and patients to monitor the end nodes
online [2].
Figure 1. Cloud-based of IoMT application.
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However, the cooperative IoMT ecosystems have a number of undesirable characteristics
concerning the availability of services, interoperability, data management, the privacy of users,
and security. They present a crucial obstacle to the continued growth of IoMT wireless systems
and services. Another point of failure that these systems suffer is the dependence on the cloud
server, and if the cloud is down for whatever reason, the users are not able to connect to the cloud
server, thus causing the unavailability of services.
Background and Motivation :
The unstandardized and centralized character of the IoT network architecture, limitations of
traditional standards and security protocol, and the absence of consensus among stakeholders in
the resource-constrained IoMT ecosystem have made the availability of services, security, and
privacy of this IoMT ecosystem challenging; this makes it vulnerable to cyber-attacks. And given
the importance and sensitivity of the data exchange, especially during the CORONA epidemic
crisis, and the increasing number of devices and applications, new standardized architectures and
security mechanisms are necessary. The security challenges include authentication, access
control, privacy, security protocols, software vulnerability, and scalability.
Many studies have affirmed that more than 47 vulnerabilities affecting 23 IoT items from 21
manufacturers were disclosed in 2018. The fourth Biannual Industrial control system (ICS) Risk
& Vulnerability Report also has found that vulnerabilities are expanding beyond Operational
Technology (OT) to the Extended Internet of Things (XIoT), with 34 % affecting IoT, Internet of
Medical Thing (IoMT), and IT assets in late 2021. Cybercrime has cost the world more than $6tn
by the end of 2021. And a business company was hit by ransomware every 10 seconds. Norton
Security has affirmed that 33 billion records will be stolen by 2023. Security has therefore
become one of the main challenges in this kind of ecosystem [3].
So, to ensure the efficiency of communications among interconnected devices in a secure manner
with low latency and high throughput, the major involved techniques in recent IoMT network
design and their issues, in accordance with Security, integrity, and confidentiality international
directives for designing future IoT networks are Blockchain, cryptography, and artificial
intelligence (AI).
Blockchain has emerged as the most promising technology to guarantee the security and agility
of processes and the use of a safe and reliable IoT network. The most dedicated sources for the
technology industry are confident that Blockchain itself become the most powerful secure
technology of tomorrow.
Despite its public availability, Blockchain is a decentralized system with a read-only nature,
making it mathematically impossible to create and add fraudulent transactions to the blocks.
Blockchain has always considered itself a safe, secure, and reliable system to store and execute
transactions, without the involvement of any third party [4]. In combination with the significant
advance in IoT technology in scaling the networks and filling the blockchain forking problems
[2], the Blockchain-based IoMT ecosystem can provide stringent defense solutions against cyber-
attacks. To address the partial vulnerability defect of some particular areas a clustering
mechanism can be included in the standardized architecture with hierarchical authentication and
access control system, which makes all devices less vulnerable and more protected against
malicious exploitation attempts. Blockchain-based IoMT technology can offer a complete data
management system with specific adaptations and additional mechanisms. Related works can be
found in the following sources, but are not restricted to [34]-[60]. Each of the proposed
techniques has its own advantages and disadvantages, and none of them can be considered on its
own to fully accomplish the security aspects of the IoMT ecosystem.
3. International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) Vol.14, No.6, November 2022
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Contribution: our contributions can be summarized in the following points:
- We propose a comprehensive view of Blockchain-based IoMT approaches for security and
privacy resource management in IoMT. The most important literature published in peer-reviewed
venues over the two last years that have a high impact.
- We identify the challenges and research directions in the Blockchain-based IoMT ecosystem.
- We develop a novel Blockchain-based IoMT secure method based on the Ethereum blockchain
for managing sensors’ resources and data in Healthcare Monitoring Systems ; It consists of the
creation of a secure virtual group at the Ethereum blockchain level, using the signed token by the
Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA).
Paper Organization:
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: in Section 2, we take a look at some elementary
concepts of Blockchain technology and its model. In Section 3, we review the relevant related
works. In Section 4: we present formal modeling of our proposed architecture with a preliminary
analysis of the obtained results of initial implementation in Section 5, followed by a conclusion in
Section 6.
2. PRELIMINARIES AND DEFINITIONS
2.1. Blockchain
Blockchain is one of the most common and popular kinds of distributed ledger technologies. It is
essentially a distributed, decentralized, shared, and the immutable ledger that keeps the
information of various transactions that ever happened in a certain peer-to-peer (P2P) network
[5]. As shown in figure 2, the group of collected transactions is assigned to a block in the general
ledger. Each block has a timestamp and hash function which are used to link the current block to
the previous block. This creates chains of blocks, which is why it is called the Blockchain. To
store a transaction in this ledger, the majority of nodes in the Blockchain network should record
their agreement. Blockchain technology promotes information sharing in which all contributing
users/nodes in the blockchain network have a replica of the golden/original ledger so that all
users are updated with recently added transactions or blocks [5]. The core components of the
Blockchain are:
-The block or item: digitally signed by the owner, it contains a nonce and the ordered list of
transactions, a timestamp, and a hash pointer that links to the previous block. A nonce is a
random number or bit string that is used to verify the hash.
- Cryptography: It is the key component that plays the most important role in blockchain by
linking the blocks in chronological order using the hash function, and providing the security,
immutability, and rightful ownership of the transactions being stored on the block [5]. the family
of the most used hash functions is the Secure Hash Algorithms (i.e.,SHA1,SHA128, SHA256,
SHA512, etc.) [6].
- Smart Contracts: a self-executing contract invented for the first time by Nick Szabo [7] . it
contains the terms and conditions of an agreement between the peers. these terms and conditions
are written in a code, and all users must come to the same result by executing this code, to
validate the smart contract. and enable the sender to create transactions in the shared ledger of the
blockchain network.
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- Consensus Algorithms: consensus protocols are a set of rules used by the participating nodes in
blockchains to achieve agreement on a single state of the data. and decide whether a transaction is
valid. This ensures that all participants collectively maintain a common transaction ledger [8].
The two most popular consensus algorithms are proof of work (PoW) and proof of stake (PoS).
- Peer-to-peer (P2P) networks: the Blockchains network is a peer-to-peer unstructured network,
without any rules for structurally defining connections and without any central server. peers
participate in the network exchange of information regarding peers that are known to them, and
When a new neighbor node is required, a node selects one using this node information. it
contributes to the storage and processing power for the upkeep of this network[9].
Figure 2. Logical Components of the Blockchain
2.2. Blockchain Model
As a distributed ledger, the blockchain system uses a secure communication analogy based on
three principal interconnected elements: hash function, public-private keys, and digital signature
[5].
Transactions are added to the blocks by authorized users, and only authorized partes can safely
access the stored transaction in the Blockchain system. When each block is identified by a
unique "hash" generated by a specific hash function and refers to the previous block with another
unique "hash" as shown in Figure.3.
Figure 3. Blockchain-Based Authentication and Authorization model.
The private key and public key are created in pairs, where the private key is used to generate a
unique digital signature for every transaction and then create digitally signed data and broadcast
it along with the transaction. It ensures the authenticity of the transaction. The authorized owner (
sender of the transaction) cannot in any way deny having sent the document. While the public
key is used to allow the involved pairs to control these transactions. It ensures the accuracy of the
transaction [9].
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According to the consensus protocol, all nodes can achieve a common agreement, validate, and
aggregate the created block into the chained structure. It ensures that blocks cannot be tampered
with or removed without authorization from the structure [9].
3. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In the last few years, finance has been the most revolutionary use case for Blockchain, and the
most important illustrations of this use case were: Bitcoin and Ether. Recently, Some non-
financial use cases have been developed, Supply chain management and digital IDs are two
examples [4]. Blockchain technology has demonstrated its great ability to create more
transparency and fairness while also saving businesses time and money [9]. It can evolve into
separate concepts and impact a wide variety of fields. But blockchain technology is still unused
in relevant areas. In this section, we provide an overview of the most important blockchain use
cases, recent trends, and challenges. We present and compare related works based on specific
criteria and from various points of view.
3.1. Blockchain and IoT Interaction:
Data Management :
Blockchain is one of the most dependable decentralized and distributed control systems that can
use independent computers. It is considered a suitable technology for data standardization in the
economic field. In particular, to control and automate IoT data access for multiple users.
Blockchain technology, which is based on hash functions, provides optimal data management,
thereby securing data transfer.
One of the great brings of Blockchain technology is that sensitive data can't be stored directly in
the system, but only encrypted data can be.
Another of blockchain technology's strengths is its ability to store data in collaboration with third
parties, such as the cloud [9]. This feature has been exploited by the authors in [21] to establish a
new approach named "interest groups", allowing the creation of dataset membership groups.
Each group can sell, borrow, or rent the data it owns. The authors in [10] have also exploited the
potential of Blockchain technology to develop an IoT-ready personal data-sharing prototype. In
conformity with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), the prototype can store and
protect personal data in a distributed IoT ecosystem[9].
Blockchain technology has proven as a key technology for key financial areas such as automated
compliance, compliance, asset rehypothecation, business operation casualty claim processing,
proxy voting, and over-the-counter market [11]. Blockchain has also been explored in the context
of building a new Blockchain network architecture using a blockchain gateway with the capacity
to ensure data security and user privacy [12]. In [13] the authors propose an effective IoT-ready
personal data-sharing architecture in compliance with the GDPR, where the Blockchain is used to
create the user's data access strategy and manage the consent of these users. Therefore,
researchers are inspired to develop several generic prototypes, especially based on Hyperledger
Fabric, to ensure higher throughput and low latency for commercial transactions and transfers in
other fields [14].
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Authentication via the Blockchain-Based Identity :
Blockchain technology has shown the potential to enhance data management for Internet of
Things devices because of its openness, trust, truthfulness, immutability, security, and privacy
characteristics.
Additionally, Blockchain technology use has been impacted by the rapid progress of IoT
networks and smart devices. It has been exploited to add additional trust levels to these devices
through the identification and authentication mechanisms. In this context, the physical identities
of users are used to build digital identities for efficient processing of transactions (between an
individual and a business, between an individual and a machine, or between two machines) with
minimal delays and costs.
According to IoT Analytics, by 2025 more than 20 billion gadgets will be linked to the internet,
and money will be exchanged between these gadgets, people, and businesses. Most payment
transactions will be done by machines in the future [9]. As a result, a totally new payment
infrastructure will be needed, and most of the stakeholders (individuals, gadgets, or companies)
in this development will have digital identities recorded on blockchain networks [13].
IoT and edge computing architecture:
Blockchain technology has the great potential to create new foundations for a distributed model
that can replace the IoT central server model and this is through the setting of legal authentication
mechanisms for the completion and validation of transactions, which will subsequently allow the
management of billions of operations among different smart devices and reduce the
implementing and maintaining costs of the central servers and other types of equipment [15].
According to some researchers, Blockchain-based IoT models can provide robust solutions for
privacy and security issues in IoT ecosystems [16]. They are fitted with automatic mechanisms to
evaluate cooperatively smart contracts. For example, the authors in [17] have improved the IoT
infrastructure by involving Blockchain technology. The authors in [18] proposed an adaptive
Blockchain-based IoT design to effectively serve network devices and maximize transaction
speed. The research paper [19] has outlined a scheme for securing users' personal data using a
combination of Blockchain and an off-Blockchain. Inspired by the Bitcoin concept, the authors in
[20] proposed a security Blockchain-based IoT model that uses a proof-of-concept protocol and
consists of four layers: objective, model, architecture, and mechanism [9]. In the same context to
improve the setting of legal authentication mechanisms for the completion and validation of
transactions, recent proposals like [21] and [22] have been inspired by the Namecoin concept to
develop models based on the Block stack, as a blockchain-based naming and storage system.
These proposals associate a unique name to each user in the Blockchain-based IoT ecosystem.
Pinno, et al. [23] developed a new Blockchain-based IoT architecture for access control called
Control Chain. Whereas the proposal in [24] developed an IoTChain architecture, that allows
secure access and authentication for IoT devices.
Actually, Blockchain, IoT, and AI techniques combination increasingly attract research
community interest, due to their robustness and safety policies. The authors in [25] have
proposed a Blockchain-driven AI approach to reduce the issue of Blockchain.
The exploitation of cryptographic techniques in Blockchain-based IoT ecosystems using AI
algorithms has extremely enhanced the security of connected IoT devices. For example, the
authors in [26] have proposed a new Directed Acyclic graph-based blockchain algorithm ( AES –
CBC) that periodically changes the private key and initializes the vector (IV) value, The cost and
time taken are then reduced by 20%.
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In subsequent works, hybrid Blockchain approaches are proposed such as the paper [27], the
proposed approach used a deployed blockchain on the 5G MEC smart grid to perform cross-chain
communication [9]. The authors present an application-based cross-chain interoperability
solution named appXchain which allows interoperability between any architecture type of
blockchain network. In [28] the proposed approach introduces a blockchain router to empower
blockchains to connect and communicate across chains. New blockchain-based architecture for
secure and trustworthy operations in the industrial Internet of Things approach is proposed in
[29], it uses a low-power ARM Cortex-M4 processor, and deploys an energy-efficient consensus
mechanism proof of authentication (PoAh) in the blockchain network. In [30] the authors used a
blockchain-based trust management mechanism (BBTM) to create smart contracts for trust
computation and verify the computation process. Fan,et al. [31], unlike the traditional
Blockchain, schemes have proposed a secure and efficient authentication and data sharing IoT-
based Blockchain scheme, the approach can ensure data sharing and data transmission security.
Report that the authors in [32] consider Blockchain Aided Privacy-Preserving Outsourcing
Algorithms to secure outsourcing of bilinear pairings of IoT devices. A complete overview of
different Blockchain approaches employed in the IoT engine is discussed in [33].
3.2. Blockchain Technology in the Internet of Medical Things
IoMT-based Blockchain is one of the most vital and sensitive applications of IoT ecosystems that
has received more attention in the literature to provide privacy, security, access control, and
availability of medical data. Consequently, IoMT-based Blockchain has attracted attention of
many researchers, and new approaches have been proposed in the literature to investigate the
proposed solutions regarding this main focus of them, which are ‘‘security and privacy’’, ‘‘access
control’’ and ‘‘scalability’’ perspectives [2].
The comparisons of the most important previous IoMT-based Blockchain approaches, the
different objectives, and the used approaches are summarized in Table .1 :
Table 1. Overview of the summarized related work in the IoMT-based Blockchain
main focus Survey
Paper
Year of
Publication
Use case / Method(Algorithm)
SECURITY
AND
PRIVACY
ASPECT
[34] 2018 Calculating dyslexic symptoms/Auto-grading
algorithms
[35] 2019 Detecting malicious nodes in medical
smartphone networks(MSNs)/ Bayesian
inference algorithms
[36] 2019 Detecting malicious nodes in medical
smartphone networks(MSNs) / Consortium
Blockchain
[37] 2019 Ensuring the security transmission between
nodes / Electronic Health Records (EHR)
[38] 2019 Creating secure alerts to authenticated
healthcare providers / Reducing the delay and
the network overhead.
[39] 2019 Medical image retrieval with privacy
protection/ Feature Vector Selection method
(FVS)
[40] 2019 Monitoring the progression of a neurological
disorder / Ethereum blockchain platform using
a Test of motor coordination.
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[41] 2019 Electronic medical reports (EMR) / Blockchain-
enabled Authentication Key Agreement
Protocol for IoMT ( BAKMP-IoMT).
[42] 2019 Remote patient monitoring and AI-assisted
diagnosis/ Privacy-preserving federated
learning.
[43] 2020 Automatic stress control mechanisms / IoMT-
Cloud Secure Data Storage with Analytics at
the Edge
[44] 2020 Secure management of EHR (Electronic Health
Record), EMR (Electronic Medical Records),
and PHR (Personal Health Records)/ IoMT-
based Blockchain through new medical devices.
[45] 2021 Secure image transmission and diagnosis /
Blockchain-based deep belief network (DBN)
algorithm
[46] 2022 securing the electronic healthcare records
storage and sharing /
Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm
(ECDSA)
ACCESS
CONTROL
[47] 2019 Privacy-preserving access control mechanism
for general data Protection regulation/ Practical
Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT) voting-
based consensus
[48] 2019 Access control for specific authenticated users/
Permissioned blockchain using Elliptic-curve
cryptography (ECC).
[49] 2019 Large-scale health data privacy-preserving and
diagnose uploading/ Interplanetary file system
(IPFS)
[50] 2019 Healthcare services monitoring and
treatment/Blockchain with on-chain smart
contracts and a proof-of-medical-stake
consensus mechanism.
[51] 2019 Remote Patient monitoring systems/ ARX
encryption scheme, Ring signatures, and Diffie-
Hellman key exchange
[52] 2019 Secures the medical data of patients / Access
control model named (medical data protection
access control)MDPAC based on the Role-
based access control (RBAC) model.
[53] 2019 Monitor patients remotely / Newly designed
protocol named GHOSTDAG.
[54] 2019 Electronic Health Records (EHRs) sharing
framework/novel EHRs sharing architecture
based on blockchain and IPFS.
[55] 2020 Handle the COVID-19 healthcare crisis /
blockchain-enabled IoMT
[56] 2020 Security of data transmission between
connected nodes/ IoMT-based Blockchain
device authentication.
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[57] 2021 Automate medical alerting and services /
Selective ring-based access control (SRAC) and
other cryptography methods.
[58] 2021 Patient motioning system/ interplanetary file
systems (IPFS) cluster node, Consortium
Blockchain.
[59] 2022 Enabling the secure interoperability of
healthcare organizations/
Ethereum blockchain with the proof-of-
authority consensus
SCALABIL
ITY
ASPECT
[60] 2021 Secure scalability and data accessibility for
healthcare environment / blockchain-assisted
secure data management framework (BSDMF)
[61] 2021 Blockchain-based authentication for IoMT
devices / the proof of authority (PoA)
consensus mechanism.
Table.1 presents a classification of the proposed new approaches according to the main aim and
focuses of integrating blockchain technology into the IoMT eco-system, which are ``security and
privacy'', ``access control'' and ``scalability'' perspectives. Most of these approaches are private
blockchain-based and used Ethereum infrastructure[63]; they were focused on one of the security
levels to provide authentication solutions, privacy, data integrity, or confidentiality, and the
majority of them implement smart contracts to allow access to only the authorized users based on
some attributes of the IoMT ecosystem and their interaction with the users/stakeholders [33].
According to some studies, these solutions lack many technical details to ensure better integration
of blockchain technology into the dynamic IoMT ecosystem. They have limitations to manage a
high volume of data streams generated by IoMT devices because of resource constraints.
Therefore technical adaptations to the Blockchain architecture are necessary to meet these
challenges. Motivated by the superior performance of the Blockchain in security assurance,
privacy preservation, and data analytics the main advantages of the proposed approach in this
paper might be perceived through the following criteria: Three-Tier Blockchain Architecture,
Hierarchical clustering network, and an additional level of authentication. approach’
decentralized architecture makes it resistant to cyber-attacks.
4. PROPOSED IOMT-BASED BLOCKCHAIN APPROACH
In this section, we describe our approaches as a set of software used to control an IoMT
ecosystem.
We first describe our architecture of Blockchain-enabled IoMT composed of four layers and
using APIs running on the master device and their major interdependent components. We then
present our authentication and access control strategies and details of the main functionalities of
each project, technologies, and routines that are used to validate and identify the smart devices in
its cluster. We also design smart contracts and transactions to explain the interaction process of
each module.
4.1. System Architecture
In its logical representation, the proposed IoMT three-tier architecture contains three main tiers:
the Physical tier in charge of data collection from the IoMT sensor devices, the IoMT Cloud
Services tier is in charge of data storage in cloud computing, and the Application tier uses the
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appropriate model for the treatment of these data. This model conforms to the reference
architecture for IIoT proposed by Industrial Internet Consortium (IIC).
By incorporating the blockchain into IoMT systems, the secure IoMT ecosystem architecture
occurs in its detailed representation with four layers:
- Layer 1: it is in this layer that we find all the IoMT nodes gathering information from any
patient and offloading tasks to the Multi-Access Edges Computing ( MEC) server through the
small Base Stations. It considred as the « patient » device layer.
- Layer 2: is the Edge computing layer, it composed of the MECs, in a common geographical
area, responsible for collecting data from IoMT devices in its coverage area and processes them
with its Edge cloud server (ECS). The data is further processed at the fog and at the cloud layer to
generate meaningful information [63]. The data is further processed at the fog and at the cloud
layer to generate meaningful information. Further, in order to reduce the delay, all interacting
parties in the medical eld who have interest in the data related to patients such as hospitals,
medical centers, labs, etc... can get the patient data through this router[63].it is the getqay for the
fog layer.
- Layer 3 : This is the core layer, The blockchain network layer is the middleware that offer
trustworthy management of diverse resources across the underlying layers. it permits the control
of the interaction between cloud providers in order to grant access for patient's data to each others
wherever it is located.
- Layer 4 : it is the higher layer or the « cloud provider" layer. It is the layer responsible for
processing the data using cloud computing, data storage services, and Machine Learning and IA
mechanisms[63].
4.2. Blockchain-based Authentication for IoMT ecosystem
The APIs running in Edge and Fog Computing are used to verify the IoMT message’s
authenticity, using Smart Contracts deployed in the core Ethereum Blockchain.
The API gateway is a collection of micro-services, facilitating data and service requests and
delivery. Its principal role is to serve as a single entry point and standardized process for
interactions between a group of devices (IoMT) and a Master device. it also handles API usage,
data analysis, access control, authentication mechanisms, and other services like rate-limiting [9].
The proposed APIs can additionally have a built-in management plane to identify, authenticate,
anonymity, and verify the reputation of messages sent by the trust group of IoMT devices.
The Blockchain and smart contracts are integrated into the background to identify and validate
the API Gateway’s authenticity and only then the API messages are received by the application's
API. API management is a suggested resource, particularly when several devices generate and
consume data from a variety of sources. In the next sections, we outline the components of our
proposed Registration and Authentication prototype [9].
a. Architecture of the proposed IoMT Blockchain authentication Platform:
Figure .4 illustrates the conceptual scenario of the IoMT blockchain platform.
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Figure 4. IoMT blockchain platform conceptual scenario
b. Architectural components:
The main components of the proposed system are:
1) Master Device: a device owns a private/public key pair which can be considered similar
to a certification authority for IoMT devices.
2) Slave Devices: Each device that is a component of the system is called to as Slave devices.
Each Slave generates an Elliptic Curve (EC) private/public key-pair. Then, each Slave device is
delivered by a structure called a token, which represents a lightweight certificate of 64 bytes that
contains:
- groupID: Describes the virtual group that the object will belong.
- objectID: Describes the slave device’s identifier in the virtual group.
- publicAddr : describes the slave device’s public address. This public Address represents the first
20 bytes of the Keccak SHA-3 of the slave device’s public key.
- Signature: Generated by using the private key of the virtual group’s Master to sign signature
structure represents the Elliptic Curve Digital Signature . ECDSA is more adapted to IoMT
contexts than traditional signature algorithms such as Rivest Shamir Adleman (RSA), especially
concerning key sizes and signature times [9]. The Signature covers the Keccack hash of the
concatenation of the groupID, the objectID, and the publicAddr.
3) IoMT device Registration: provides for each slave device a token, signed by the Master
device after creating a group identifier (groupID). Once the group has been formed, the next step
consists of the creation of the virtual group at the Blockchain level [9]. The Master device sends a
transaction that contains the Master’s identifier and the group identifier to create.
The Blockchain verifies that both the groupID and the Master’s objectID are unique. Then, the
virtual group is created.
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Algorithm 1: Association roles to slave devices
0 : bc : Blockchain
0 : obj : Object
0 : sender : Object
0 : receiver : Object
0 : statut : State
0 : Define Master : 1
0 : Define Slave : 0
Function : CheckOID( Integer Iod, Blockchain bc)
/* // check if the object identifier is used in the Blockchain or not */
Function : CheckGID( Integer GId, Blockchain bc)
/* // check if the group identifier is used in the Blockchain or not */
Function : CheckAddr( Integer objId, Blockchain bc)
/* // check if the object Address is used in the Blockchain or not */
Function : Exception( )
/* // returns error message */
begin
if checkOID(object.Id, bc) = true then
return Error() ;
if checkAddr(object.grpId, bc) = true then
return Error() ;
if (object.type = Master) then
if checkOID(object.grpId, bc) = true then
return Error() ;
end
else if (object.type = Slave) then
if checkgrpID(object.grpId, bc) = false then
return Error() ;
end
if (bc.tokenVerify(object.token, bc) = failed then
return Error();
end
end
end
Using checkOID( ), checkAddr( ) methods, the Blockchain verifies consecutively if the object
identifier and the object Address are used in the Blockchain by another object, if true, the
association cannot be saved and validated. Else, and if the object is a Master, it cannot be
associated. Otherwise, and if the object is a slave, The Blockchain verifies that both the groupID
and the Token are valid to validate the slave device association request. Then, the slave object is
associated with the virtual group.
4) IoMT API Edge: This API is running as a service on the master device to receive requests
from slave devices in order to be associated with their virtual group. At the Blockchain level, The
smart contract ensures the slave device’s identifier is unique (objectID), The slave device’s token
is then verified for authenticity using the virtual group’s Master’s public key as illustrated in
Algorithm 2 describes different parameters and functions. If at least one of the conditions is not
accomplished, the device cannot be added to the group. Once a slave device’s first registration
request is successful, the latter is no longer required to verify itself using its token [9]. The
Communication within the virtual group is illustrated in Figure .5:
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Figure 5. Slave device association
This Example represents a device slave named (S) which received a Master-signed token. Each
token consists of: Gid(group ID), Oid (object ID) PKS,(slave device public key).
The process of group association request is illustrated in Figure.6
Figure. 6. Creation of virtual group at the blockchain
The next actions are presented as follows:
i) The association request is the first transaction, the token and device slave private key are
signed in the transmitted message.
ii) Once the Blockchain get the action, it checks its validity by comparing the signature to the
public key of the slave device. The tokens of the device slave are validated using the Master’s
public key
iii) When the token is valid and authentic, the Blockchain stores an association saves the values
(Gid, Oid, and PKS);
iv) Transaction n is the case when (S) sends another transaction. This transaction includes the
following elements: The data, Gid, Oid, The signature of the combination of the preceding fields,
which is performed using the private key of the slave device.
v) The Blockchain validates the transaction’s integrity by verifying the signature to the slave
device’s public key.
vi) When the signature is valid, the Blockchain checks that the public key used to verify the
transaction is saved and associated with the transaction’s groupID and objectID.
vii) When the association is successfully saved and validated, the device is authenticated.
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5) The token Signature: To decrease computing power, and enhance performance in terms of
latency and energy efficiency, the proposed approach uses a Curve Digital Signature Algorithm
(ECDSA) to sign the token and device slave private key in the transmitted message. This
alternative approach is also used to encrypt and decrypt messages. It can obtain high primary
numbers faster and more effectively than the traditional method. It depends on the algebraic
structure of the elliptical curves over finite fields.
The signature structure using the private key of the zone group’s Master is:
Signature = PrK_M(Gid, Oid,pubAddr) , Where: PrK_M is the Master device private key.
6) Blockchain Gateway: Blockchain API Gateway is the software model (group of microservices)
in charge of data communication and validation between the IoMT API Edge Network devices
and the Blockchain. Through this API the master device can create a virtual group by making
transactions to a smart contract that contains rules to achieve this action and also validate slave
device association requests [9].
Figure 7. Creation of virtual groups at the Blockchain.
7) Smart Contract: To improve the overall performance of the system, and facilitate the
cooperation between partners of our Blockchain-based IoMT ecosystem, the virtual group will be
created, and the communication protocol will be governed by the "Smart Contracts". In this case,
the smart contract integrated into the background of the private Ethereum blockchain covers the
all rules to validate the API Gateway’s authenticity and the rules to be checked before launching
the inspection of the devices and also to validate the slave device association requests [9]. The
smart contract algorithm rules are described as follows:
Algorithm 3 : Smart contract algorithm rules
1 if checkOID(sender.Id, bc) = false or checkOID(receiver.Id, bc) = false then
2 return Error( );
3 if (sender.Id ≠ bc) then
4 return Error( );
5 if (bc.SignVeri(sender.msg)= failed ) then
6 return Error( );
7 Secure data exchange finished with success
5. VALIDATION AND EVALUATION
The system test of our Blockchain-based IoT approach is implemented using a laptop
(Configuration: Intel i7-3770 CPU at 3.40 GHz, 8 GB of memory) and two Raspberry Pi, where
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the laptop plays the role of the master device and the Raspberry Pi cards are considered as slave
devices. A series of numerical simulation experiments have been done using a private Ethereum
blockchain and smart contracts written in the Solidity programming language. The purpose is to
evaluate our approach regarding its execution time, energy consumption, and network traffic
analysis.
The IoT Api Edge runs on the master device and is developed using Node.js to simulate the
interactions between the master device as a server and the slave devices.
The slave devices are also simulated using the node.js program as a web client to interact with
IoT Api Edge. The interactions are realized using JSON over HTTP protocol.
For this experimentation, we measure :
• The needed time to prepare a request for the association.
• The needed time to prepare a data message.
• The consumption power of the CPU required to prepare an association request.
• The CPU power consumption required to prepare a data message.
The exchanged data between the master device and the slave device is analyzed with a sniffer
application to evaluate communication privacy.
5.1. Time and Energy consumption
For all experiments, we remark that the association request is more complicated than sending a
simple message. And as shown in Table 2, the performance in terms of the time consumption
difference between the average and the standard deviation is extremely impacted by the
complexity of the association request in comparison to the sending operation of a data message.
Table 2. Statistics Time and Energy consumption
Devices Laptop
Raspberry Pi
3(Model B)
Raspberry Pi
4(Model B)
Assoc Time(ms)
Av. 1.03 2.1 1.7
SD 0.12 0.034 0.029
Data time(ms)
Av. 0.13 0.9 0.6
SD 0.001 0.025 0.029
CPU Pow
Assoc(mWatt)
Av. 9.76 50.4 48.4
SD 2.04 1.02 0.8
CPU Pow Data msg
(mWatt)
Av. 3.30 16.33 15.09
SD 0.80 1.08 0.9
Another important measure is the impact of messages’ sending on the CPU and the Dynamic
Random Access Memory (DRAM) energy consumption for the tested devices. As shown in
figure 8, there are three principles phases of the system functioning: (1) an idle phase; (2) the
execution of a loop that sends 100 messages where there is a break of 100 ms between each
message, and (3) the return to the idle phase.
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(a) (b)
Figure 8. The impact of message processing: (a) Laptop , (b) Raspberry Pi
The measures were realized using the RAPL measurement tool. Figure 8(a) describes the laptop’s
results where the loop is executed at the 12th second. The energy consumption, in this case, does
not exceed 0.5 watts, which is shown by the third peak. Figure 8(b) illustrates Raspberry Pi’s
results, where the loop is executed at the 15th second. The energy consumption, in this case, does
not exceed 1 watt, which is shown by the third peak. Even if the results are close and quite
similar for both models of the Raspberry cards, the illustrated results here concern the Raspberry
Pi 4 Model B. In both cases, one can note that the impact of the loop is really negligible. The
other existing peaks are related to the operating system activity, and without any impact on
energy consumption once the system is running.
The results in table 1 concern 100 experiments and present the average and standard deviation of
the association request, data message preparation times, and energy consumption needed by the
CPU in order to realize the association request and send a data message. According to the
previous results on energy consumption, the association request is more complicated than sending
a simple message. In contrast, the time consumption difference between the average and the
standard deviation is based on the complexity of the association request compared to the sending
operation of a data message.
5.2. Network Traffic Analysis
The network traffic analysis between the master device and the slave objects using the Wireshark
network traffic analysis application, show that the data captured by the sensors of the slave
device is sent encrypted, ensuring the fundamentals of security: authentication, confidentiality,
integrity, and availability.
Figure.9 shows the request from a slave device to the master for the purpose of sharing
encryption keys. The slave object calls the API endpoint ”keySession” by passing the data in
JSON format consisting of a public key (ECDSA) and object ID (oid). The master device
responds with a JSON object.
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Figure 9. Retrieve security token (Slave request)
Figure .10, contains the session key encrypted by the public key of the slave device, which allows
both the confidentiality of the key and also the authentication of the slave device. After the
encryption key sharing session, all communication between the master and slave devices will be
encrypted.
Figure 10. Encryption key session (Master response)
In Figure .11 shown, the slave device requests a master device token by calling the API endpoint
”GET /getTicket” sending its encrypted object ID (oid) and the public key.
Figure 11. Retrieve security token (Slave request)
Figure.12 shows the master’s response as a token encrypted with the session key. Then the slave
can decrypt and retrieve the clear text information in JSON format containing group id (GID),
object id, public address key, and the preceding field’s ECDSAsignature concatenated.
Figure 12. Encrypted token (Master response)
From the moment that the slave device has a token, it can be associated with the trust group by
sending an association request to the slave device. As shown in Figure .13 the slave device sends
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its object id (oid) and encrypted token to the master device. The latter checks the integrity of the
token and checks the access conditions at the blockchain level. If the conditions are verified, then
the master authorizes the access and, therefore, the slave can send the data.
Figure 13. Slave device association Captured Data
Finally, we can say that the slave device can transfer the data to the master in an encrypted way.
The slave device sends its object Id so that the master device always checks its group
membership and the encrypted data.
6. CONCLUSIONS
The Internet of Things technology has overwhelmed the entire fields in our daily lives, especially
in the health sector. The use of this great emerging sector resulted in the creation of numerous
IoMT devices and services. However, the limited character of the available resources and the
vulnerability of devices present a crucial obstacle to the continued growth of IoMT ecosystems.
Access to these devices and their communication exchanges should often be secured.
In this work, we proposed Three-Tier Blockchain architecture as a solution for the secure
communication exchanges of data between the various parties involved in an IoMT ecosystem.
And using a hierarchical clustering network we have suggested a method for creating a group of
trustworthy devices by establishing safe virtual zones in which devices can connect in an entirely
secure manner. An additional level of security is added through the adoption of a robust
authentication and access technique.
This proposed method has been evaluated and found to be capable of satisfying the desired
security criteria as well as being resistant to cyberattacks.
In the future, we will extend our approach to develop a more efficient technique in a large-scale
IoMT network with additional privacy and security concerns. we will integrate machine learning
techniques as federated learning to manage the big datasets created by tremendously varied IoMT
networks, thereby further enhancing the trust of IoMT systems.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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AUTHORS
Jamal Elhachmi obtained the license in physics in 2004, the research M.S. degree in computer science
telecommunication, and multimedia from Mohammed V-Agdal University, Rabat, Morocco, in 2006,
received the Ph.D. degree in computer science from EMI School of Engineering, University Mohammed V.
Since 2012, he has been an associated member of the research team of Smart Communications—ERSC
(formerly known as LEC) as part of the research center in engineering sustainable and smart systems at the
EMI School of Engineering, University Mohammed V. He is currently an assistant Professor with the
Ecole Nationale Suprieure d'Informatique et d'Analyse des Systemes, Mohammed V University, Rabat,
Morocco. His current research interests are Telecommunication, Artificial intelligence (AI), systems
22. International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) Vol.14, No.6, November 2022
136
information and communication, intelligent antenna, cognitive radio, mobile computing, mobile social
networks, cyber security and blockchain technology.
He can be contacted at email: jamal.elhacimi@ensias.um5.ac.ma.
Abdellatif Kobane (Senior Member, IEEE) received the research M.S. degree in computer science
telecommunication, and multimedia from Mohammed V-Agdal University, Rabat, Morocco, in 2003, and
the Ph.D. degree in computer science from EMI School of Engineering, Rabat, Morocco, in September
2012. Since 2009, he has been a Full Professor with the Ecole Nationale Suprieure d'Informatique et
d'Analyse des Systemes, Mohammed V University, Rabat, Morocco. He is also an Adjunct Professor with
L2TI laboratory, Paris 13 University, Villetaneuse, France. His research interests include wireless
networking, performance evaluation using advanced technique in game theory, and MDP in wireless
mobile network: IoT, SDN, and NFV, 5G networks, resources management in wireless mobile networks,
cognitive radio, mobile computing, mobile social networks, caching and backhaul problem, and beyond 5G
and future networks.