Biotechnology is the application of living organisms to modify products or develop microorganisms for specific uses. Genetic engineering uses recombinant DNA technology to transfer genes between organisms, producing transgenic organisms. Key tools include vectors to transport genes, restriction enzymes to cut DNA, and DNA ligase to join DNA fragments. Recombinant DNA technology involves cloning genes by inserting them into host cells like E.coli to produce copies. Insulin was the first protein produced using this method. DNA fingerprinting identifies individuals by analyzing variable number tandem repeats in genomic DNA.

1. Biotechnology
(As per Karnataka PUC Syllabus)
Dr M. Jayakara Bhandary
Associate Professor of Botany
Government Arts and Science College, Karwar
Karnataka
jaikarb@gmail.com
Introduction:
• Biotechnology is any technique that uses living organisms or parts of organisms to make or
modify products, to improve plants or animals, or to develop micro organisms for specific uses,
OR It is the application of scientific and engineering principles to the processing of materials
by biological agents to provide goods and services.
Scope of biotechnology:
Field of Applications/Activities
Application
AgricultureNew varieties of crop plants with improved characteristics like pest resistance,
stress tolerance, high yield, herbicide resistance, better nutritional quality
etc. can be produced by combining Recombinant DNA Technology and
Tissue Culture Technique. Such genetically modified plants are called
transgenic plants.
Elite Elite and disease resistant plants can be propagated by micropropagation.
Plants can be Genetically Engineered to produce proteins of commercial
importance like vaccines, enzymes, drugs, biodegradable plastic, etc
Animal New Breeds of domesticated animals can be produced by combining
husbandry Recombinant DNA Technology and cloning technique. eg. Fast growing
sheeps, pigs, etc.
Mammals like sheep and cattle can be genetically designed to produce
proteins and medicines of importance in their milk. Obtaining
pharmaceutical products from genetically modified animals is called
biopharming.
Medicine l Drugs, vaccines etc. can be produced by microorganisms, plants or animals
through genetic engineering. eg. insulin production by bacteria.
Genetic diseases can be treated by replacing the defective disease causing
genes with healthy genes. This method is called gene therapy.
Traditional vaccines can be replaced by directly introducing DNA molecules
coding for vaccines into the body. Such DNA are called DNA vaccines.
Diagnostic method and kits for early detection of genetic diseases,
accurate and faster detection of pathogens in the body tissues etc. can be
developed. eg. Monoclonal antibodies, Enzyme linked immunosorbant
assay (ELISA), Radio immuno assay (RIA), etc.
Pollution Biotechnological methods can help in dealing many environmental
management problems. eg. microbes can be developed and used as indicators of different
types of pollution.
Microbes can be used to degrade pollutants, in the treatment of sewage,
industrial wastes, etc.( Bioremediation)
Industry Micro organisms can be genetically designed to efficiently undertake
various industrial processes. eg. Lignin degrading microbes are used in
paper industry to digest the pulp.

2. Microbes are used to purify metals like gold, copper etc. from their ores.
This method is called biomining.
Fermenters, bioreactors etc. developed on biotechnological principles play
important roles in various industries like paper, pharmaceutical, wine
industry, etc.
Forensic Biotechnological tool like genetic finger printing is used in forensic
Science science as an judicially approved method to identify criminals, solve cases
of parental disputes, etc
Biodiversity Methods like tissue culture, protoplast culture, embryo transfer and
conservation animal cloning can be used for the conservation of rare plants and
animals
Basic Biotechnological tool like gene cloning provides efficient method to study
scientific genetic processes like gene expression, regulation, disease development etc.
research It is also used in genome mapping projects in which entire genome (set of
genes of an organism) is sequenced and documented. eg. Human genome
project
Computer Ccomputers are efficiently used to analyse and store the enormous
Science information generated by biotechnological experiments. This new area
which is the combination of IT with BT is called Bioinformatics.
Chips called biochips made from different biological materials may
replace the silicon chips used in computer.
Genetic Engineering (GE):
• Genetic engineering refers to genetically modifying organisms by transferring genes from
other organisms, using the recombinant DNA technology.
• Organisms with new combination of genes that are produced by genetic engineering are
called transgenic organisms or Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO’s).
Tools used in Genetic Engineering:
Vectors:
• Vectors are DNA/RNA molecules used to transport foreign genes into a recipient cell or
organism, in genetic engineering experiments. Vector should replicate the transferred gene
inside host cells.
• Shuttle vectors are those which replicate the foreign gene both in prokaryotic and eukaryotic
host cells. Ex. Yeast episomal plasmids.
• Expression vectors are capable of replicating and expressing (protein production) the foreign
gene inside host cells. They have additional promoter and terminator sequences for
transcription.
• Different types of vectors are listed below:
Types of vector Desription/use Example
Plasmids Extrachromosomal, self replicating , pSC 101, pBR 322, pUC 18,
double stranded, circular DNA molecules etc.
found in bacterial and yeast cells. Yeast plasmids
Presently, only artificial designed plasmids
are used as vectors.
Ti (Tumor inducing) plasmid of the Ti plasmid, Ri plasmid
bacterium Agrobacterium tumifaciens &
Ri plasmid of A. rhizogenes are used to

3. transfer genes to plant cells.
Plant viruses Carry genes to plant cells Caulimo, Gemini and
Tobamo viruses
Animal viruses Carry genes to animal cells, especially Retroviruses, Adenoviruses
human cells for gene therapy
Bacteriophages Viruses which infect bacterial cells Phage lambda, M13
Cosmids Combination of plasmid DNA and ‘Cos’ -
(cohesive) regions of phage lambda.
Produced by Collins & Hohn, 1978
Phagemids Combination of plasmid DNA and single
stranded DNA segment of phage M13.
Artificial Artificial Chromosomes designed to carry Yeast Artificial
chromosomes large-sized eukaryotic genes Chromosome(YAC), Human
artificial chromosomes
(HAC)
Enzymes:
• Enzymatic cutting and joining of DNA is important step in genetic engineering.
• Restriction enzymes (REN) are enzymes which cut DNA at specific palindromic sequences.
They are called DNA scissors. They occur naturally in bacterial cells.
• A palindrome is a DNA sequence of 4-8 bases which reads the same in both the strands, in a
particular direction (5’ to 3’ or vice -versa). Each REN identify a specific palindromic sequence.
• REN are of two types: Type I identify palindromic sequences but cut the DNA strands outside it.
They are not of any use in GE.,
• Type II restriction enzymes are commonly used in genetic engineering because they cut the DNA
within the palindromic sequences, producing either blunt ends or sticky ends.
Some important type II restriction enzymes:
Name of REN Source organism Target palindromic sequence
Eco R1 Escherichia coli GAATTC/CTTAAG
Eco RII Escherichia coli GGATCC/CCTAGG
Hind III Haemophilus influenzae AAGCTT/TTCGAA
Hpa II Haemophilus parainfluenzae CCGG/GGCC
Sal I Streptomyces albus GTCGAC/CAGCTG
• DNA ligases are enzymes which join or ligate the sugar-phosphate backbones of two DNA
fragments by forming phosphodiester bond between them. They act like DNA stitches. Activity of
DNA ligase was first demonstrated by Mertz and Davis in 1972. T4 DNA ligase obtained from
T4 bacteriophage is commonly used.
• Other enzymes useful in GE are listed below:
Enzyme Application
Alkaline phosphatase Remove PO4 group from 5’ end of DNA or RNA
Reverse transcriptase Synthesis of single stranded complementary DNA (cDNA) from RNA

4. DNA polymerase I Convert single stranded cDNA into double stranded cDNA
Taq polymerase Used in Polymerase Chain Reaction to clone DNA
Terminal transferase Adds nucleotides to 3’ end of DNA or RNA
• Bioreactors are large vessels specially designed to grow microorganisms, plant or animal cells in
a large scale and to harvest the commercially valuable product which they produce.
• E. coli is the common host used in Genetic Engineering.
Recombinant DNA Technology:
• Recombinant DNA is artificially created new combination of DNA molecules by combining
DNA segments taken from two or more different organisms or sources. First successful
recombinant DNA molecule was produced by Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer in 1973.
• The method of producing many identical copies of a gene is called gene cloning. Earlier, gene
cloning was done by transferring the gene into a bacterial cell and multiplying the cell. Now, the
same can be easily carried out by machines called Thermocyclers which uses Polymerase Chain
Reaction (PCR) to produce millions of copies of a gene, in a few hours.
• PCR technology was developed by Kary Mullis in 1985. It uses a special heat tolerant DNA
polymerase called Taq polymerase isolated from a thermophilic bacterium called Thermus
aquaticus.
• Construction of recombinant DNA involves mainly cutting DNA fragments by restriction enzymes
and rejoining them by DNA ligase. The important steps involved are given below:
Steps Details
Obtaining the The DNA molecule or gene of interest can be obtained mainly by two
gene of sources, as follows:
interest a) from gene libraries : Gene libraries are collections of natural copies of
genes or complementary DNA (cDNA) copies of genes (cDNA is
obtained by reverse transcription of mRNA by using reverse transcriptase
enzyme).
b) Synthetic DNA : DNA segments coding for specific polypeptides can
be made with the help of DNA synthesis machines.
Vector A suitable vector DNA molecule is selected based on the objective of the
selection experiment
Restriction The DNA molecule having the gene and the vector molecule are cut with
digestion the same appropriate restriction endonuclease enzyme to generate DNA
fragment with sticky ends.
Ligation or The gene and vector DNA fragments are mixed together in the presence of
gene splicing DNA ligase enzyme. Owing to the presence of complementary ends, the
two fragments join together first by hydrogen bonding, followed by
phosphodiester bond formation. The gene-vector complex thus formed is
the recombinant DNA molecule.
Transfer to The recombinant DNA molecule is transferred to a suitable host cell. Host
host cell cells like E. coli cells are mixed with recombinant DNA and treated with
calcium chloride followed by a mild heat shock. They absorb the
recombinant DNA into their cells. The host cells which have successfully
absorbed the recombinant DNA are selected and multiplied.

5. Extraction of The population of host cells can be then used for the purpose of the
gene or gene experiment such as recovery of the cloned gene or extraction of the cloned
product gene product (protein) or formation of transgenic organisms.
Recombinant insulin production:
• Recombinant DNA technology is used to obtain many copies of a gene or protein. Human insulin
was the first protein produced by recombinant method by Eli Lilly Company in 1982. The
commercially available recombinant insulin was called humulin or recosulin.
• Functional insulin is a relatively small protein comprising two polypeptides - The A chain of 21
amino acids and the B chain of 30 amino acids. The two chains are interconnected by two
disulfide bonds.
• Insulin was originally identified by Frederick Banting & Howard Best in 1921.
• In humans, insulin is synthesised as a precursor molecule called preproinsulin which actually has
4 polypeptide parts: A chain (21 amino acids), B chain (30 amino acids), C chain in between A
and B (33 amino acids) and the N-terminal leader segment (16 amino acids).
• The preproinsulin is processed after translation (post-translational modification) by removing the
leader and C chains. The remaining A and B chain attach to each other by two disulphide bonds to
form functional insulin. Preproinsulin without the leader segment is called proinsulin.
• The original method followed in successfully engineering E. coli cells to synthesize human insulin
is summarised as follows:
Steps Events
Artificial gene Functional insulin protein consists of two sub-units of polypeptide chains called
synthesis chain A and B. Synthetic genes coding for A and B polypeptide sub-units of
human insulin were constructed by Itakura and his group in 1977.
Splicing Each synthetic gene was separately inserted into the tail end of Lac Z gene
(which produces the protein b-galactosidase) of pBR322 plasmid molecules to
form recombinant DNA molecules. Such recombinant DNA molecules are
capable of producing fusion proteins which contain both b-galactosidase and
insulin sub-units together.
Cloning The recombinant plasmids containing insulin A and B genes were inserted into
separate E. coli cells. These modified E. coli cells were grown in large scales
during which the fusion proteins were synthesised and accumulated in the host
cells.
Extraction & The fusion proteins were extracted from the host cells separately, purified and
purification of treated with cyanogen bromide to separate insulin sub-units from b-
fusion proteins galactosidase protein.
Formation of Purified A and B insulin sub-units thus obtained are finally mixed together to
functional produce functional insulin molecules. In the functional insulin, A and B subunits
insulin attach together by disulphide bonds

6. Some of the human proteins that have been synthesized from genes cloned in bacteria and / or
eukaryotic cells:
Protein Used in the treatment of Protein Used in the treatment
of
Insulin Diabetes Epidermal growth Ulcers
factor
Somtostatin Growth disorders. Fibroblast growth Ulcers
factor
Somatrotropin Growth disorders Erythroprotein Anaemia
Factor VIII Haemophilia Tissue plasminogen Heart attack
activator
Factor IX Christmas disease Superoxide dismutase Free radical damage in
kidney transplants
Interferon -a Leukaemia and other Lung surfactant Respiratory distress
cancers. protein
Interferon - b Cancers, AIDs g1-antirypsin Emphysema
Interferon -g Cancers, rheumatoid Serum albumin used as a plasma
arthritis supplement
Interleukins Cancers, immune Relaxin Used to aid childbirth.
disorders
Granulocyte colony Cancers Fibroblast growth Ulcers
stimulating factor factor
Tumour necrosis Cancers Erythroprotein Anaemia
factor
DNA fingerprinting:
•DNA fingerprinting is a technique which helps in the establishment of identity of a person or
any organism based on uniqueness of DNA. Alec Jeffreys developed this technique in 1985.
• Presence of Variable Number Tandem Repeats (VNTR) in the genome is the basis of DNA
finger printing.
• Transferring the single stranded DNA bands from electrophoretic gel slab to a nitrocellulose
sheet is called Southern blotting, in honour of Edwin Southern who developed this
technique.
• Similar transfer of protein bands is called Western blotting (developed by Towbin & group in
1979) and transfer of RNA to special type of cellulose paper is called Northern Blotting
(developed by Alwine & group in 1979).
• DNA probes are short single stranded DNA segments containing radioactive P32 which
perfectly bind to specific complementary single strand DNA fragments.
• DNA fingerprinting is useful in detection of criminals and paternity testing.
Steps in DNA fingerprinting:
DNA extraction DNA is extracted from the tissue samples such as blood, semen, cells,
hair etc., collected from the crime spot and also of the various suspects.
Restriction digestion Extracted double standard DNA samples are digested with restriction
enzyme to form fragments of different length based on the pattern of
VNTR’s and restriction sites.
Electrophoretic The DNA fragments are separated according to their size into distinct
separation bands on a agarose gel sheet by a method called gel electrophoresis.

7. Single strand The double strand DNA fragments on the gel sheet are separated into
seperation single strands by treatment with an alkali (NaOH) solution
Southern Blotting: The single stranded DNA bands are transferred from the gel slab to a
nitrocellulose sheet by southern blotting, for visual observation
Treating with DNA on the nitrocellulose sheet are treated with radioactive DNA
radioactive probes probes. DNA probes presently used are complementary to the VNTR
sequences of Human DNA which bind only to VNTR’s.
Auto radiography The nitrocellulose sheet is X-ray photographed. Only such DNA bands to
which radioactive probes bind appear as dark spots in the x-ray
photograph which is called autoradiograph. The number, size, and
location of final dark spots in the photograph is unique to a person like
fingerprints. Therefore, such a DNA band pattern obtained in the
autoradiograph is called DNA fingerprint.
Comparison On visual or computer analysis, if the DNA fingerprint of any suspect
matches with that of the DNA collected from the crime spot, it can be
concluded that both DNA samples belong to the same individual.
Gene Therapy:
• Gene therapy is any procedure used to treat a disease by modifying or manipulating the
genetic composition in the cells of the patient.
• Gene therapy is tried to treat genetic diseases like Adenosine deaminase deficiency (ADA),
Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) , Cystic Fibrosis (CF), Cancers, etc. Harmless
viruses like adenoviruses, retroviruses, Lentiviruses etc are used as vectors in gene therapy
experiments.
Types of gene therapy:
Type Description Example
Somatic gene Only the somatic cells of the body are used as -
therapy targets for gene transfer. The presently developed
methods belongs to this type and the therapy is
restricted only to the diseased tissue.
Germline gene germ cells used for gene therapy. In this case, all -
therapy the cells developing from the altered germ cell will
carry the introduced gene and it will also be
inherited to future generations.
Ex vivo gene gene transfer is carried out with the affected cells Insertion of ADA gene to
therapy which are isolated from the body of the patient and cultured bone marrow cells
grown in cell cultures. The genetically modified
cells are then reintroduced into the body of the
patient
In vivo gene transfer of genes directly into the affected cells of Gene therapy for cystic
therapy the body, without isolating them. fibrosis (CF) where CFTR
genes are introduced
directly to epithelial cells of
respiratory tract.
Diseases experimentally treated by gene therapy:
Disease symptoms Cause Gene therapy

8. Cystic Thick and sticky A defective CFTR gene (Cystic Normal CFTR gene
Fibrosis mucus that clogs the Fibrosis Transmembrane Regulator introduced to the
(CF) respiratory passages gene) produces a defective CTCR epithelial cells of the
(Cystic transmembrane conductance respiratory tract by in
regulator) protein which absorbs more vivo method using
water from mucus, makes it thick. adenovirus vector.
CFTR gene discovered by Fransis
Collins & Lap chee Tsui in 1989 on
Chromosome 7.
ADA/ Absence of Adenosine Defective ADA gene present
on Insertion of normal
SCID deaminase enzyme, chromosome 20. ADA gene to cultured
destruction of T- bone marrow cells
lymphocytes, weak using retrovirus
immune power. vector
Cancers Uncontrolled cell Gene mutation, presence of tumor Insertion of Tumor
division inducing genes, etc suppressing genes
like P 53 or genes for
Tumor Necrosis
Factor (TNF)
Monoclonal antibodies:
• Pure antibodies of predetermined specificity which can react with only a specific type of
antigen are called monoclonal antibodies (MAB).
• Georges Kohler and Cesal Milstein discovered hybridoma technology for the production of
monoclonal antibodies.
• Hybridoma is a special type of hybrid cell formed by the fusion of antibody forming B-
lymphocyte and bone-marrow tumour cell called myeloma. Poly ethylene glycol (PEG) is the
fusogen which induces fusion of these cells.
• MAB are widely used in:
1. Diagnostic techniques like ELISA (enzyme linked immuno sorbant assay) which are used for
faster and accurate detection of pathogenic viruses and bacteria.
2. Immunopurification: Separation of a specific biological substance from a mixture of many
similar substances.
3. Targeted therapy: Therapy against diseases like cancer in which only specific antigens need to be
attacked with the help of specific antibodies.
4. Blood typing: The anti A and anti B sera used in detection of ABO blood groups are monoclonal
antibodies produced against antigen A and B of RBC’s.
Human genome project:
• A genome is all the DNA in the haploid set of chromosomes of an organism, which makes up
all its genes. This term was coined by H. Winkler in 1920.
• Human genome project (HGP) aim was to sequence the entire human genome. It was undertaken
by Human Genome Organisation (HUGO). It was begun in October 1990 in USA and completed
in March 2003.
• Important findings of Human Genome Project are :
1. Total number of functional gene in human cells are about 30,000 - much lower than the
expected number of about 1 lakh.

9. 2. The human genome has 3164.7 million nucleotide base pairs.
3. 99.9% of bases are exactly the same in all people.
4. Only 2% of the DNA actually code for proteins, the other 98% DNA function is unknown.
This DNA with unknown function is called junk DNA.
5. Average size of human genes is 3000 bases. The largest human gene is dystrophin gene with
2.4 million bases.
6. Chromosome-1 has maximum number of genes (2968) and Y-chromosome has the lowest
number of genes (231)
7. The functions of about 50% of the discovered genes are unknown.
Improvement of Plants:
• Plant breeding is the production of new varieties of plants with improved characteristics like
better yield, better nutritional quality, disease resistance, fast growth etc.
• Hybridisation is cross fertilising parental plants which genetically differ from each other.
• Mutation breeding involves induction of mutations in plants by artificial methods like treating
with chemicals and radiation. Treating plant propagules like seeds, seedlings or vegetative buds
with chemicals like ethyl methyl sulfonate (EMS) or with ionising radiation like gamma rays
produced by radioactive substances such as cobalt or caesium are the popularly used methods of
inducing mutations. Sharbati Sonora is a variety of wheat produced by mutation breeding which
was responsible for green revolution in India.
• Polyploidy breeding involves creating new varieties of plants by inducing polyploids or multiple
sets of chromosomes in plant cells. Polyploidy can be induced by a chemical called colchicine.
• Plant tissue culture is a technique of growing isolated plant cells or tissues in an artificial nutrient
medium, under aseptic conditions.
• Each cell of any plant has got the inherent potential or ability to develop into a complete functional
plant, when cultured under suitable conditions. This unique property of plant cells is called
totipotency.
• Callus is a mass of undifferentiated cells. Cells of the callus are induced to develop clusters of
small plantlets by forming organs like shoots and roots. This step of organ formation is called
organogenesis and is induced by adding plant hormones like auxins and cytokinins, in
appropriate ratios. A high auxin and a low cytokinin concentration stimulates root formation. Low
auxin and high cytokinin induces shoot formation.
• Organ culture is culturing isolated plant organs under aseptic conditions in a nutrient medium
where they continue to grow retaining their characteristic structures.
Tisssue culture media and their constituents:
• A medium provides all the necessary requirements for the multiplication and
differentiation of cultured cells. Various media like Murashige & Skoog medium
(MS medium), White's medium, etc. are used for plant tissue culture. These
media differ mainly in the quantity of the constituents included. The major
constituents of a culture medium are:
1. Inorganic nutrients like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and additional 12 essential
elements (N, P, S, Ca, K, Mg, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Band Mb).
2. Organic nutrients: They can be broadly classified into carbon sources (sucrose,
glucose and fiuctose) and nitrogen sources (vitamins and amino acids).
3. Growth hormones: The growth hormones included are:
a) auxins to induce cell division and root differentiation. Commonly used auxins
are IBA (Indole 3-butyric acid ), NAA (Naphthalene acetic acid), 2, 4-D, etc.

10. b) cytokinins to facilitate cell division and shoot differentiation. BAP
(Benzylamino purine) and kinetin are the commonly used cytokinins.
c) Gibberellins like GA3 are added for special purposes like plantlet formation
from somatic embryos.
4. Agar: Agar is a polysaccharide obtained from seaweeds. It is added as a solidifying
agent to culture media. Agar is not a nutrient.
• Some common terms associated with plant tissue culture:
Callus culture The explant is induced to form callus on a solid nutrient
medium containing agar. The callus is then induced to produce.
organs like shoots and roots (Organogenesis) or somatic
embryos (Somatic embryogenesis), by manipulating the
concentration of growth hormones.
Somatic embryos These are embryo-like structures produced by cultured tissue.
They germinate to form plantlets
Cell culture Culture of isolated cells usually in a liquid medium (medium
without agar). Such a liquid culture is also called suspension
culture.
Protoplast culture Culture of plant protoplasts (cells without cell wall) isolated
from plant tissue or cultured cells. Cell walls are digested by
treating cells with enzymes like pectinases and cellulases.
Haploid plants Plants produced by culturing haploid tissue like pollens or
anther.
Cytoplasmic Fusion oftwo protoplasts, usually derived from two different
hybridization plant sources, to form a hybrid cell which is called
cytoplasmic hybrid or cybrid. Such cybrids carry the
cytoplasm derived from both of the parental protoplasts and
nucleus from one of the protoplasts. Fusion of protoplasts is
induced by chemical agents like polyethylene glycol (PEG),
Sodium nitrate, etc.
Somoclonal This is the variation observed between the plants regenerated
variation by tissue or cell culture
• Genetically modified plants which contain one or more artificially transferred genes in their cells
are called transgenic plants. The gene artificially transferred to an organism is called transgene.
Genetic modification of eukaryotic cells (plant or animal) by transfer of foreign gene is called
transfection. The process of producing transgenic organisms like plants and animals by
transfection is called transgenesis.
• Ti plasmid (Tumour inducing plasmid) of Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Ri plasmid of
Agrobacterium rhizogenes are used as vectors in the production of transgenic plants.
• Golden rice is a transgenic rice made by inserting three genes needed for producing beta
carotene - a vitamin A precursor substance, by Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer in 1999.
• These three genes are:
1. psy gene coding for the enzyme phytoene synthase,
2. lyc gene for lycopene cyclase. These two genes were from the daffodil plant (Narcissus
psuedonarcissus).
3. ctrl gene for an enzyme phytoene desaturase was from the soil bacterium Erwinia uredovora.

11. • Eating golden rice is believed to help in preventing diseases like xerophthalmia and blindness
that are caused by vitamin A deficiency.
• Pesticide resistant Bt gene is transferred to plants like corn, maize, etc from the bacterium
Bacillus thuringensis.
• Vaccines which are produced inside edible parts of transgenic plants are called edible vaccines.
Improvement of animals:
• Insemination of a female animal by methods other than natural mating is called artificial
insemination.
• Multiple or Superovulation is the production of more than normal number of eggs. Females that
are donors of eggs are injected with hormones to stimulate increased egg production. Embryo
transfer is removal of an embryo in its early stage of development from its own mother’s (the
donor’s) reproductive tract and transferring it to another female’s (the recipient’s or surrogate
mother) reproductive tract. The technique which combines both superovulation and embryo
transfer is called Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer (MOET).
• A stem cell is an immature cell that has the potential to become specialized into different types of
cells of the body of animals. Embryonic stem cells and Adult stem cells are the two types of stem
cells. Stem cells are normally cultured on a layer of supporting cells called feeder layer. Cell
cultures stored for a long time are called immortal cell lines.
• Cloning for the purpose of embryonic stem cells to be used in tranplantation treatment is called
therapeutic cloning.
• Transgenic animals are animals that have been genetically engineered to contain one or more
foreign genes in their cells. Ex. Transgenic cattle.