The document discusses biomolecules, focusing on carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, and nucleic acids. It classifies carbohydrates into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides, detailing their structures, hydrolysis, and examples. Additionally, it explains proteins' structures and functions, the role of enzymes, and the significance of vitamins in biological processes.

1. Chapter-10

2. Building block
of life

3. Biomolecules are the complex
lifeless molecules which build
up living organisms and are
required for their growth and
maintenance

6. Carbon Water
Carbohydrates are a class of naturally occurring organic
compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which are
primarily produced by plants.

7. Failure of classical definition
(i) A number of compounds such as rhamnose (C6H12O5), deoxyribose
(C5H10O4) are known, which are carbohydrates by their chemical
behaviour but do not obey this formula.
(ii) There are other compounds like formaldehyde (CH2O), acetic
acid (C2H4O2). which do not behave like carbohydrates but have the
formula of hydrates of carbon.
(iii) Carbon is not known to form hydrates.

8. On Hydrolysis it was observed that carbohydrates are large polymeric
substances which can be broken down to polyhydric aldehydes or ketones.
Optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy
ketones or the compounds which produce such compounds
on hydrolysis.

9. Classification of Carbohydrates

10. Based on
hydrolysis
Monosaccharides Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides

11. Monosaccharides
 These are the simplest carbohydrates which cannot be hydrolysed
into simpler compounds.
 Therefore, they represent the simplest single carbohydrate units.
 About 20 monosaccharides occur naturally. They contain up to six
carbon atoms.
 They have the general formula (CH2O)n where n = 3–7.
 The common examples are: ribose(C5H10O5), glucose, (C6H12O6),
fructose(C6H12O6) etc.

12. Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides
Aldose Ketose

13. Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides
Disaccharides
(sucrose, lactose,
maltose)
Trisaccharides
raffinose
(C18H32O16)
Tetrasaccharid
stachyose
(C24H42O21)
These are the carbohydrates which
give two to ten monosaccharide
molecules on hydrolysis.

14. Polysaccharides
 These are carbohydrates which are polymeric and can be hydrolysed to give a large
number of monosaccharide units.
 The common examples are cellulose, starch, glycogen, etc.
 The general formula of starch and cellulose is (C6H10O5)n. These get hydrolysed to give
monosaccharides.
 Due to large size they do not fit in the taste buds of tongue and feel tasteless initially. But
after sometime you will start to feel the sweetness in them bcos of salivary amylase which
breaks these molecules down.

15. Based on
Taste
Sugar
Non-
sugars

16. Based on
reducing
behaviour
Reducing Non-reducing

18. Glucose (C6H12O6)

19. Preparation of Glucose
 From Sucrose (Cane Sugar): Glucose can be easily obtained
in a laboratory by the hydrolysis of alcoholic solution of cane
sugar (sucrose) with dilute HCl or H2SO4 at 50° C to give
glucose and fructose in equal amounts.
 From Starch: On large scale, glucose is obtained by the
hydrolysis of starch by boiling it with hot dilute H2SO4 at 393
K, under 2-3 atm pressure.

20. Structure of
Glucose

21. Structural
Evidences for
Glucose

22. Reaction with
HI
(Presence of
straight chain)

23. Presence of
Carbonyl Group

24. Presence of
Aldehydic Group

25. Presence of
5 (-OH) Group

26. Presence of
1 (1O
-OH) Group

27. Reaction with
Na-Hg & H2

28. TO SUM UP

29. Configuration of Glucose

31.  Glucose do not restore the pink colour of Schiff 's reagent, despite having an
aldehydic group.
 It also fails to form the hydrogen sulphite addition product with NaHSO3.
 The pentaacetate of glucose does not react with hydroxylamine and 2,4-DNP
derivative which shows the absence of free —CHO group.
 Glucose exists in two different crystalline forms which are named as alpha ( )
𝛼
and beta form (β).
Limitations of straight chain structure

32. Cyclic structure of glucose

33. Cyclic structure
of glucose

34. Cyclic structure
of glucose

35. Comparison of two
cyclic structure of
glucose

36. What is actual structure of glucose ?
The two cyclic forms ( and β-forms)
𝛂
exist in equilibrium with open chain
structure

37. Haworth
Projection

38. Haworth
Projection

39. Properties Alpha glucose Beta Glucose
Position of OH group
OH group on right of anomeric
carbon
OH group on left of anomeric
carbon
Crystallization Temperature 419 K
423 K
Obtained by Crystallization of concentrated
solution at 303 K
Obtained from hot saturated
solution of glucose at 371 K
Specific Rotation +111° +19.2°

40. Mutarotation
The spontaneous change in
specific rotation of an optically
active compound with time to an
equilibrium value is called
mutarotation.

41. Fructose occurs in fruits and is called fruit sugar.
It is also present in honey and sweet fruits along
with glucose.
It is also present in combined form in disaccharide
(sucrose) and polysaccharide.

42. Structure of Fructose

43. Cyclic structure
of Fructose

44. Haworth
Projection

45. Haworth
Projection

47. Disaccharides
 Disaccharides are the carbohydrates
which on hydrolysis give two same or
different monosaccharides.
 Their general formula is C12H22O11.
 Two monosaccharide units are linked to
each other by loss of water molecule
through oxygen atom by a bond called
glycosidic linkage.
 Example: Maltose, Sucrose, lactose

48.  It is the most common disaccharide and is
widely distributed in plants particularly sugar
cane and sugar beet.
 On hydrolysis with dilute acids or enzyme
invertase, cane sugar gives equimolar
mixture of D- (+)-glucose and D-(-)-
fructose.
 Hydrolysis of sucrose brings about a change
in the sign of rotation, from dextro (+) to
laevo (–) and the product is named as
invert sugar.
 Glycosidic linkage:- C1 of 𝛼-glucose and C2
of β-fructose
 It is non-reducing sugar.
Sucrose

49.  It is known as malt sugar.
 It is the principal disaccharide obtained
by the partial hydrolysis of starch by
diastase, an enzyme present in malt.
 maltose is composed of two 𝛼-D-glucose
units in which C1 of one glucose (I) is
linked to C4 of another glucose unit (II).
 The free aldehyde group can be
produced at C1 of second glucose in
solution and it shows reducing properties
so it is a reducing sugar.
Maltose

50.  Lactose occurs in milk and, therefore, it is
also called milk sugar.
 Lactose gets hydrolyzed by emulsin, an
enzyme which specifically hydrolyses β-
glycosidic linkages.
 It is composed of β-D-galactose and β-D-
glucose.
 Glycosidic link: C1 of galactose and C4
of glucose.
 Hence it is also a reducing sugar.
Lactose

52.  These are neutral polymeric compounds in which hundreds or even thousands
of monosaccharides units are joined by glycosidic linkages.
 They have the general formula (C6H10O5)n, where n has very large value.
 They are colourless, tasteless and are insoluble in water.
 They play very important role in plant and animal life as food storage and
structural role.
 The important polysaccharides are cellulose, starch, glycogen and dextrins.

53. Starch

54. Starch
Amylose
(15-20%)
Water soluble
Linear polymer
200-1000 glucose
units
C1-C4 Linkage
Amylopectin
(80-85%)
Water Insoluble
Branched
polymer
25-30 glucose
units
C1-C6 Linkage
Starch
 It is the main storage polysaccharide of plants.
 It is an important dietary source for human beings
 Starch is a polymer of 𝛂-D-glucose.

55. Starch
(C6H10O5)n

56. cellulose

57. Cellulose
 It occurs exclusively in plants and
it is the most abundant organic
polymer on earth.
 It is the main constituent of cell
wall of plant cells.
 It is a straight chain
polysaccharide composed only
of β-D-glucose units
 β-D-glucose units that are linked
together by glycosidic linkage
between C-1 of one C-4 of the
next glucose unit.

58. Glycogen
 Glycogen is a polysaccharide of α-D-glucose.
 The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen in liver,
muscles and brain of human beings.
 It serves as a reserve carbohydrate.
 It is known as animal starch because its structure is similar to amylopectin.
 The only difference between glycogen and amylopectin is that
amylopectin chains consist of 20-25 glucose units but glycogen chains
are shorter because they consist of 10-14 glucose units.
 Glycogen is more highly branched than amylopectin.

59. Carbohydrate
Hydrolysis
product
Linkage Reducing nature enzyme
Sucrose
(Disaccharide)
𝛼-D-Glucose
ß-D-Fructose
C1-glucose
C2-fructose
Non-reducing Invertase
Maltose
(Disaccharide)
𝛼-D-Glucose C1-glucose
C4-glucose
Reducing Diastase
Lactose
(Disaccharide)
ß-D-Galactose
ß-D-Glucose
C1-galactose
C4-glucose
Reducing Emulsin
Starch
(Polysaccharide)
𝛼-D-Glucose C1-C4 Amylose
C1-C6
Amylopectin
Non-Reducing Salivary amylase
Cellulose
(Polysaccharide)
β-D-glucose C1-C4 Non-Reducing Cellulose
enzymes
Glycogen
(Polysaccharide)
𝛼-D-Glucose C1-C6 Non-Reducing Glycogen
Phosphorylase

60. PROTEIN

61. What are Proteins?
Proteins are complex
nitrogenous molecules
which are essential for
the growth and
maintenance of life.

62. On hydrolysis
Proteins are polymeric chain
of – amino acids
𝛼

63. –
𝛼 amino acids
Amino acids are organic
compounds that contain both
amino and carboxylic acid
functional groups.

64. Structure of – amino acids
𝛼

66. Effect of pH and Isoelectric point

67. Classification of Amino Acids

68. Classification based on nature
Amino
Acids
Neutral
Acidic
Basic

69. Amino Acids
Essential Non-essential
Classification based on requirement

70. Peptides and
peptide bonds
 Peptides are compounds
formed by the condensation of
two or more same or different
α- amino acids.
 The carboxyl group of one
amino acid and amino group of
another amino acid gets
condensed with the elimination
of water molecule. The resulting
linkage is called a peptide
linkage or peptide bond.

71. STRUCTURAL LEVELS OF PROTEIN
Primary structure
Secondary structure
Tertiary structure
Quaternary structure

72. Primary
structure The specific sequence in which various amino acids are
linked with each other to form a polypeptide, is called its
primary structure.

73. Secondary
structure

74. Secondary
structure

75. Tertiary
structure

76. Tertiary
structure
Fibrous proteins: Globular proteins
• They have thread or fiber like structures
in which polypeptide chains run parallel
and are held together by hydrogen and
disulphide bonds.
• They have spherical shape in which
chains of polypeptides coil around
• These proteins are insoluble in water • These are soluble in water
• keratin (found in hair, skin, nails, wool,
silk) and myosin (present in muscles).
• insulin and albumins

77. Quaternary
structure

78. AT GLANCE

79. Denaturation Of Proteins
 Protein found In a biological system with a unique three-
dimensional structure and biological activity, is called
native protein.
 When a native protein is subjected to physical change
(like change in temperature) or chemical change (like
change in pH), the hydrogen bonds are disturbed. As a
result, globules unfold and helix get uncoiled and protein
loses its biological activity. This is known as denaturation
of protein.
 During denaturation, 2° and 3° structures are destroyed
into 1° structure.
 Example: coagulation of an egg white on boiling and
curdling of milk

83. The enzymes are biological catalysts produced by living cells which catalyze the
biochemical reactions in living organisms.

84. Enzymes
 Chemically enzymes are naturally occurring
simple or globular proteins. Some enzymes
may be non-proteins also.
 The enzymes are generally named after the
compound or class of compound upon
which they work.
 Sometimes the enzymes are also named after
the reaction where they are used.
For example, the enzymes which catalyse the
oxidation of one substrate with simultaneous
reduction of another substrate are named as
oxide reductase enzymes.
 The ending of the name of an enzyme is –ase.

85. Some important Chemical reactions and their enzymes

86. 1. High efficiency
2. Required in extremely small quantities
3. They are highly Specific in nature.
4. Work only at Optimum temperature and pH

87. Mechanism of
Action of enzyme

88. Vitamins These are organic compounds which cannot be
produced by the body and must be supplied in small
amounts in diet to perform specific biological
functions.
These are essential to us for the proper functioning of
the different organs.
They are chemically different from the main nutrients;
fats, carbohydrates and proteins.
The absence or deficiency of a vitamin can cause
specific diseases.
This condition of vitamin deficiency is known as
avitaminoses.

89. Classification

91. Nucleic Acids

92. Types
of
Nucleic
Acids

93. On hydrolysis
Pentose
sugar
Nitrogenous
base
Phosphate
group

94. Five Carbon Sugar (Pentose Sugar)

95. Nitrogen containing heterocyclic base

96. Phosphate Group

97. The formation
of Nucleic
Acids

98. Pentose sugar

99. Pentose sugar + Base @C1 = Nucleoside

100. Pentose sugar + Base @C1 + Phosphate
group @C5 = Nucleotide