American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
HE 485W Bioethics for Public Health
please answers each of the following in a brief paragraph.
l. Please explain why we should have cause for concern regarding
the Bioethical issues facing us in today's modern contemporary
Society
2. When does an individuals' right to choose begin to threaten the
autonomy of others? Likewise, when does the quest for
autonomy begin to threaten individual rights?
3. Please explain how genetic engineering and testing along with
Bio-technology has the potential to promote discrimination.
4. Please describe the inherent social challenges in cloning human
beings as we have discussed them in class or otherwise.
5. In your opinion, would it ever be appropriate for employers to
screen for predetermined genetic disorders. Why and Why not?
6. Would it ever be ethical to withhold information from a dying
patient? Why and Why not?
Organ Transplants
Ethical Issues
What are Organ Transplants?Cadaveric organ donation: Involves removing organs from a recently deceased donor.Living organ donation: Involves the donation of one of a paired organ (ex: kidneys) or a portion of an organ (such as a lobe of the liver or lung). The donor's organ system is still able to function after the donation. Living donors are often related to the patient, but that is not always the case.
HistoryIn 1954, the first successful kidney transplant was performed in the United States. It was a kidney from a living identical twin donor.
History cont.More than a half of a century after the very first transplant, more than 80,000 people whose death without a donor is certain are on waitlists in the United States waiting for a new lung, kidney, heart, or liver. The United Network for Organ Sharing reports that about half of these people will die without receiving the necessary organs. Human organs are a scarce medical resource and have many ethical issues concerning organ transplantation.
ConsentA donor card is the main signal for permission to collect an organ from a potential donor. Also there is an attempt to gain approval from a next of kin or other family members. If a family member isn’t present for that decision then recovery agencies would act solely on the donor card.
Donor Card ConcernsThere is fear and distrust that if you are a organ donor then less effort would be placed into saving your life if your death meant organs for others.Coercion takes place when signing up for a license, because everyone’s license is marked with the decision to be a organ donor or not.
Allocation ConcernsOrgan recipients are chosen from a long waiting list after they have been medically determined to be a eligible candidate. The criteria for these lists are weighed upon factors such as age range, causes of failure, and stage of organ failure.
An attempt to balance justice...The United Network for Organ Sharing policy tries to make the decision of organ donating fair by placing criteria on the donatin ...
Edgecombe Community CollegeREL 110 Section OL1 World Religion.docxgidmanmary
Edgecombe Community College
REL 110 Section OL1
World Religions
Rev. Stephen A. Herring, Instructor
Midterm Assignment
For our midterm this semester we are going to compose a well- developed essay examining the role of human rights and human responsibilities in one of the eastern religions. The “Eastern Religions” are those of Asia, or the orient, also known as the eastern world.
These are covered in your book in chapters 6, 7, and 8. They are:
· Hinduism
· Buddhism
· Daoism
· Confucianism
· Shinto
For this project you want to develop two basic concepts. These are human rights and human responsibilities. Rights are privileges which belong to every human being simply by virtue of their being a person. Human rights have to do with our deeper understanding of what it means to be human. The way we understand the definition of “a person” shapes the ways we treat one another. The problem is that in various ways we treat people differently depending on which sort of people we are talking about. Across human cultures, we afford more rights to one sort of people and fewer rights to other sorts of people. This makes the whole discussion about human rights very complex and intertwined with our cultural perspective.
Responsibilities are obligations that also come with our being human. In each culture, people are expected to comply with certain expectations. One way to understand any religion is by looking at these rights and responsibilities. Viewed in this way, any religion tells its followers two basic things: “This is who you are.” And “This is what you are expected to do.” As a preacher, I don’t know how many sermons I have given where one of these two themes have been touched upon. “This is who we are, and this is what we are expected to do.”
On the surface this seems very simple, but it rapidly gets all wrapped up in the privileges and expectations that come with each culture. To look into this, we can look at the rights of women in the culture surrounding any given religion. We might also look at the rights of minorities, or people who are at the fringes of the culture. People at the fringes of cultural acceptance are known as “marginalized populations.” Here we are looking at the lives of people who are not accepted by the predominant culture. We can also look at attitudes toward “outsiders”, or people who belong to other cultures or other religions.
So, your assignment is as follows;
Please compose a well-developed essay examining human rights and human responsibilities in one of the eastern religions covered in chapters 6, 7, or 8. Your essay should be at least 3 pages long but not more than 5 pages long. (double spaced) Remember to include a clear works cited page. DO NOT try to copy your response off the internet. Please email me if you have any questions.
Y6
Hongkun Yi
Professor Morris
English 2367
2/27/2020
Organ Donation
The debate on organ donation has different dimensions because of the so ...
Organ TransplantsEthical Issues What are Organ T.docxgerardkortney
Organ Transplants
Ethical Issues
What are Organ Transplants?Cadaveric organ donation: Involves removing organs from a recently deceased donor.Living organ donation: Involves the donation of one of a paired organ (ex: kidneys) or a portion of an organ (such as a lobe of the liver or lung). The donor's organ system is still able to function after the donation. Living donors are often related to the patient, but that is not always the case.
HistoryIn 1954, the first successful kidney transplant was performed in the United States. It was a kidney from a living identical twin donor.
History cont.More than a half of a century after the very first transplant, more than 80,000 people whose death without a donor is certain are on waitlists in the United States waiting for a new lung, kidney, heart, or liver. The United Network for Organ Sharing reports that about half of these people will die without receiving the necessary organs. Human organs are a scarce medical resource and have many ethical issues concerning organ transplantation.
ConsentA donor card is the main signal for permission to collect an organ from a potential donor. Also there is an attempt to gain approval from a next of kin or other family members. If a family member isn’t present for that decision then recovery agencies would act solely on the donor card.
Donor Card ConcernsThere is fear and distrust that if you are a organ donor then less effort would be placed into saving your life if your death meant organs for others.Coercion takes place when signing up for a license, because everyone’s license is marked with the decision to be a organ donor or not.
Allocation ConcernsOrgan recipients are chosen from a long waiting list after they have been medically determined to be a eligible candidate. The criteria for these lists are weighed upon factors such as age range, causes of failure, and stage of organ failure.
An attempt to balance justice...The United Network for Organ Sharing policy tries to make the decision of organ donating fair by placing criteria on the donating circumstances. These circumstances include; the need for the organ and those with the possibility of the maximum outcome.
UNOS Criteria
Maximize the availability of transplantable organs.
Maximize patient and graft survival (allograft-human to human transplant).
Minimize the deaths while waiting for a transplant.
UNOS Criteria cont.
Maximize opportunity for patients with biological or medical disadvantages to receive a transplant.
Minimize the effects related to geography.
Allow convenient access to transplantation.
UNOS Criteria cont.Minimize overall transplantation costs.Provide for flexibility in policy making. Provide for accountability and public trust.
The UNOS Ethical PositionThe only ethically sound motivation for donation is humanity. They interpret humanity to be solidarity with the national community and the absence of personal benefit.
Racial BiasRacial bia.
The Principle Of Bioethics In Health Care
Bioethics And Medical Ethics
BioEthics Essay example
Essay on Bioethics
Bioethics Bowl Debate
Bioethics Project
The Importance Of Bioethics
Case Study Bioethics
Clinical Bioethics
The Importance Of Bioethics
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
HE 485W Bioethics for Public Health
please answers each of the following in a brief paragraph.
l. Please explain why we should have cause for concern regarding
the Bioethical issues facing us in today's modern contemporary
Society
2. When does an individuals' right to choose begin to threaten the
autonomy of others? Likewise, when does the quest for
autonomy begin to threaten individual rights?
3. Please explain how genetic engineering and testing along with
Bio-technology has the potential to promote discrimination.
4. Please describe the inherent social challenges in cloning human
beings as we have discussed them in class or otherwise.
5. In your opinion, would it ever be appropriate for employers to
screen for predetermined genetic disorders. Why and Why not?
6. Would it ever be ethical to withhold information from a dying
patient? Why and Why not?
Organ Transplants
Ethical Issues
What are Organ Transplants?Cadaveric organ donation: Involves removing organs from a recently deceased donor.Living organ donation: Involves the donation of one of a paired organ (ex: kidneys) or a portion of an organ (such as a lobe of the liver or lung). The donor's organ system is still able to function after the donation. Living donors are often related to the patient, but that is not always the case.
HistoryIn 1954, the first successful kidney transplant was performed in the United States. It was a kidney from a living identical twin donor.
History cont.More than a half of a century after the very first transplant, more than 80,000 people whose death without a donor is certain are on waitlists in the United States waiting for a new lung, kidney, heart, or liver. The United Network for Organ Sharing reports that about half of these people will die without receiving the necessary organs. Human organs are a scarce medical resource and have many ethical issues concerning organ transplantation.
ConsentA donor card is the main signal for permission to collect an organ from a potential donor. Also there is an attempt to gain approval from a next of kin or other family members. If a family member isn’t present for that decision then recovery agencies would act solely on the donor card.
Donor Card ConcernsThere is fear and distrust that if you are a organ donor then less effort would be placed into saving your life if your death meant organs for others.Coercion takes place when signing up for a license, because everyone’s license is marked with the decision to be a organ donor or not.
Allocation ConcernsOrgan recipients are chosen from a long waiting list after they have been medically determined to be a eligible candidate. The criteria for these lists are weighed upon factors such as age range, causes of failure, and stage of organ failure.
An attempt to balance justice...The United Network for Organ Sharing policy tries to make the decision of organ donating fair by placing criteria on the donatin ...
Edgecombe Community CollegeREL 110 Section OL1 World Religion.docxgidmanmary
Edgecombe Community College
REL 110 Section OL1
World Religions
Rev. Stephen A. Herring, Instructor
Midterm Assignment
For our midterm this semester we are going to compose a well- developed essay examining the role of human rights and human responsibilities in one of the eastern religions. The “Eastern Religions” are those of Asia, or the orient, also known as the eastern world.
These are covered in your book in chapters 6, 7, and 8. They are:
· Hinduism
· Buddhism
· Daoism
· Confucianism
· Shinto
For this project you want to develop two basic concepts. These are human rights and human responsibilities. Rights are privileges which belong to every human being simply by virtue of their being a person. Human rights have to do with our deeper understanding of what it means to be human. The way we understand the definition of “a person” shapes the ways we treat one another. The problem is that in various ways we treat people differently depending on which sort of people we are talking about. Across human cultures, we afford more rights to one sort of people and fewer rights to other sorts of people. This makes the whole discussion about human rights very complex and intertwined with our cultural perspective.
Responsibilities are obligations that also come with our being human. In each culture, people are expected to comply with certain expectations. One way to understand any religion is by looking at these rights and responsibilities. Viewed in this way, any religion tells its followers two basic things: “This is who you are.” And “This is what you are expected to do.” As a preacher, I don’t know how many sermons I have given where one of these two themes have been touched upon. “This is who we are, and this is what we are expected to do.”
On the surface this seems very simple, but it rapidly gets all wrapped up in the privileges and expectations that come with each culture. To look into this, we can look at the rights of women in the culture surrounding any given religion. We might also look at the rights of minorities, or people who are at the fringes of the culture. People at the fringes of cultural acceptance are known as “marginalized populations.” Here we are looking at the lives of people who are not accepted by the predominant culture. We can also look at attitudes toward “outsiders”, or people who belong to other cultures or other religions.
So, your assignment is as follows;
Please compose a well-developed essay examining human rights and human responsibilities in one of the eastern religions covered in chapters 6, 7, or 8. Your essay should be at least 3 pages long but not more than 5 pages long. (double spaced) Remember to include a clear works cited page. DO NOT try to copy your response off the internet. Please email me if you have any questions.
Y6
Hongkun Yi
Professor Morris
English 2367
2/27/2020
Organ Donation
The debate on organ donation has different dimensions because of the so ...
Organ TransplantsEthical Issues What are Organ T.docxgerardkortney
Organ Transplants
Ethical Issues
What are Organ Transplants?Cadaveric organ donation: Involves removing organs from a recently deceased donor.Living organ donation: Involves the donation of one of a paired organ (ex: kidneys) or a portion of an organ (such as a lobe of the liver or lung). The donor's organ system is still able to function after the donation. Living donors are often related to the patient, but that is not always the case.
HistoryIn 1954, the first successful kidney transplant was performed in the United States. It was a kidney from a living identical twin donor.
History cont.More than a half of a century after the very first transplant, more than 80,000 people whose death without a donor is certain are on waitlists in the United States waiting for a new lung, kidney, heart, or liver. The United Network for Organ Sharing reports that about half of these people will die without receiving the necessary organs. Human organs are a scarce medical resource and have many ethical issues concerning organ transplantation.
ConsentA donor card is the main signal for permission to collect an organ from a potential donor. Also there is an attempt to gain approval from a next of kin or other family members. If a family member isn’t present for that decision then recovery agencies would act solely on the donor card.
Donor Card ConcernsThere is fear and distrust that if you are a organ donor then less effort would be placed into saving your life if your death meant organs for others.Coercion takes place when signing up for a license, because everyone’s license is marked with the decision to be a organ donor or not.
Allocation ConcernsOrgan recipients are chosen from a long waiting list after they have been medically determined to be a eligible candidate. The criteria for these lists are weighed upon factors such as age range, causes of failure, and stage of organ failure.
An attempt to balance justice...The United Network for Organ Sharing policy tries to make the decision of organ donating fair by placing criteria on the donating circumstances. These circumstances include; the need for the organ and those with the possibility of the maximum outcome.
UNOS Criteria
Maximize the availability of transplantable organs.
Maximize patient and graft survival (allograft-human to human transplant).
Minimize the deaths while waiting for a transplant.
UNOS Criteria cont.
Maximize opportunity for patients with biological or medical disadvantages to receive a transplant.
Minimize the effects related to geography.
Allow convenient access to transplantation.
UNOS Criteria cont.Minimize overall transplantation costs.Provide for flexibility in policy making. Provide for accountability and public trust.
The UNOS Ethical PositionThe only ethically sound motivation for donation is humanity. They interpret humanity to be solidarity with the national community and the absence of personal benefit.
Racial BiasRacial bia.
The Principle Of Bioethics In Health Care
Bioethics And Medical Ethics
BioEthics Essay example
Essay on Bioethics
Bioethics Bowl Debate
Bioethics Project
The Importance Of Bioethics
Case Study Bioethics
Clinical Bioethics
The Importance Of Bioethics
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
WRI’s brand new “Food Service Playbook for Promoting Sustainable Food Choices” gives food service operators the very latest strategies for creating dining environments that empower consumers to choose sustainable, plant-rich dishes. This research builds off our first guide for food service, now with industry experience and insights from nearly 350 academic trials.
Characterization and the Kinetics of drying at the drying oven and with micro...Open Access Research Paper
The objective of this work is to contribute to valorization de Nephelium lappaceum by the characterization of kinetics of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum. The seeds were dehydrated until a constant mass respectively in a drying oven and a microwawe oven. The temperatures and the powers of drying are respectively: 50, 60 and 70°C and 140, 280 and 420 W. The results show that the curves of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum do not present a phase of constant kinetics. The coefficients of diffusion vary between 2.09.10-8 to 2.98. 10-8m-2/s in the interval of 50°C at 70°C and between 4.83×10-07 at 9.04×10-07 m-8/s for the powers going of 140 W with 420 W the relation between Arrhenius and a value of energy of activation of 16.49 kJ. mol-1 expressed the effect of the temperature on effective diffusivity.
Climate Change All over the World .pptxsairaanwer024
Climate change refers to significant and lasting changes in the average weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It encompasses both global warming driven by human emissions of greenhouse gases and the resulting large-scale shifts in weather patterns. While climate change is a natural phenomenon, human activities, particularly since the Industrial Revolution, have accelerated its pace and intensity
Artificial Reefs by Kuddle Life Foundation - May 2024punit537210
Situated in Pondicherry, India, Kuddle Life Foundation is a charitable, non-profit and non-governmental organization (NGO) dedicated to improving the living standards of coastal communities and simultaneously placing a strong emphasis on the protection of marine ecosystems.
One of the key areas we work in is Artificial Reefs. This presentation captures our journey so far and our learnings. We hope you get as excited about marine conservation and artificial reefs as we are.
Please visit our website: https://kuddlelife.org
Our Instagram channel:
@kuddlelifefoundation
Our Linkedin Page:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/kuddlelifefoundation/
and write to us if you have any questions:
info@kuddlelife.org
Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic animals in District Ban...Open Access Research Paper
Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular zoonotic protozoan parasite, infect both humans and animals population worldwide. It can also cause abortion and inborn disease in humans and livestock population. In the present study total of 313 domestic animals were screened for Toxoplasma gondii infection. Of which 45 cows, 55 buffalos, 68 goats, 60 sheep and 85 shaver chicken were tested. Among these 40 (88.88%) cows were negative and 05 (11.12%) were positive. Similarly 55 (92.72%) buffalos were negative and 04 (07.28%) were positive. In goats 68 (98.52%) were negative and 01 (01.48%) was recorded positive. In sheep and shaver chicken the infection were not recorded.
Willie Nelson Net Worth: A Journey Through Music, Movies, and Business Venturesgreendigital
Willie Nelson is a name that resonates within the world of music and entertainment. Known for his unique voice, and masterful guitar skills. and an extraordinary career spanning several decades. Nelson has become a legend in the country music scene. But, his influence extends far beyond the realm of music. with ventures in acting, writing, activism, and business. This comprehensive article delves into Willie Nelson net worth. exploring the various facets of his career that have contributed to his large fortune.
Follow us on: Pinterest
Introduction
Willie Nelson net worth is a testament to his enduring influence and success in many fields. Born on April 29, 1933, in Abbott, Texas. Nelson's journey from a humble beginning to becoming one of the most iconic figures in American music is nothing short of inspirational. His net worth, which estimated to be around $25 million as of 2024. reflects a career that is as diverse as it is prolific.
Early Life and Musical Beginnings
Humble Origins
Willie Hugh Nelson was born during the Great Depression. a time of significant economic hardship in the United States. Raised by his grandparents. Nelson found solace and inspiration in music from an early age. His grandmother taught him to play the guitar. setting the stage for what would become an illustrious career.
First Steps in Music
Nelson's initial foray into the music industry was fraught with challenges. He moved to Nashville, Tennessee, to pursue his dreams, but success did not come . Working as a songwriter, Nelson penned hits for other artists. which helped him gain a foothold in the competitive music scene. His songwriting skills contributed to his early earnings. laying the foundation for his net worth.
Rise to Stardom
Breakthrough Albums
The 1970s marked a turning point in Willie Nelson's career. His albums "Shotgun Willie" (1973), "Red Headed Stranger" (1975). and "Stardust" (1978) received critical acclaim and commercial success. These albums not only solidified his position in the country music genre. but also introduced his music to a broader audience. The success of these albums played a crucial role in boosting Willie Nelson net worth.
Iconic Songs
Willie Nelson net worth is also attributed to his extensive catalog of hit songs. Tracks like "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain," "On the Road Again," and "Always on My Mind" have become timeless classics. These songs have not only earned Nelson large royalties but have also ensured his continued relevance in the music industry.
Acting and Film Career
Hollywood Ventures
In addition to his music career, Willie Nelson has also made a mark in Hollywood. His distinctive personality and on-screen presence have landed him roles in several films and television shows. Notable appearances include roles in "The Electric Horseman" (1979), "Honeysuckle Rose" (1980), and "Barbarosa" (1982). These acting gigs have added a significant amount to Willie Nelson net worth.
Television Appearances
Nelson's char
Willie Nelson Net Worth: A Journey Through Music, Movies, and Business Ventures
B371220.pdf
1. American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research & Development (AJMRD)
Volume 03, Issue 07 (July- 2021), PP 12-20
ISSN: 2360-821X
www.ajmrd.com
Multidisciplinary Journal www.ajmrd.com Page | 12
Research Paper Open Access
Prince or Shoemaker
Jian Gao1
1
(International Education School, China Medical University, P. R. China)*
ABSTRACT: This is a case study of PBL (Problem Base Learning) in medical ethics course for medical
students. There are four questions are going to discuss: 1. What are the obstacles of organ donation and
transplantation in China? 2. How to solve the problem of insufficient organs in transplantation? 3. What are the
problems in organ transplantation? How to avoid and solve it? 4. Are you wishing to donate your organs after
you die? And why? This paper represents author’s views and experiences. Not only domestic, but also overseas;
not only legal disputes, but also persistence of social moral standards. Go through studies of ethics in human
organ transplantation, we would be able to lay a solid foundation for examination of Chinese medical
practitioners and become a real medical scientist accompany with medical humanistic feelings.
Keywords-ethical issues, human organ donation, organ transplantation, organ transplantation issues
I. INTRODUCTION
Organ transplantation refers to a process of extracting all or part of organs such as heart, lung, liver,
kidney or pancreas with physiological function and implanted into recipient body to replace the damaged organs
[1] [29] [82]. At present, according to the different sources of donor organ, organ transplantation is also divided
into cadaveric organ transplantation, live organ transplantation, xenogeneic organ transplantation, fetal organ
transplantation [3] [17] [20] [29].
Organ transplantation technique has been the last chance of living for many patients; when organ failure
occurs in patient at the end, organ transplantation is the only way to keep the patient alive [1]. But this technique
includes the donation, extraction and implantation of organs. Each procedure involves the legitimate rights and
interests of different parties, which leads to more social, ethical and legal problems than general medical
technology. Therefore, it needs to be adjusted and regulated by complete ethical principles and legal provisions
[1].
Four problems are discussed in this paper:
1) What are the obstacles to organ donation and transplantation in China?
2) How to solve the problem of insufficient source of organ transplantation?
3) What problems will occur in organ transplantation? How to avoid and solve it?
4) Would you like to donate your organs after you die? Why?
It is not only referenced in literature, but also actual descriptions of author's own experience.
II. WHAT ARE BARRIERS TO ORGAN DONATION AND TRANSPLANTATION IN
CHINA
In aspect of living organ donation, the limited scope is narrow, the cross organ transplantation is illegal,
review of clinical application and ethics committee of human organ transplantation technology is insufficient; in
aspect of cadaver organ donation, provincial provisions on priority distribution of cadaver organ transplantation
are not unified, advocate and encourage public organ donation after death are lack, and death judgment standard
of brain death is not established [2] [8] [17] [19] [20] [24] [46] [40] [42] [68] [82] [87] [89] [92]。
In China, organ donors are limited to stepparents and adoptive parents. Although this rule would be able
to prevent organ sales to a certain extent, it also refuses other forms of organ donors. Moreover, traditional
culture is deeply rooted in China. “Blood is thicker than water in everything” this was the old saying used to be
in Chinese society. The relationship between adoption and upbringing is estranged. This kind of stable emotional
and social relationship is actually not stable.
In the case that two or more patients do not match their own relatives' organs and match the other's
relatives' organs, they can exchange organs and carry out human organ transplantation with the consent of both
or more parties. This kind of cross transplantation is allowed in the United Kingdom, the United States and other
countries, but it needs special agencies to review and approve. Cross transplantation is allowed in these
countries and good results have been achieved.
2. Prince or Shoemaker
Multidisciplinary Journal www.ajmrd.com Page | 13
In China, different ethical committees in different places will have different results for the same case,
which will lead to unfair clinical application of organ transplantation to a certain extent.
Organ donation and blood donation are still quite different in China. According to perspective of donors
and beneficiaries, the authorities of organ transplant donors and beneficiaries in China are different across
provinces and cities. Compared with Chongqing and Hubei Province, Hubei Province has expanded the
beneficiaries of organ donors to their collateral relatives.
In Germany, it is necessary to clearly fill in written opinion on whether to agree donate body; on back
of California's car driver's license, it is possible to fill in a legal body organ donation form; in Hong Kong and
Taiwan, organ donation cards also play a very important role in promoting donation of body organs; Singapore
and Spain are both countries remains high official donation rate, they all adopt the default method of donating
body organs, that is, if they do not sign rejection letter before they die, they will be regarded as donating body
organs.
China has always followed death criteria of cardiopulmonary death, and did not take occurrence of
brain death as the criterion of death. Because people with extracorporeal ventilator and other life support
systems can maintain their vital signs in case of cardiopulmonary function loss, they would not be able to
determine death of patients, which is greatly reduces survival rate of organs and wastes valuable medical
resources.
III. HOW TO SLOVE PROBLEM OF INSUFFICIENT SOURCE OF ORGAN
TRANSPLANTATION
Expanding source of donor is an effective way to solve development of human organ transplantation
and reasonable allocation of human organ transplantation in China [2] [14] [29]. In living organ transplantation,
sale of human organs may take place between non-relatives or relatives [20]. Most donors of illegal underground
organ transplantation are lured to sell their organs "voluntarily", and there are many young people who are not
familiar with world. Most of the recipients of illegal underground organ transplantation are domestic patients,
but there are also "tourists" from abroad [20].
China is a country with a large population. According to common ratiocination, there should be no
shortage of organ donors for Chinese people. However, supply and demand exist at the same time. Therefore,
there is a large number of donors and a large demand. Under condition of high demand for organ transplantation,
it would not be able to really achieve mutual satisfaction of supply and demand, nor would it effectively achieve
popularization of organ transplantation in time. The lack of donors in organ transplantation is undoubtedly
primary problem occurring in China. However, a series of chain reactions derived from this problem have
formed following figure, figure 1
Figure 1
Essence of economics has always been to show that scarcity is most important thing. How much
interest there is, naturally, how much risk someone will take to pursue it. Especially in the third world countries,
underground market transaction of organs is very rampant and would not be stopped repeatedly. In fact, this is
Organ
Market
Demand
Organ
Black
Market
Organ
donor
Transaction
Illegal
Acquisition
of Organs
Organ
Related
Laws
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one of solutions to problem of insufficient source of organ transplantation. However, such a method is wrong
both in law and ethics.
In order to solve problem of insufficient source of organ transplantation and solve actual needs of
patients, it is necessary for people to participate in and consciously abide by relevant regulations to protect rights
and interests and legitimacy of donors. Based on global citizens, we should support a multinational, shared big
data of organ information supply and demand, timely and effectively realize synchronization of organ
transplantation, so as to benefit more people. We should not let identity, occupation, wealth, age, and other
individual differences impact supply and demand be treated differently, so that supply and demand can be
treated equally.
With gradual progress and development of science and technology, artificial organs are mature, and
dream of mass production of artificial organs is not impossible.
Development of stem cells, cloning technology and other genetic engineering, supply of human organs
may be able to break through shackles of itself, so that more people can be better survive and continue their lives.
On premise of not violating human ethics, mature and reliable medical bioengineering technology can provide
more possibilities for human organ transplantation.
IV. WHAT PROBLEMS WILLARISE IN ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION AND HOW TO
AVOID AND SOLVE THEM
In order to increase source of organs, save lives of more waiting for organ transplanters and promote
development of organ transplantation technology, American organ transplantation society proposed tasteful
donation of organs in 2003 [3] [39]. Possible organ transaction and organ commercialization caused by paid
donation are worth thinking deeply. Negative impact of organ commercialization on society is beyond doubt,
which may lead to emergence of crime or underground organ trading organization. When discussing paid
donation, we must emphasize essential difference between paid donation and official commercialization; paid is
moral appreciation and body of donor; the compensation of trauma is not equal to value of organs [3] [33] [88].
Iran began to implement paid living non relative’s kidney transplantation program in 1988 after implementation
of plan, the number of renal transplantations in Iran gradually increased, in 1999, the list of renal transplantation
was eliminated completely [3] [91]. The success of Iran model confirmed feasibility of paid donation of human
organs, and also brought some enlightenment to construction of paid donation model of human organs in China
[3] [91]. The key procedure of Iran model is as follows: (1) before renal transplantation, doctors should first
advise whether relatives of patients donate, if they are not willing to donate, dialysis and transplant patients
association will find appropriate organ donors and contact donors; (2) government should bear the expenses of
renal transplantation without intervention of end institutions; (3) donor can receive government bonus and
medical insurance, and receive reward of receptor and organ organization; (4) process of organ acquisition is
supervised by the Iranian Organ Transplantation Association; (5) foreigners can not obtain Iranian non relatives
[3] [91]. To construct model of paid donation of human organs in China, we should fully combine national
conditions and cultural tradition of our country, and construct paid donation system of human organs from
aspects of ideology, system and legislation [3]. Firstly, we should increase publicity of paid donation of human
organs, so that masses would correctly understand paid donation of human organs, and avoid misunderstanding
about paid donation of organs; secondly, we should pay attention to establishment a compensation system of
organ donation in system, not only about obligations, but also rights, which makes organ donors have concerns
about health protection after organ donation [3] [45].
With emergence of new technology, new equipment and new methods, large-scale informed consent
violations, gold rice events, He Jiankui gene editing events and other social ethical issues of life science have
aroused widespread attention, it is necessary to further establish and improve medical ethics laws and regulations
to solve ethical problems in medical research, medical technology application and medical services [7] [45].
Wang Jingcheng suggested that "medical ethics review law" be formulated to clarify implementation rules of
relevant laws of national medical ethics; administrative departments at all levels should formulate specific
operating procedures; establish coordination mechanism of multiple departments' linkage law enforcement; and
establish a unified medical ethics committee system [7]. National and regional ethics supervision and
administration departments can be established on basis of National Health Commission and provincial existing
ethics expert committee or ethics review guidance and consulting organization, or national and regional ethics
supervision and management departments can be established in multiple prefecture level cities [7] [12] [32] [45]
[54] [59] [83] [86] [90].
As for commercialization of organs, consensus formed by medical and ethical circles is that organ
commercialization can lead to organ crime, desecration of human dignity, and challenge in equality of life
brought by difference between rich and poor [10] [25] [36] [38] [39] [42] [55] [67] [73] [83] [84] [89]. If
difference of material wealth or spiritual wealth brings about the difference in social status, family relationship
and interpersonal communication, etc., it is acceptable, then equality of all people in life value is final bottom
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line, and equality of right to life is an important embodiment of human rights. If the rich can buy organs of poor
and rich can consume lives of poor, what will vulnerable groups regard as human beings? Confucianism is
essentially a knowledge of justice and dignity, which improves knowledge of human dignity, and it teaches
people how to get rid of shamelessness, despicability and inferiority; it teaches people how to be resolute and
noble. When we say classical sentences "poverty without flattery, wealth without pride", "wealth can not be
prostituted, poverty and lowliness can not be moved, power can not be bent", "three armies can seize handsome,
and Pitt can not seize ambition, heaven and earth have positive spirit, moral root", "sacrifice life and
righteousness", and then there is a great natural spirit in our heart, dignity is an important basis for human being,
whose core is human dignity, which is inherent, inherent value and dignity, dignity and inviolability of human
beings and individual qualifications [10]. In traditional culture, Buddhism and Taoism all preach idea of equality
among all living beings except Confucianism. One of important backgrounds of Buddhism is to oppose caste
hierarchy system prevailing in ancient India, and therefore emphasizes equality [10]. The Huayan Scripture said:
"heart Buddha and all living beings are three different." No difference is another expression of equality [10].
In fact, ethical issues concerning organ transplantation would be able to discuss in a typical case [21].
In 1970s, a burglar in California, USA, suffered valve damage due to virus infection, organ transplantation was
needed in critical condition [21]. He has been sentenced to 14 years in prison at this time, and organ
transplantation costs $1 million and a lot of treatment costs after operation [21]. Therefore, dispute about
whether criminal should be treated has aroused controversy [21]. From legal point of view, although prisoner
infringes on interests of others, he has paid a price for his behavior in prison, so he should enjoy the same right
to be treated as others [21]. Even if taxpayers are reluctant to invest money in treatment of criminals, they can
not deny criminal's rights legally. Thus, Supreme Court of United States in 1976 ruled that criminal must be
provided with adequate medical services and have right to organ transplantation [21].
According to statistics of international organ donation and transplantation in 2008, average number of
donors in Spain has reached 38.1/million, 42.4/million in the United States, 20.5/million in the United Kingdom,
25.7/million in Italy and 14.6/million in Germany [29]. Current situation of organ donation in China is not
optimistic; according to statistics of international organ donation and transplantation in 2008, average number of
donors in China was only 0.03/million, while average number of donors in Hong Kong was 13.3/million, a total
of 93 [29].
The United States, Japan, Spain and other developed countries mainly adopt mode of encouraging
voluntary donation countries to perform limited obligations in organ transplantation, and regulate source of
human organs to solve problem of organ shortage, the value of its legislation is supremacy of individual rights
and consideration of social interests, which is in line with trend of human rights theory in nowadays’ world [29]
[55]. State first guarantees absolute safety of organ provider's interests and absolute purity of subjective
motivation unconditionally, and then considers needs of organ recipient's right to life and health [55]. Under
such a strict condition, even if organ provider voluntarily provides his own organs with compensation, it not only
meets requirements of patients' life and health, but also meets their own interests, and does not affect their
quality of life, nor it is permitted by law, even at the expense of patients' right to life and health [55]. As a result,
although the United States, Japan and Spain have made great efforts in developing source of human organs, they
have constructed a relatively perfect organ donation system and related operational mechanism, organ donation
rate of our country has reached world's top level, but actual donation rate is not high [29] [55]. In the United
States, there are organ donors per million people; in Spain, organ donors account for the highest proportion of
cases per million people, which is one million people; in Japan, there are less than one million kidneys
voluntarily donated for transplantation due to brain death [55]. Organ shortage is still serious, which forces some
patients to use the way of tourism to obtain organs in countries with relatively low economic development level,
the harsh reality makes some countries have to re-examine their national obligation mode, and have to return to
the road of realism to take some pragmatic measures to deal with organ shortage [55]. The conservative Health
Minister of Singapore, Xu Wenyuan, also declared that "due to the shortage of transplantable organs and black
market of organ trading, legalization of organ trading has become an option." [29] [55] The Ministry of health of
Singapore is considering legalizing sale of human organs, but prerequisite is to find a "practical solution to let
non relative kidney donors get reasonable remuneration without violating morality and touching other people's
sensitive nerves" [29] [55]. Although he later clarified that he still maintained the original view of banning the
sale of human organs, but should not exclude any "ideas based on practical considerations", these loose signs
show that limited mode of state obligations is actually a one-sided mode of fulfilling obligations that state should
not do its best to fulfill, if this mode is not reasonably revised, problem of organ shortage in western society will
be solved to a higher extent [29] [55]. The former Soviet Union adopted mode of limited performance of state
obligations in human organ transplantation to regulate source of human organs to solve problem of organ
shortage, the value of its legislation is supremacy of public interest and social value, and it plans all aspects of
social life in a centralized way of nationalism, private property rights and personal values are seriously devalued
in context of socialist public interest and inviolability of public property [55]. From standpoint of public interest
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and social value, State adopts theory of state and social resources, it holds that human remains are social
resources, and individuals are part of society, they should undertake social and public obligations, body of an
individual should be disposed of and disposed of by the society [55]. It is not only legal but also in line with
socialist moral value orientation that state compulsorily collects the organs from dead body for organ
transplantation [55]. Although this kind of compulsory collection of organs from dead body maximally
guarantees source of organs and achieves certain social effects [55]. However, we should also see that, value of
this model lies in supremacy of state and autocracy of state. It does not consider and respect rights and freedom
of individual, it implements expropriation policy on the premise of squeezing the free space of the individual as
much as possible [55]. Although it meets needs of patient's life and health, it may hurt personal feelings of organ
donor himself and his family members, however, there is no way to get relief and compensation for this kind of
emotional injury, there are serious defects in design of this system, it has done its national obligation in
protecting the source of human organs, but has given up its national obligation in respect and protection of
human rights [55]. On the one hand, state emphasizes supremacy of social and public interests, requires citizens
to sacrifice their personal interests to meet needs of public interests, and abandons respect for citizens who
sacrifice their personal interests; state abandons reasonable compensation for loss of interests of those who
sacrifice for social and public interests, abandoning state's protection of their rights violates the principle of
balance of social interests, and it is difficult to fully reflect spiritual essence of respect, protection and realization
required by state obligations [55]. Therefore, after collapse of former Soviet Union, subsequent Russia
abandoned this model and prohibited forced removal of human organs, article of criminal code of the Russian
Federation, which came into effect in, clearly stipulates "the crime of forcibly taking human organs or tissues for
transplantation" [55]. It is the duty of the Islamic state to regulate source of human organs, for example, to save
human beings from organ shortage as scholar Nurman said, "Islam not only does not prohibit organ
transplantation, but also encourages use of high-tech technology of organ transplantation to save more lives,
because Islam believes that human beings are most noble life on earth, and maintaining life is the first
consideration of human beings” [55]. It is conducive to continuation of life, it is primary standard for Islam to
evaluate whether a certain behavior is moral or not, therefore, organ transplantation, as an effective means to
treat diseases and maintain life, is in line with spirit of Islamic ethics, it is precisely because of this religious
belief that the Islamic world encourages and appreciates donation of its own organs in order to save other
people's lives, he believes that this is a just act, encouraging people to sacrifice their own interests for cause of
justice, even at cost, because according to principle of value ladder, "when both evils are inevitable, choose one
with smaller evils", which is more important for saving the life of others than for preserving integrity of donor's
body or corpse [55]. Compared with patient's life and death, organ transplantation does less harm to donor's
body than regardless of patient's life and death [55]. Therefore, organ transplantation is permitted, however, we
firmly prohibit trade of human organs, we believe that it does not conform to Islamic law and ethics [55].
However, we do not object to voluntary donation of property by organ transplant recipients and their relatives
out of gratitude, based on this cultural soil, the Iranian government dares to encourage organ donation without
violating principles of Islamic doctrine, and to provide rewards and material compensation to donors and
payment to sellers by means of state funding, so as to expand source channels of organ donors as far as possible
and fully realize value purpose of "the most noble human life" [55]. Although this practice has expanded source
of organs and solved the problem of organ shortage to a large extent, principle of value ladder that the country
follows is that "when both evils are inevitable, choose the one with less evils" and that right to life and health is
higher than right to dignity of dead, which is controversial [55]. System design of country is based on its unique
Islamic religion, it lacks legal spirit of respect and protection of modern human rights, and its values are not
consistent with current trend of thought of human rights protection [55]. Therefore, design of its system
arrangement and operation mechanism is difficult to be generally accepted and has no universal value [55].
Some time ago, accident of transplanting AIDS organs in Taiwan caused extensive discussion, accident
of transplanting AIDS organs was due to special requirements of organ transplantation for efficiency: in order to
complete operation as soon as possible and ensure success of organ transplantation, steps of reviewing organ test
reports were omitted, results there was a problem in communication between laboratory technician and
coordinator [60]. Based on trust of coordinator, doctor did not reconfirm it 48 hours after transplant operation,
hospital accidentally found that HIV test was positive in written organ test results report, as a result, not only 5
donors but also more than 40 medical staff were at risk of infection due to their exposure to AIDS organs, this
event, known as the biggest disaster in history of medicine in Taiwan, immediately aroused widespread concern
[60]. How to actively deal with recurrence of such incidents? Strengthen publicity and guidance to form a
correct social atmosphere; learn from the international advanced experience, combined with their own specific
reality, we can start some attempts, such as establishing a national organ transplantation work organization,
carrying out relevant publicity and education work; unify understanding, standardize behavior in medical field;
strengthen risk awareness of medical institutions, and crack down on illegal organ transplantation [60].
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V. Are you willing to donate organs after death, why?
"I will."
People who want to survive will not give up any chances to survive. It depends on how you define
survival. Cells have memory function. When my organs are transplanted to other people, to a certain extent, my
memory is continuing and I am still alive. So:
"I will!"
Maybe one day, a prince is a shoemaker, and a shoemaker can be a prince.
VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Mrs Dong Yuanyuan, Department of medical ethics, School of Marxism, Chinese Medical University and
Academy of Humanities and social sciences
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