Atomic structure refers to the organization and composition of atoms, which are the fundamental building blocks of matter. Atoms are incredibly small and consist of several subatomic particles, primarily protons, neutrons, and electrons. Understanding atomic structure is essential in the field of chemistry and forms the basis for our understanding of the physical and chemical properties of elements and compounds.
The evolution of the atomic structure is a fascinating journey of discovery and understanding that spans several centuries. It involves the contributions of numerous scientists and experiments that have gradually shaped our current understanding of the atom. Here is a brief overview of the key milestones in the evolution of atomic structure
The evolution of atomic models spans thousands of years, reflecting humanity's deep-rooted curiosity to understand the fundamental building blocks of matter. This journey has seen remarkable advancements in scientific knowledge and has involved the contributions of many brilliant minds. Below is a concise overview of the major milestones in the evolution of atomic models:
1. Ancient Greek Philosophers:
Around 400 BCE, ancient Greek philosophers, such as Democritus and Leucippus, proposed the idea of the atom. They hypothesized that matter could be divided into indivisible particles called "atomos," meaning "uncuttable" in Greek. Although their ideas were philosophical in nature, they laid the conceptual foundation for the development of atomic theories.
2. Dalton's Atomic Theory (1803):
In the early 19th century, John Dalton formulated the first modern atomic theory. His model proposed that:
All matter is composed of indivisible particles called atoms.
Atoms of the same element are identical in size, mass, and properties.
Atoms combine in fixed ratios to form compounds.
Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms, but no creation or destruction of atoms occurs.
3. Thomson's Plum Pudding Model (1897):
In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the electron, a negatively charged subatomic particle, using cathode ray tube experiments. He proposed the Plum Pudding Model, which depicted the atom as a positively charged "pudding" with negatively charged electrons embedded throughout, similar to raisins in a plum pudding. This model implied that atoms were not indivisible as Dalton suggested.
4. Rutherford's Nuclear Model (1911):
In 1911, Ernest Rutherford conducted the famous gold foil experiment, which involved bombarding gold foil with alpha particles. Some particles were deflected back, leading him to propose a new atomic model. Rutherford's model suggested that the atom consists of a small, dense, positively charged nucleus at the center, with electrons orbiting around it. This model effectively introduced the concept of a nucleus and an empty space around it.
5. Bohr's Planetary Model (1913):
Building upon Rutherford's model, Niels Bohr proposed his planetary model of the atom in 1913. He suggested that electrons occupy specific energy levels or orbits around the nucleus. Electrons can jump between these orbits by gaining or losing energy, emitting or absorbing photons in the process. Bohr's model successfully explained the spectral lines of hydrogen but had limitations for more complex elements.
6. Quantum Mechanical Model (1920s and beyond):
In the 1920s, with the development of quantum mechanics, scientists like Schrödinger, Heisenberg, and Dirac formulated the modern quantum mechanical model of the atom. This model describes electrons as wave-like entities with uncertain positions and energies, represented by probability distributions known as orbitals. The quantum mechanical model successfully explained the behavior of electrons in atom
The evolution of the atomic structure is a fascinating journey of discovery and understanding that spans several centuries. It involves the contributions of numerous scientists and experiments that have gradually shaped our current understanding of the atom. Here is a brief overview of the key milestones in the evolution of atomic structure
The evolution of atomic models spans thousands of years, reflecting humanity's deep-rooted curiosity to understand the fundamental building blocks of matter. This journey has seen remarkable advancements in scientific knowledge and has involved the contributions of many brilliant minds. Below is a concise overview of the major milestones in the evolution of atomic models:
1. Ancient Greek Philosophers:
Around 400 BCE, ancient Greek philosophers, such as Democritus and Leucippus, proposed the idea of the atom. They hypothesized that matter could be divided into indivisible particles called "atomos," meaning "uncuttable" in Greek. Although their ideas were philosophical in nature, they laid the conceptual foundation for the development of atomic theories.
2. Dalton's Atomic Theory (1803):
In the early 19th century, John Dalton formulated the first modern atomic theory. His model proposed that:
All matter is composed of indivisible particles called atoms.
Atoms of the same element are identical in size, mass, and properties.
Atoms combine in fixed ratios to form compounds.
Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms, but no creation or destruction of atoms occurs.
3. Thomson's Plum Pudding Model (1897):
In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the electron, a negatively charged subatomic particle, using cathode ray tube experiments. He proposed the Plum Pudding Model, which depicted the atom as a positively charged "pudding" with negatively charged electrons embedded throughout, similar to raisins in a plum pudding. This model implied that atoms were not indivisible as Dalton suggested.
4. Rutherford's Nuclear Model (1911):
In 1911, Ernest Rutherford conducted the famous gold foil experiment, which involved bombarding gold foil with alpha particles. Some particles were deflected back, leading him to propose a new atomic model. Rutherford's model suggested that the atom consists of a small, dense, positively charged nucleus at the center, with electrons orbiting around it. This model effectively introduced the concept of a nucleus and an empty space around it.
5. Bohr's Planetary Model (1913):
Building upon Rutherford's model, Niels Bohr proposed his planetary model of the atom in 1913. He suggested that electrons occupy specific energy levels or orbits around the nucleus. Electrons can jump between these orbits by gaining or losing energy, emitting or absorbing photons in the process. Bohr's model successfully explained the spectral lines of hydrogen but had limitations for more complex elements.
6. Quantum Mechanical Model (1920s and beyond):
In the 1920s, with the development of quantum mechanics, scientists like Schrödinger, Heisenberg, and Dirac formulated the modern quantum mechanical model of the atom. This model describes electrons as wave-like entities with uncertain positions and energies, represented by probability distributions known as orbitals. The quantum mechanical model successfully explained the behavior of electrons in atom
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Factory Supply Best Quality Pmk Oil CAS 28578–16–7 PMK Powder in Stockrebeccabio
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Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
2. INTRODUCTION
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Atomic structure refers to the makeup and organization of
atoms, the basic building blocks of matter. Atoms are
composed of three main types of particles: protons, neutrons,
and electrons. The protons and neutrons are located in the
nucleus of the atom, while the electrons occupy energy levels
or orbitals that are arranged in shells around the nucleus.
3. CONTINUE
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The number of protons in an atom's nucleus, also known as its atomic
number, determines what element the atom is. For example, all atoms
with 6 protons in their nucleus are carbon atoms, while atoms with 8
protons are oxygen atoms. The number of neutrons in an atom's
nucleus can vary, leading to different isotopes of the same element.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of
protons but a different number of neutrons in the nucleus.
4. CONTINUE
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The electrons in an atom occupy specific energy levels or orbitals, which are
arranged in shells around the nucleus. The first shell, also known as the K-shell,
can hold up to 2 electrons, the second shell, also known as the L-shell, can hold
up to 8 electrons, and the third shell, also known as the M-shell, can hold up to
18 electrons. The outermost shell is known as the valence shell, and the number
of electrons in this shell determines the chemical properties of the atom and its
ability to bond with other atoms.
5. CONTINUE
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The behaviour of atoms and their electrons is described by quantum mechanics,
a branch of physics that deals with the behaviour of particles on a very small
scale. This theory explains phenomena such as electron spin and the shapes of
atomic orbitals. Electron spin is a fundamental property of electrons, which can
be thought of as a type of rotation. The shapes of atomic orbitals, which are the
regions of space where electrons are most likely to be found, can be described by
mathematical equations called wave functions.
6. CONTINUE
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Furthermore, the arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an
atom is known as its electron configuration. The electron
configuration of an atom can be determined by using the quantum
mechanical principle known as the Pauli exclusion principle, which
states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of
quantum numbers.
8. MATTER IS MADE OF ATOMS
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1. Hydrogen is the most common atom of our universe
2. Types of atoms in Earth’s Crust
1. Iron 5%, Aluminum 8%, Silicon 28%, Oxygen 47%, Other
12%
3. Types of atoms in Humans
1. Nitrogen 3%, Hydrogen 10%, Oxygen 61%, Other 26 %
9. NAME & SYMBOLS OF ELMENTS
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Each element has its own symbol
Some elements use the first letter of the name: hydrogen (H), Sulfur (S), Carbon
(C)
Other elements use the first letter of the name plus another letter: aluminium
(Al), Platinum (Pt), Zinc (Zn)
The first letter is always capitalized and the following letters are lowercase.
11. JOHN DALTON (1766-1844)
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John Dalton’s theory of the atom
started out as a solid sphere with no
charges
Proposed the atomic theory by
investigating the atomic weights of
atoms
12. J.J THOMSON (1856-1940)
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.J.J Thomson determines that an atom is made up of negative
electrons embedded in a sea of positive charges
+
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
13. 1911
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Ernest Rutherford did some experiments with thin metal foils and found that
the positive charge is located within a central nucleus
14. 1913
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Niels Bohr worked under Rutherford but found problems with his theory. He
ultimately determined that Electrons are in circular orbits with increasing
energy levels.
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The modern atomic model shows that electrons occupy
regions of space whose shape is described by complex
mathematical equations. (James Chadwick)
16. HISTORY OF ATOMIC THEORY
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John Dalton’s theory of the atom started out as a solid sphere
with no charges.
Then J.J. Thomson figured out there were positive and negative
charges in an atom.
Rutherford determined that the positive charges (protons) were
located in the center of the atom and the negative charges
(electrons) were scattered around the nucleus
Bohr’s theory said that the protons are in the middle and the
electrons travel in specific energy levels and orbits around the
nucleus
Modern model- protons and neutrons in the nucleus, electrons
on energy levels
17. REVIEW
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An atom is made up of protons (+),
neutrons (no charge), and electrons(-).
The protons and neutrons are found in the
nucleus
There has to be an equal number of protons
and electrons because atoms have no net
charge!
Atomic mass is the number of protons and
neutrons
Atomic number is the number of protons
(which is the same as the number of electrons)
18. VOCABULARY
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Atom: the smallest particle of an element that has the chemical
properties of the element
Nucleus: found in the centre of the atom and contains the protons and
neutrons
Proton: a positively charged particle found in the nucleus of an atom
Neutrons: an uncharged particle found in the nucleus of an atom
Electron: negatively charged particles that move around outside the
nucleus of the atom
Isotopes: atoms of the same element that have a different number of
neutrons. Chlorine atoms have 17 protons, but some atoms of chlorine have 18
or 20 neutrons these atoms are the isotopes of chlorine
19. ATOMS FORM IONS
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Ions: formed when an atom
loses or gains one or more
electrons(- or + charge)
Cation: formed when an atom
loses an electron (+ charge)
Anion: formed when an atom
gains an electron (-charge)
20. ELEMENTS ARE ORGANIZED BY
SIMILARITY
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Modern Periodic
Table organized by the
atomic # of the
elements
Dmitri Mendeleev
began organizing
elements by their
physical and chemical
properties (1860’s)
21. Periodic table of the
elements
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Mendeleev produced
the first periodic table
Called the periodic
table because a
periodic, or repeating
pattern of properties
of the elements
22. PERIODIC TABLE
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Period: each row of the periodic
table is called a period. If you
read from left to right one proton
and one electron are added from
one element to the next
Group/Family: Each column of
the table is called a group or
family. Elements in a group share
similar properties.
Groups/Families are read from
top to bottom
23. ATOMIC SIZE ON THE PERIODIC
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Left to right atomic size decreases
Top-to-bottom atomic size increases
24. MORE PROPERTIES OF
PERIODIC TABLE
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25. PERIODIC TABLE HAS DISTINCT
REGIONS
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Reactive: indicates how likely an element is to undergo
a chemical change
Most elements are somewhat reactive and combine
with other materials
The most reactive are in groups (up/down) 1 and 17
The least reactive are in the group (up/down) 18
26. ELEMENTS COMBINE BY THE
OUTSIDE ELECTRONS
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All of the electrons in the combining elements do not interact with
each other to form compounds….
Valence Electrons: Only the electrons in the element’s outside
energy level interact with each other.
The most stable configuration has 8 electrons in the outer energy
level.
Elements in group 1 have 1 electron in the outside energy level and
elements in group 17 have 7 electrons in the outside energy level so
they react with each other easily to form compounds and fulfil the
8 electrons stable configuration.
27. METALS
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Most elements are metals
Metals are elements that
conduct electricity and
heat, have a shiny
appearance, and can be
shaped by pounding
(malleability), bending,
or being drawn into a
thin wire (ductility)
28. METAL TYPES
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Reactive metals: Group (up/down) 1 most reactive
Transition Metals: Groups 3-12 (up/down) are
generally less reactive than most metals.
29. RARE EARTH METALS
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Top row of the two rows of metals that are outside of the main periodic table
Also known as Lanthanides because they follow the element lanthanum (La)
on the table
Scientists once thought these metals were available only in tiny amounts on
the Earth
30. ACTINIDE
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• bottom row of the
two rows of metals
that are outside of
the main periodic
table
• The Actinide series
is all radioactive
and some are not
found in nature.
31. NONMETALS
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Nonmetals: the elements on the right side of the periodic table
Many are gases at room temperature, dull surfaces on the solid nonmetals,
cannot be shaped by ductility or malleability
32. HALOGENS
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Elements in group 17
7 valence electrons
Greek “forming salts
Very reactive non-
metals that easily form
compounds with
metals. These
compounds are known
as salts.
33. NOBLE GASES
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Group 18 on the
periodic table
8 valence electrons
Noble or inert
because they
almost never react
with other elements
34. METALLOIDS
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Have properties of both metals and nonmetals
Located on either side of the zigzag line separating metals and nonmetals
Most common in Silicon
35. RADIOACTIVITY
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Radioactivity: the process by
which the nucleus of an atom
releases energy and particles
Marie Curie was the first person
to isolate two radioactive elements
(polonium and radium)
An isotope is radioactive if the
nucleus has too many or too few
neutrons
36. RADIOACTIVE DECAY
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Radioactive atoms produce
energy and particles from their
nuclei
The identity of these atoms
changes because the # of protons
changes. (radioactive decay)
Occurs at a steady rate
characteristic to each isotope
The amount of time for one-half
of the atoms to decay is called the
half-life of the isotope
37. RADIOACTIVE DECAY
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Parent decays into a daughter isotope.
Combination of both is 100%
Parent starts at 100% and decays to 50%
100% 1 half-life to 50% (daughter 50%)
50% 2 half-lives to 25% (daughter 75%)
25% 3 half-lives to 12.5% (daughter 87.5%)
12.5% 4 half-lives to 6.25% (daughter 93.75%)