This study examined the reliability of associations between fat taste sensitivity, body mass index (BMI), dietary fat intake, and hunger in humans. Forty-eight participants had their detection thresholds for oleic acid measured over seven visits using a forced-choice procedure. Results showed a significant decrease in threshold concentrations over repeated trials for lean and overweight participants but not obese participants. When combining lean and overweight as one group, they showed significantly higher sensitivity than the obese group at later visits. No changes in threshold sensitivity or correlations with fat intake were observed for obese participants unlike the lean and overweight groups. No significant associations were found between fat taste sensitivity and self-reported hunger.
Does the Mediterranean diet predict longevity in the elderly? A Swedish persp...Gianluca Tognon
My paper describing the association between adherence to a Mediterranean-like dietary pattern and longevity in 70 year-old men and women sampled in Gothenburg
This document contains abstracts from presentations at the December 2014 International Sports and Exercise Nutrition Conference.
The first abstract finds that high intensity exercise (70% VO2max) increased sensitivity to sour tastes compared to low intensity exercise (50% VO2max), with no differences in sensitivity to other tastes. Sensitivity to sweet tastes negatively correlated with changes in blood glucose for both intensities.
The second abstract finds that a 16-week diet and exercise program resulted in fat mass loss and lean mass gain for all diet groups (high protein or control), along with improved health markers. Extra protein intake from dairy did not further enhance results.
The third abstract finds that intensive treadmill exercise in mice increased small intestine permeability,
Relationship of Taste Status & Food Environment on Body Mass Index Second Dra...Horacio Ruiz
Taste status, food environment, and BMI were examined. 41 participants tasted a bitter solution to determine taste sensitivity and completed a food environment questionnaire. Height and weight were measured to calculate BMI. A 2x3 ANOVA found no significant relationship between taste sensitivity, food environment, and BMI. While this study found no relationship, using GIS technology to better assess food environment may provide different results in future studies.
Chronic administration of the novel hydrogel Gelesis100 at a dose of 2.25 g twice daily significantly decreased body weight in overweight and obese subjects over 12 weeks compared to placebo. Weight loss was especially pronounced in subjects with impaired fasting glucose at baseline. Gelesis100 was well tolerated with few gastrointestinal side effects. The hydrogel works by expanding in the stomach and intestines to increase feelings of fullness without calories. It has potential as a safe and effective weight loss treatment, especially for those with prediabetes.
The effects of reduce and eliminate appeals on individual meat consumptionNew Food Innovation Ltd
In this study its was shown that even simple reduce and eliminate meat appeals in the form of news articles can lead to a significant reduction in individuals meat consumption five week later
Effect of the_glycemic_index_of_the_diet_on_weight (2)AmineYahyaoui2
This randomized controlled trial assessed the effects of 3 iso-caloric energy-restricted diets with different glycemic indexes (GIs) on weight loss, satiety, inflammation, and metabolic risk factors in 122 overweight and obese adults over 6 months. The diets included: 1) a moderate-carbohydrate, low-GI diet (LGI); 2) a moderate-carbohydrate, high-GI diet (HGI); and 3) a low-fat, high-GI diet (LF). The results showed greater reductions in body mass index in the LGI group compared to the LF group. Fasting insulin, insulin resistance, and beta cell function also decreased more in the LGI group than the
1) A study investigated the metabolic phenotypes that determine an individual's response to dietary fat interventions in relation to biomarkers of insulin resistance.
2) The study analyzed data from 417 subjects with metabolic syndrome who were randomly assigned to one of four diet groups that varied fat and carbohydrate composition.
3) Based on changes in insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) levels, subjects were classified into three response groups: non-responders, responders whose insulin resistance improved, and responders whose insulin resistance worsened. Fasting insulin and C-peptide levels before the intervention predicted an individual's response to the dietary changes.
This document summarizes a study that examined the effects of an eating disorder prevention program on eating disorder characteristics among adolescent ballet dancers. The study had two aims: 1) to have adolescent ballet dancers complete an eating disorder prevention program and compare outcomes to a control group, and 2) to measure eating disorder characteristics before, immediately after, and 6 months post-intervention using the Eating Disorder Inventory-3. The literature review discusses eating disorder prevalence among adolescent dancers, risk factors like perfectionism, and previous prevention programs aimed at dancers.
Does the Mediterranean diet predict longevity in the elderly? A Swedish persp...Gianluca Tognon
My paper describing the association between adherence to a Mediterranean-like dietary pattern and longevity in 70 year-old men and women sampled in Gothenburg
This document contains abstracts from presentations at the December 2014 International Sports and Exercise Nutrition Conference.
The first abstract finds that high intensity exercise (70% VO2max) increased sensitivity to sour tastes compared to low intensity exercise (50% VO2max), with no differences in sensitivity to other tastes. Sensitivity to sweet tastes negatively correlated with changes in blood glucose for both intensities.
The second abstract finds that a 16-week diet and exercise program resulted in fat mass loss and lean mass gain for all diet groups (high protein or control), along with improved health markers. Extra protein intake from dairy did not further enhance results.
The third abstract finds that intensive treadmill exercise in mice increased small intestine permeability,
Relationship of Taste Status & Food Environment on Body Mass Index Second Dra...Horacio Ruiz
Taste status, food environment, and BMI were examined. 41 participants tasted a bitter solution to determine taste sensitivity and completed a food environment questionnaire. Height and weight were measured to calculate BMI. A 2x3 ANOVA found no significant relationship between taste sensitivity, food environment, and BMI. While this study found no relationship, using GIS technology to better assess food environment may provide different results in future studies.
Chronic administration of the novel hydrogel Gelesis100 at a dose of 2.25 g twice daily significantly decreased body weight in overweight and obese subjects over 12 weeks compared to placebo. Weight loss was especially pronounced in subjects with impaired fasting glucose at baseline. Gelesis100 was well tolerated with few gastrointestinal side effects. The hydrogel works by expanding in the stomach and intestines to increase feelings of fullness without calories. It has potential as a safe and effective weight loss treatment, especially for those with prediabetes.
The effects of reduce and eliminate appeals on individual meat consumptionNew Food Innovation Ltd
In this study its was shown that even simple reduce and eliminate meat appeals in the form of news articles can lead to a significant reduction in individuals meat consumption five week later
Effect of the_glycemic_index_of_the_diet_on_weight (2)AmineYahyaoui2
This randomized controlled trial assessed the effects of 3 iso-caloric energy-restricted diets with different glycemic indexes (GIs) on weight loss, satiety, inflammation, and metabolic risk factors in 122 overweight and obese adults over 6 months. The diets included: 1) a moderate-carbohydrate, low-GI diet (LGI); 2) a moderate-carbohydrate, high-GI diet (HGI); and 3) a low-fat, high-GI diet (LF). The results showed greater reductions in body mass index in the LGI group compared to the LF group. Fasting insulin, insulin resistance, and beta cell function also decreased more in the LGI group than the
1) A study investigated the metabolic phenotypes that determine an individual's response to dietary fat interventions in relation to biomarkers of insulin resistance.
2) The study analyzed data from 417 subjects with metabolic syndrome who were randomly assigned to one of four diet groups that varied fat and carbohydrate composition.
3) Based on changes in insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) levels, subjects were classified into three response groups: non-responders, responders whose insulin resistance improved, and responders whose insulin resistance worsened. Fasting insulin and C-peptide levels before the intervention predicted an individual's response to the dietary changes.
This document summarizes a study that examined the effects of an eating disorder prevention program on eating disorder characteristics among adolescent ballet dancers. The study had two aims: 1) to have adolescent ballet dancers complete an eating disorder prevention program and compare outcomes to a control group, and 2) to measure eating disorder characteristics before, immediately after, and 6 months post-intervention using the Eating Disorder Inventory-3. The literature review discusses eating disorder prevalence among adolescent dancers, risk factors like perfectionism, and previous prevention programs aimed at dancers.
This study examined the effects of lifelong weight cycling on lifespan in male mice. Mice were placed on either a low-fat diet, high-fat diet, or cycled diet that alternated between low-fat and high-fat every 4 weeks, causing weight fluctuations. The weight cycled mice experienced large fluctuations in body weight and fat mass over time. Surprisingly, the lifespan of weight cycled mice was not significantly different than mice on a low-fat diet, despite cycling between overweight and normal weight periods. In contrast, mice that remained on a high-fat diet had a significantly shorter lifespan than the other groups. This is the first controlled animal study to demonstrate that weight cycling itself did not decrease lifespan
Yes Dancers do need carbohydrates!! Measuring the impact of breakfast on pre...Derrick Brown
This study aimed to determine if pre-class ingestion of an energy bar with moderate glycemic index (MGI) impacted blood glucose levels and affect in dancers compared to fasting. 11 dancers completed a crossover trial where they consumed either the MGI bar or fasted before class. Blood glucose and feelings of pleasure were measured at baseline and 30 and 60 minutes into class. Results showed that fasting led to a larger rise and fall in blood glucose during class compared to consuming the MGI bar. Feelings of pleasure were higher when fasting compared to the MGI bar. The study highlights the importance of assessing both physiological and psychological parameters in dancers.
This study sought to determine whether ingesting essential amino acid and carbohydrate supplements in addition to mixed meals would stimulate greater muscle protein synthesis compared to ingesting meals alone, and whether supplements would interfere with the metabolic response to meals. The study found that supplement ingestion resulted in greater muscle protein synthesis than meals alone, and that supplements did not blunt the normal anabolic response to meals. Supplements produced greater increases in net protein balance than meals, indicating a greater anabolic effect from supplements.
This document summarizes research on the mechanisms by which hyperglycemia (high blood sugar) can coexist with hypertension (high blood pressure). It finds that obesity and insulin resistance interact in a way that can lead to both conditions. Specifically, obesity can cause insulin resistance, and insulin resistance can also promote further obesity. Together and separately, obesity and insulin resistance are linked to the development of both diabetes mellitus (hyperglycemia) and hypertension. Stress on beta cells in the pancreas, inflammation, changes in certain hormone levels, and other factors contribute to this interrelationship between the metabolic disorders.
This study examined the relationship between prescription medication usage, physical activity, functional capacity, and diet in older adults. 68 older adult subjects underwent physical activity assessments including a 6-minute walk test and tracking calories from moderate to vigorous physical activity. Subjects also completed 3-day dietary records which were analyzed for nutrient intake. The study found that prescription medication usage was inversely correlated with physical activity levels, functional capacity, and intake of polyunsaturated fats, meaning higher physical activity and functionality were associated with fewer medications, as was higher polyunsaturated fat intake. These results suggest prescription medication usage in older adults is associated with physical activity, functional ability, and diet.
Journal of clinical nutrition : How to treat obesity with calorically unrestr...Wouter de Heij
How to treat obesity with calorically unrestricted diets. It’s written by the medical doctor, A.W. Pennington, who inspired Dr Robert Atkins to lose weight in a similar way. This paper is dated 1953, ten years before Atkins tested it and two decades before his book “Dr Atkins’ Diet Revolution” was published.
The document summarizes a thesis presentation on developing a Healthy Eating Score (HES) to measure compliance with Canada's Food Guide. The study used data from an online survey of 1115 female Canadian runners. Principal component analysis identified 3 clusters within the HES related to food groups and dietary recommendations. Analysis of variance showed those in the highest HES tertile achieved significantly higher scores on food groups, guidance, health behaviors. Hierarchical regression identified associations across individual to environmental levels and a negative association with snacking. The results supported the HES as a valid tool for assessing population adherence to dietary guidelines in a time and cost-effective manner.
1) The study investigated how BMI affects sedentary behavior and physical activity in older adults. It found that overweight-obese older adults had lower total energy expenditure, stepping time, and fragmentation of sedentary periods than normal weight older adults, even after accounting for age differences.
2) Fragmentation, which measures breaks in sedentary time, was more sensitive than total sedentary time in detecting differences. Total sitting/lying time and standing time did not differ between the groups.
3) The results suggest that BMI is a significant predictor of physical activity levels and sedentary behavior patterns in older adults when age is considered. However, the cross-sectional design means causation cannot be determined.
I reviewed two latest meta-analyses on low carb diet (LCD) in order to conclude the magnitude of the metabolic outcomes (Hession et al & Kodoma et al.). I synthethized this data with the data from available long term trials (Shai et al 2008, Sacks et al. 2009 and Foster et al 2010). There is no striking deleterious effect of LCD on LDL -level, at most it's modest and compensated by positive changes in HDL, TG and glucose/insulin
Bariatric surgery, such as gastric bypass, gastric sleeve, and laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding, work by changing the anatomy of your gastrointestinal tract (stomach and digestive system) or by causing different physiologic changes in your body that change your energy balance and fat metabolism.
This document summarizes a study that examined the effect of a 45-minute running exercise on glucose, insulin, and insulin sensitivity in 14 inactive adult men with mild to moderate asthma. The study found that the exercise test was associated with acute and recovery responses in all variables. Specifically, serum insulin, glucose, and insulin sensitivity decreased immediately after and 60 minutes following the exercise test when compared to pre-test levels. This indicates that a single bout of aerobic exercise can positively impact diabetes markers in asthma patients.
This document discusses implications, limitations, and future directions related to research on glucose levels and aggression. It suggests that low glucose levels may impair self-control and increase aggression. Interventions to increase glucose could potentially reduce violence. However, glucose only partially explained increased aggression in diabetics. Future research should explore whether glucose impacts regions of the brain involved in conflict monitoring and emotion regulation to influence aggression. The findings on war killings are also limited, as the relationship depends on reciprocal violence between groups rather than just one group's metabolic disorders. Overall, the document considers practical applications but also acknowledges limitations that warrant further investigation.
Physical Fitness for Elderly of a University Project Participants, Practition...CrimsonPublishersGGS
Physical Fitness for Elderly of a University Project Participants, Practitioners of Weight and Welcoming House Residents by Lidiane Requia Alli Feldmann in Geriatrics Studies Journal
The document summarizes the industrial training of four students at Bangladesh Machine Tools Factory (BMTF) Ltd. BMTF is one of the largest manufacturing companies in Bangladesh, located in Gazipur. It is equipped with high production machinery for casting, forging, heat treatment and assembly of various products. The students observed the manufacturing processes of patterns, centrifugal pumps, and other equipment using tools and heat treatment methods like carburizing. They also learned about the assembly lines for products like power tillers and trucks.
This document summarizes research on classifying coral reef and seagrass habitats in the Pearl Cays region of Nicaragua using Landsat 8 satellite imagery. The objectives were to map these critical marine habitats and evaluate Landsat 8 for this application. The methodology involved preprocessing two Landsat 8 images, developing training sites, classifying the full scene and sectors using multiple classifiers, and comparing classifications to high resolution imagery. The results found that using image sectors provided more detailed coral classifications and reduced misclassification of sand as coral or seagrass. It was suggested that using multiple images and high resolution data could improve future classifications of these dynamic marine habitats.
Este documento describe diferentes valores como la servicialidad, la gratitud, la lealtad y la confidencialidad que hacen que una persona sea digna de confianza. Explica brevemente cada valor y por qué es importante practicarlos para ser una persona en la que otros puedan confiar. Alienta al lector a practicar estos valores y a valorarse a sí mismo.
Un diputado guatemalteco es acusado de extorsión, abuso de autoridad y peculado por contratar empleados fantasmas cuyos salarios desviaba para su beneficio personal, obligándolos a trabajar para él bajo amenaza. La Biblia condena estas acciones de robar el salario de los trabajadores y oprimir a los demás. Se recomienda al diputado buscar ayuda espiritual y profesional, y a los empleados actuar con honestidad.
Global warming is caused by too much carbon dioxide in the atmosphere trapping heat and warming the planet. Burning fossil fuels for energy and burning forests releases carbon that accumulates in the atmosphere overloading it. Cutting down and burning forests also contributes to increasing carbon in the atmosphere.
This document is a resume for Melissa Knight detailing her career objective and work experience in customer service roles spanning over 15 years. She has extensive experience in reservations, administration, retail, and customer service for various holiday parks, resorts, restaurants, and tourism organizations in Western Australia. Her skills include proficiency in Microsoft Office programs, MYOB accounting software, and experience supervising staff. She provides four referees to vouch for her work history and abilities.
Monica Carr has over 15 years of experience in customer service, project coordination, business analysis, and executive assistance. She currently works as an Order Management Representative and Project Coordinator at Time Warner Cable, where she manages order input and ensures projects are completed on time. Previously, she coordinated installations and managed budgets over $1 million as a Sales Implementation Manager at Verizon and Project Coordinator at UNC Charlotte. Carr has extensive experience implementing telecommunications projects, strong computer skills, and various technical certifications.
This study examined the effects of lifelong weight cycling on lifespan in male mice. Mice were placed on either a low-fat diet, high-fat diet, or cycled diet that alternated between low-fat and high-fat every 4 weeks, causing weight fluctuations. The weight cycled mice experienced large fluctuations in body weight and fat mass over time. Surprisingly, the lifespan of weight cycled mice was not significantly different than mice on a low-fat diet, despite cycling between overweight and normal weight periods. In contrast, mice that remained on a high-fat diet had a significantly shorter lifespan than the other groups. This is the first controlled animal study to demonstrate that weight cycling itself did not decrease lifespan
Yes Dancers do need carbohydrates!! Measuring the impact of breakfast on pre...Derrick Brown
This study aimed to determine if pre-class ingestion of an energy bar with moderate glycemic index (MGI) impacted blood glucose levels and affect in dancers compared to fasting. 11 dancers completed a crossover trial where they consumed either the MGI bar or fasted before class. Blood glucose and feelings of pleasure were measured at baseline and 30 and 60 minutes into class. Results showed that fasting led to a larger rise and fall in blood glucose during class compared to consuming the MGI bar. Feelings of pleasure were higher when fasting compared to the MGI bar. The study highlights the importance of assessing both physiological and psychological parameters in dancers.
This study sought to determine whether ingesting essential amino acid and carbohydrate supplements in addition to mixed meals would stimulate greater muscle protein synthesis compared to ingesting meals alone, and whether supplements would interfere with the metabolic response to meals. The study found that supplement ingestion resulted in greater muscle protein synthesis than meals alone, and that supplements did not blunt the normal anabolic response to meals. Supplements produced greater increases in net protein balance than meals, indicating a greater anabolic effect from supplements.
This document summarizes research on the mechanisms by which hyperglycemia (high blood sugar) can coexist with hypertension (high blood pressure). It finds that obesity and insulin resistance interact in a way that can lead to both conditions. Specifically, obesity can cause insulin resistance, and insulin resistance can also promote further obesity. Together and separately, obesity and insulin resistance are linked to the development of both diabetes mellitus (hyperglycemia) and hypertension. Stress on beta cells in the pancreas, inflammation, changes in certain hormone levels, and other factors contribute to this interrelationship between the metabolic disorders.
This study examined the relationship between prescription medication usage, physical activity, functional capacity, and diet in older adults. 68 older adult subjects underwent physical activity assessments including a 6-minute walk test and tracking calories from moderate to vigorous physical activity. Subjects also completed 3-day dietary records which were analyzed for nutrient intake. The study found that prescription medication usage was inversely correlated with physical activity levels, functional capacity, and intake of polyunsaturated fats, meaning higher physical activity and functionality were associated with fewer medications, as was higher polyunsaturated fat intake. These results suggest prescription medication usage in older adults is associated with physical activity, functional ability, and diet.
Journal of clinical nutrition : How to treat obesity with calorically unrestr...Wouter de Heij
How to treat obesity with calorically unrestricted diets. It’s written by the medical doctor, A.W. Pennington, who inspired Dr Robert Atkins to lose weight in a similar way. This paper is dated 1953, ten years before Atkins tested it and two decades before his book “Dr Atkins’ Diet Revolution” was published.
The document summarizes a thesis presentation on developing a Healthy Eating Score (HES) to measure compliance with Canada's Food Guide. The study used data from an online survey of 1115 female Canadian runners. Principal component analysis identified 3 clusters within the HES related to food groups and dietary recommendations. Analysis of variance showed those in the highest HES tertile achieved significantly higher scores on food groups, guidance, health behaviors. Hierarchical regression identified associations across individual to environmental levels and a negative association with snacking. The results supported the HES as a valid tool for assessing population adherence to dietary guidelines in a time and cost-effective manner.
1) The study investigated how BMI affects sedentary behavior and physical activity in older adults. It found that overweight-obese older adults had lower total energy expenditure, stepping time, and fragmentation of sedentary periods than normal weight older adults, even after accounting for age differences.
2) Fragmentation, which measures breaks in sedentary time, was more sensitive than total sedentary time in detecting differences. Total sitting/lying time and standing time did not differ between the groups.
3) The results suggest that BMI is a significant predictor of physical activity levels and sedentary behavior patterns in older adults when age is considered. However, the cross-sectional design means causation cannot be determined.
I reviewed two latest meta-analyses on low carb diet (LCD) in order to conclude the magnitude of the metabolic outcomes (Hession et al & Kodoma et al.). I synthethized this data with the data from available long term trials (Shai et al 2008, Sacks et al. 2009 and Foster et al 2010). There is no striking deleterious effect of LCD on LDL -level, at most it's modest and compensated by positive changes in HDL, TG and glucose/insulin
Bariatric surgery, such as gastric bypass, gastric sleeve, and laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding, work by changing the anatomy of your gastrointestinal tract (stomach and digestive system) or by causing different physiologic changes in your body that change your energy balance and fat metabolism.
This document summarizes a study that examined the effect of a 45-minute running exercise on glucose, insulin, and insulin sensitivity in 14 inactive adult men with mild to moderate asthma. The study found that the exercise test was associated with acute and recovery responses in all variables. Specifically, serum insulin, glucose, and insulin sensitivity decreased immediately after and 60 minutes following the exercise test when compared to pre-test levels. This indicates that a single bout of aerobic exercise can positively impact diabetes markers in asthma patients.
This document discusses implications, limitations, and future directions related to research on glucose levels and aggression. It suggests that low glucose levels may impair self-control and increase aggression. Interventions to increase glucose could potentially reduce violence. However, glucose only partially explained increased aggression in diabetics. Future research should explore whether glucose impacts regions of the brain involved in conflict monitoring and emotion regulation to influence aggression. The findings on war killings are also limited, as the relationship depends on reciprocal violence between groups rather than just one group's metabolic disorders. Overall, the document considers practical applications but also acknowledges limitations that warrant further investigation.
Physical Fitness for Elderly of a University Project Participants, Practition...CrimsonPublishersGGS
Physical Fitness for Elderly of a University Project Participants, Practitioners of Weight and Welcoming House Residents by Lidiane Requia Alli Feldmann in Geriatrics Studies Journal
The document summarizes the industrial training of four students at Bangladesh Machine Tools Factory (BMTF) Ltd. BMTF is one of the largest manufacturing companies in Bangladesh, located in Gazipur. It is equipped with high production machinery for casting, forging, heat treatment and assembly of various products. The students observed the manufacturing processes of patterns, centrifugal pumps, and other equipment using tools and heat treatment methods like carburizing. They also learned about the assembly lines for products like power tillers and trucks.
This document summarizes research on classifying coral reef and seagrass habitats in the Pearl Cays region of Nicaragua using Landsat 8 satellite imagery. The objectives were to map these critical marine habitats and evaluate Landsat 8 for this application. The methodology involved preprocessing two Landsat 8 images, developing training sites, classifying the full scene and sectors using multiple classifiers, and comparing classifications to high resolution imagery. The results found that using image sectors provided more detailed coral classifications and reduced misclassification of sand as coral or seagrass. It was suggested that using multiple images and high resolution data could improve future classifications of these dynamic marine habitats.
Este documento describe diferentes valores como la servicialidad, la gratitud, la lealtad y la confidencialidad que hacen que una persona sea digna de confianza. Explica brevemente cada valor y por qué es importante practicarlos para ser una persona en la que otros puedan confiar. Alienta al lector a practicar estos valores y a valorarse a sí mismo.
Un diputado guatemalteco es acusado de extorsión, abuso de autoridad y peculado por contratar empleados fantasmas cuyos salarios desviaba para su beneficio personal, obligándolos a trabajar para él bajo amenaza. La Biblia condena estas acciones de robar el salario de los trabajadores y oprimir a los demás. Se recomienda al diputado buscar ayuda espiritual y profesional, y a los empleados actuar con honestidad.
Global warming is caused by too much carbon dioxide in the atmosphere trapping heat and warming the planet. Burning fossil fuels for energy and burning forests releases carbon that accumulates in the atmosphere overloading it. Cutting down and burning forests also contributes to increasing carbon in the atmosphere.
This document is a resume for Melissa Knight detailing her career objective and work experience in customer service roles spanning over 15 years. She has extensive experience in reservations, administration, retail, and customer service for various holiday parks, resorts, restaurants, and tourism organizations in Western Australia. Her skills include proficiency in Microsoft Office programs, MYOB accounting software, and experience supervising staff. She provides four referees to vouch for her work history and abilities.
Monica Carr has over 15 years of experience in customer service, project coordination, business analysis, and executive assistance. She currently works as an Order Management Representative and Project Coordinator at Time Warner Cable, where she manages order input and ensures projects are completed on time. Previously, she coordinated installations and managed budgets over $1 million as a Sales Implementation Manager at Verizon and Project Coordinator at UNC Charlotte. Carr has extensive experience implementing telecommunications projects, strong computer skills, and various technical certifications.
Food intake, energy balance and body weight controlE Douce.docxbudbarber38650
Food intake, energy balance and body weight control
E Doucet and A Tremblay
Physical Activity Sciences Laboratory, PEPS, Laval University, Ste-Foy, QueÂbec, Canada, G1K 7P4
Obesity is a multifactorial and complex affectation that is characterized by a long-term excess energy intake (EI)
above energy expenditure (EE). Since fat oxidation seems to be dependent on SNS activation and also seems to
remain acutely unaffected by fat intake, this macronutrient is certainly partly responsible for this situation. In
addition, high-fat intake does not induce as potent satiety signals or a compensation effect on subsequent EI as do
diets rich in carbohydrates or proteins. Moreover, since alcohol intake acutely inhibits fat oxidation and does not
promote subsequent compensation for its energy content, it should consequently be regarded as a substrate which
can induce a positive energy balance under free-living conditions. Thus, in a weight reducing context, each
energy substrate should be manipulated while taking into account its speci®c characteristics. Obesity has also
often been associated to a decreased sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity, hence sympathomimetic agents
have been proposed as a possible way to partially correct this situation. Two of these agents are the widely
consumed caffeine (CAF) and the pungent principle of hot red pepper, capsaicin (CAP), which acutely increase
EE and reduce EI under some circumstances. Furthermore, other factors like dietary ®bers, that have been shown
to increase satiety and fullness, and reduce EI in some cases, should also be considered.
Descriptors: obesity; energy balance; macronutrients; alcohol; sympathomimetic agents; dietary ®bers
Introduction
The prevalence of obesity in af¯uent societies is reaching
epidemiological proportions and even if our understanding
and knowledge of the causes leading to obesity are ever
increasing, health professionals cannot seem to reverse this
situation. Obesity is being characterized as a long term
energy imbalance, that is energy intake (EI) being greater
than energy expenditure (EE). Many studies have shown
that nutritional and food-related non-nutritional factors
in¯uence the adjustment of EI to EE. The main objective
of this report is to describe the effects of some of these
factors with the intent to propose strategies that would
enable health professionals to further improve their inter-
vention in obese individuals.
Fat
The ever increasing pool of data concerning the speci®city
of the characteristics of each macronutrient urges the
clinician wishing weight reduction or maintenance to no
longer address EI without also looking into macronutrient
composition (Table 1). In that respect, fat intake seems to
have the most impact on energy balance. Indeed, popula-
tion studies have, on numerous occasions, shown a positive
association between fat intake and adiposity (Dreon et al,
1988; Romieu et al, 1988; Tremblay et al, 1989; Colditz et
al, 1990; Miller et al,.
This paper demonstrates knowledge of the indirect connection between diet and autism-related behaviors and the anatomical reasoning behind the position. I am studying to be a pediatric occupational therapist - a career field that often has patients with developmental abnormalities that can be treated with therapy and supplemented by diet.
This study examined the correlation between stress levels and eating habits in undergraduate students. A survey was administered that included questions about typical food consumption and the Perceived Stress Scale. The study found no significant correlation between deviations from normal eating guidelines and increased stress levels, contrary to previous research. Limitations included a small, non-representative sample and potential issues with self-reported data. While the results did not support the hypothesis, improved methodology in future research could help determine if a relationship exists between stress and eating behaviors in college students.
This document is a project submitted by Prathik to Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences in partial fulfillment of a Bachelor of Physiotherapy degree. The project is titled "Effects of Diet and Physical Exercise in Obesity" and was conducted under the guidance of Dr. N. Mageswaran. It includes sections on the introduction to obesity, categories and types of obesity, pathophysiology of obesity, diet and exercise effects and guidelines, and a review of literature on the topic.
PERSPECTIVEUnderstanding Nutritional Epidemiology and Its.docxmattjtoni51554
PERSPECTIVE
Understanding Nutritional Epidemiology and Its
Role in Policy1,2
Ambika Satija,3,4 Edward Yu,3 Walter C Willett,3–5 and Frank B Hu3–5*
3Department of Nutrition and 4Department of Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA; and 5Channing
Division of Network Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA
ABSTRACT
Nutritional epidemiology has recently been criticized on several fronts, including the inability to measure diet accurately, and for its reliance
on observational studies to address etiologic questions. In addition, several recent meta-analyses with serious methodologic flaws have arrived
at erroneous or misleading conclusions, reigniting controversy over formerly settled debates. All of this has raised questions regarding the
ability of nutritional epidemiologic studies to inform policy. These criticisms, to a large degree, stem from a misunderstanding of the
methodologic issues of the field and the inappropriate use of the drug trial paradigm in nutrition research. The exposure of interest in
nutritional epidemiology is human diet, which is a complex system of interacting components that cumulatively affect health. Consequently,
nutritional epidemiology constantly faces a unique set of challenges and continually develops specific methodologies to address these.
Misunderstanding these issues can lead to the nonconstructive and sometimes naive criticisms we see today. This article aims to clarify common
misunderstandings of nutritional epidemiology, address challenges to the field, and discuss the utility of nutritional science in guiding policy
by focusing on 5 broad questions commonly asked of the field. Adv Nutr 2015;6:5–18.
Keywords: dietary assessment, food policy, meta-analysis, nutritional epidemiology, randomized controlled trials, prospective cohort studies
Introduction
Epidemiology has long had its share of skeptics, with Taubes’
1995 article being the most well-known (1). However, more
recent commentaries have attacked nutritional epidemiol-
ogy on several fronts. Ioannidis (2) criticizes the observa-
tional nature of epidemiologic studies and small trials,
stating that “definitive solutions won’t come from another
million observational papers or small randomized trials.”
He refers to an article by Archer et al. (3), which calls into
question the validity of data from the NHANES and suggests
that “the ability to estimate population trends in caloric
intake and generate empirically supported public policy rel-
evant to diet-health relations from US nutritional sur-
veillance is extremely limited.” Furthermore, questionably
designed and executed meta-analyses have disseminated
conflicting messages about nutrition and health, such as
the conclusion that being overweight lowers the risk of all-
cause mortality (4) and that replacing saturated fat with
polyunsaturated fats has no substantial impact on cardiovas-
cular risk (5). Such conclusions are not only confusing but
also dangero.
This study investigated the prevalence of over- and undernutrition among Danish dialysis patients and compared current data to historical data from 1988. The study found that 30% of patients met criteria for protein-energy wasting based on biomarkers and anthropometric measures. Rates of obesity varied from 21-72% depending on the criteria used, with many obese patients also meeting criteria for protein-energy wasting. Direct comparison of current results to 1988 data suggested nutritional status has improved, but uncertainties limit conclusiveness. Obesity is common but does not preclude concurrent protein-energy wasting.
1) Fatty liver, measured using CT scans, was present in 17% of participants.
2) Fatty liver was associated with higher risk of diabetes, metabolic syndrome, hypertension, and insulin resistance even after accounting for other measures of obesity like BMI and visceral fat.
3) Fatty liver was also linked to dyslipidemia (higher triglycerides and lower HDL) and dysglycemia (impaired fasting glucose) independent of other fat depots.
This document discusses nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics, which are two related but distinct fields that examine the relationship between genetics and nutrition. Nutrigenomics looks at how foods and nutrients influence gene expression, while nutrigenetics focuses on how genetic variations impact an individual's response to specific foods and nutrients. The document provides examples of how knowledge in these fields can help identify personalized diets and nutritional interventions tailored to one's genetic profile that may help prevent or treat chronic diseases like obesity, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. It also discusses some specific genetic disorders like lactose intolerance and phenylketonuria where restricting certain foods can benefit affected individuals.
Effects Of Taste Genetics On Food Acceptancetreysand
The document discusses taste genetics and food acceptance. It outlines how genetic variation in bitter taste perception is linked to preferences for sweet, fatty, or bitter foods due to differences in taste receptor genes and fungiform papillae density on the tongue. A study examined this relationship by testing subjects' bitter taste thresholds, papillae density, and ratings of foods varying in bitterness, sweetness, and fat content. Results suggested genetic differences in oral sensation may influence an individual's food acceptance.
This document discusses the field of nutrigenomics, which examines the relationship between genes, nutrition, and health. It notes that nutrigenomics can provide personalized nutrition advice by understanding how genetic variants affect an individual's response to different foods. The document also discusses how epigenetics and early life nutrition can influence gene expression and lifelong health, and how nutrigenomics may help address inconsistent responses to general dietary recommendations and help develop more individualized diets.
This study examined how appetite, as measured by visual analog scales (VAS), is affected by weight loss through energy restriction and a low-fat diet/exercise program. Seventeen subjects participated in a 15-week weight loss program involving energy restriction followed by an 18-week low-fat diet and exercise phase. Appetite was measured using VAS before and after a standardized breakfast. Fasting cortisol, leptin, glucose and insulin were also analyzed. The study found that fasting appetite increased after both phases of weight loss. Changes in fasting cortisol best predicted changes in appetite, particularly for men. The results suggest that weight loss is accompanied by an increase in baseline appetite and that changes in fasting cortisol are the
The document analyzes research on the nature vs nurture debate around obesity. It summarizes studies finding both genetic/biological and environmental factors influence obesity. The authors treated a client using diet/exercise modifications based on evidence that lifestyle changes can decrease weight. Their client achieved a 30% weight loss in 3 months, supporting the influence of external factors. Overall, the authors found evidence that environmental/behavioral interventions have greater impact on obesity than medical approaches.
Vol 1, issue 7 Effects exerted by omega-3 fatty acids on glucose, triglycerid...IJAMHC
In this study, the effects exerted by the omega-3 fatty acids on the concentration of glucose, triglycerides, total cholesterol and body mass index in obese children (11 to 12, years old) were evaluated using two experimental designs.
In the first stage, a dietary intake of fish was administered to obese children: In the second stage, a dietary intake of gummies with omega-3 fatty acids was used on obese children.
The results showed that dietary intake of gummies with omega-3 fatty acids induces greater changes in the levels of triglycerides, total cholesterol and body mass index compared with the dietary intake of fish. In conclusion, all these data suggest that dietary intakes of omega-3 fatty acids can decrease the degree of obesity in obese children.
This document discusses how to evaluate clinical and scientific studies on non-caloric sweeteners. It outlines several key points to consider when assessing different types of studies, such as whether they were published in peer-reviewed literature, who authored them, and potential flaws in study design. The document concludes that well-conducted clinical studies have shown non-caloric sweeteners do not promote weight gain and can aid in weight loss. It also determines aspartame does not cause cancer based on the majority of preclinical studies and large epidemiological studies finding no association.
This study analyzed data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) from 2007 to 2012 to assess consumption of ultra-processed foods in the US population and how it varies by sociodemographic factors and over time. The researchers found that almost 60% of calories consumed came from ultra-processed foods. Consumption decreased with age and income and was higher among non-Hispanic whites and blacks compared to other groups. Ultra-processed food consumption increased nearly 1% per survey cycle, including among males, adolescents, and those with a high school education.
The documents discuss the relationship between dietary glycemic index (GI) and obesity. High-GI foods are rapidly digested and absorbed, causing sudden rises in blood glucose and insulin levels. One study found that obese teenagers consumed 53% more calories after a high-GI breakfast compared to a low-GI breakfast. High-GI diets in animals have been shown to increase fat deposition and cause greater weight gain over time compared to low-GI diets. However, long-term clinical trials are still needed to fully examine the effects of GI on human body weight regulation.
An extensive literature review on Nutrigenetics -A new trajectory in obesity...nutritionistrepublic
Obesity is a multifactorial disease influenced by genes and environment. Various genes involved in appetite, metabolism, and fat storage have been identified that can cause differential responses to diet. Nutrigenetics examines how genetic variations affect the interaction between diet and disease, with the goal of developing personalized diets. One study found that patients who received nutrigenetic testing and were given a personalized diet based on their genetic profile lost more weight and better maintained reductions in BMI and blood glucose levels over time compared to a control group without genetic testing. While nutrigenetics shows promise for developing targeted weight loss strategies, challenges remain in fully characterizing gene-diet interactions and implementing testing in clinical practice.
This document discusses the genetics of eating behavior and its relationship to obesity. It begins by outlining that eating behavior is influenced by physiological, psychological, social, and genetic factors. It then reviews several specific genetic influences on eating behavior, including Prader-Willi syndrome, LEP and LEPR genes associated with monogenic obesity, MC4R gene mutations linked to increased appetite and food intake, and variants in the FTO and GAD2 genes associated with obesity risk. Additional sections cover the genetics of taste preferences and their influence on food choices, as well as how genes related to hormones like ghrelin and CCK may impact meal size and selection. The document concludes that personalized treatment approaches targeting genetic mutations and behaviors could help
Two studies tested whether self-focusing situations influence consumption of full-fat, reduced-fat, and no-fat foods. In Study 1, college students tasted various cream cheese spreads either with or without a mirror present. Those in the mirror group ate less of the full-fat product. Study 2 replicated this with shoppers tasting margarine spreads at supermarkets with or without a mirror. Both studies found mirrors reduced eating of full-fat products but not reduced- or no-fat products. The findings suggest self-awareness causes people to avoid unhealthy foods to reduce feelings of discrepancy with internal standards about health.
Similar to AssociationsBetweenBMIandFatTasteSensitivityInHumans.full (20)
2. 350 R.M. Tucker et al.
adverse health outcomes such as obesity, diabetes, cardio-
vascular disease, selected cancers, osteoarthritis, and social
stigma, it is imperative this issue be clearly characterized.
Fatty foods are often highly flavorful and associated with
obesity, for example, Ryan et al. (2012). This has prompted
hypotheses of an association between NEFA taste sensitivity
and body mass index (BMI) with mixed experimental sup-
port. Some have reported inverse associations between BMI
and sensitivity to NEFA (increases in BMI were associated
with reduced sensitivity or higher thresholds) (Stewart et al.
2010; Stewart, Newman, et al. 2011; Stewart, Seimon, et al.
2011), whereas others fail to find associations (Kamphuis
et al. 2003; Mattes 2009b; Mattes 2011; Stewart and Keast
2012).
Explanations for both sets of findings have been proposed.
Based on the recognition that NEFA impart unpleasant or
aversive sensations, one explanation for the inverse asso-
ciation between BMI and sensitivity to NEFA holds that
decreased sensitivity to fat contributes to increased intake
as the unpalatable sensations NEFA impart would be less
apparent and less likely to evoke rejection responses. Others
propose that habituation to a high-fat diet leads to a require-
ment for greater exposure to generate an appropriate oral
response (Stewart et al. 2010; Stewart, Newman, et al. 2011;
Stewart and Keast 2012). This increased fat intake presum-
ably contributes to weight gain. Alternatively, it may be that
dietary fat intake or obesity modifies fat taste. In a single
4-week trial, high-fat diet exposure decreased sensitivity to
NEFA in lean but not overweight/obese subjects (Stewart
and Keast 2012). However, a larger body of evidence indi-
cates there is no significant association between BMI and
NEFA sensitivity. The latter findings are not unexpected.
First, a lack of association mirrors findings from previous
work in other taste qualities (Grinker et al. 1972; Rodin 1975;
Grinker 1978; Malcolm et al. 1980; Frijters and Rasmussen-
Conrad 1982; Scruggs et al. 1994). Second, thresholds to
particular tastes are often not associated with liking or pref-
erence for that stimulus at the suprathreshold concentrations
commonly encountered in daily eating (Bartoshuk 1979).
Third, there may be a methodological basis for a poor asso-
ciation. Evidence of learning effects on tests of threshold
sensitivity for NEFA indicate multiple trials must be con-
ducted to establish the lower limits of an individual’s sensory
sensitivity to NEFA (Tucker and Mattes 2013). Threshold
measurements reported to date do not account for learning
effects and likely fail to reflect true fat taste sensitivity. This
methodological issue may be especially relevant for NEFA
due to a lack of participant familiarity with: 1) the stimuli,
2) descriptors for the sensation, and/or 3) testing procedures.
Misclassification of sensitivity could obscure associations
between sensitivity and BMI or other variables of interest.
In light of the mixed findings on oral fat detection in
lean versus overweight/obese individuals, the present study
tested the oleic acid (OA) detection threshold of individu-
als 7 times to assess differences in sensitivity between lean,
overweight, and obese participants. We hypothesized no
association between BMI and NEFA detection thresholds
for the reasons discussed above. Further, the recent obser-
vation that dietary fat intake reportedly influences fat taste
sensitivity, at least in lean individuals (Stewart and Keast
2012), prompted a second hypothesis—that high habitual
dietary fat intake would correlate with decreased sensitivity.
Third, we also measured hunger, as there are reports that
hunger improves taste sensitivity (Zverev 2004), and there
are mixed reports of differential hunger sensations in lean
and obese individuals (Cornier et al. 2004; Mckiernan et al.
2009; Brennan et al. 2012). We hypothesized that sensitivity
would be improved with increased levels of hunger, and that
hunger may lead to different dietary responses to fat in lean
and obese individuals.
Materials and methods
The test stimuli consisted of an emulsion of 5% w/v
(1.8 × 10
−1
M) OA (Spectrum Chemicals) in deionized water
with 12% gum arabic (Sigma-Aldrich), 0.01% xanthan gum
(Jungbunzlauer Inc.), and 0.01% ethylenediaminetetraacetic
acid (Spectrum Chemicals). The vehicle was designed to
mask textural cues that NEFA may contribute, including vis-
cosity and lubricity (Ramirez 1992; Schiffman et al. 1998).
Five percent OA emulsions prepared in 200 mL batches were
formed by homogenization (IKA T18 Basic Ultra Turrax)
for 20 min at 15 500 rpm and then diluted by quarter log steps
to create a range of 39 stimulus concentrations to accommo-
date the most sensitive participant. Five percent was selected
as the upper OA concentration as amounts higher than this
are rarely found in foods that are not rancid. The vehicle was
treated in the same fashion as the OA emulsions. Samples
were made less than 24 h before testing, stored under nitro-
gen in polypropylene containers, and served at room temper-
ature. Particle size distributions of the 5% OA emulsion were
obtained using a Malvern Instruments Mastersizer 2000
with a Hydro 2000MU dispersion unit. The dispersant was
deionized water, and a refractive index of 1.458 and absorp-
tion of 0.005 was used for OA. Viscosity was analyzed using
an ARG2 Rheometer from TA Instruments equipped with
a 40 mm, 2° cone and plate geometry with a solvent trap
and a Peltier plate for temperature control. Shear rate was
increased logarithmically from 1 to 300 s
−1
at 37 °C, with 10
data points per decade.
Subjects
Forty-eight (N = 17 male; N = 31 female) adults (mean age:
28.5 ± 10.4 years) gave informed consent and completed the
study. Body mass indices (BMI) ranged from 18.9 to 47.2 (lean
[≤24.9 kg·m
−2
]: N = 24; overweight [25.0–29.9 kg·m
−2
]: N = 11;
obese [≥30 kg·m
−2
]: N = 13). Eight participants were Asian, 5
were Black, 1 was mixed race, 33 were White, and 1 partici-
pant failed to provide racial information. Recruitment took
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3. BMI and Fat Taste Sensitivity 351
place via public advertisements. This study was approved by
the University’s Human Subjects Institutional Review Board
and was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (#NCT01550120).
Study design
The study consisted of 7 test visits where OA detection
thresholds were determined using a 3-alternative forced
choice modified staircase procedure. Previous work showed
that significant improvement from baseline was seen over
the first 7 visits (Tucker and Mattes 2013). Participants were
instructed to abstain from food, beverages other than water,
and oral care products for at least an hour before testing.
Testing sessions were typically conducted at the same time of
day for each participant, but when occasional conflicts arose,
visits were scheduled at the convenience of the participant.
Prior to each testing session, participants were asked to rate
their hunger level on a 100-mm visual analog scale (VAS).
Height, weight, and habitual dietary fat intake, as quantified
by the Block Rapid Fat Screener (BRFS; NutritionQuest),
were measured at baseline. The BRFS, is a one-page, self-
administered survey previously validated against a 100-item
questionnaire and is reported to correlate significantly with
total fat, saturated fat, monounsaturated fat, percent of calo-
ries from fat, and cholesterol intake (Spearman r = 0.6–0.72)
(Block et al. 2000).
Taste testing methodology
Participants wore blindfolds and nose clips to eliminate
visual and olfactory cues. During each trial, 3 samples were
presented to participants; 2 samples contained the vehicle,
and 1 sample contained the vehicle plus the OA. Participants
were instructed to choose the sample that was different from
the others following a forced choice format. No more than
one testing trial was conducted per day.
The starting concentration at each visit was 3.2 mM.
A 2-down, 1-up rule was used to determine the concentra-
tions presented to the participants. Once 5 reversals had
occurred or when the participant had tasted all concentra-
tion levels without 5 reversals, testing ceased for that session.
If 5 reversals were not obtained, the threshold was deemed
beyond the range of thresholds considered. If 5 reversals
were obtained, the last 4 reversals were averaged to obtain
the threshold estimate.
Statistics
A linear mixed model that handles censoring (via the
NLMIXED procedure in SAS) was used to assess and
compare changes in performance over visits for each of the
BMI groups. This model was used because of the multiple
measurements per participant and the fact that on some
visits participants were observed to have thresholds above
5% w/v, the maximal concentration used in this study. We
treated these responses above 5% as right censored observa-
tions. Correlations were evaluated using Spearman’s rho (ρ).
Bonferroni corrections for multiple comparisons were made.
Chi-square tests examined the probability of group member-
ship (reliable or unreliable responder). The level of signifi-
cance was set at P <0.05, 2 tailed. Data were analyzed using
IBM SPSS Statistics 20, SAS v9.2, and Microsoft Excel 2010.
Results
Emulsion particle size measurements were made twice using
2 different samples. The average volume weighted mean
(D[4,3]) was 2.8 µm. Viscosity measurements at 50 s
−1
did
not differ between the 5% OA emulsion (0.01024 Pa·s) and
the vehicle (0.01005 Pa·s).
Results from the NLMIXED procedure demonstrated that
the intercepts of the lean versus overweight and lean versus
obese were not different (P > 0.05). However, the intercepts
of the overweight compared with the obese were different
(P = 0.040). The slopes of the regression lines between lean
and overweight were not different (P > 0.05), but the slope
of the obese differed from both the lean (P = 0.013) and the
overweight (P = 0.008). As the slopes and intercepts did not
differ between the lean and overweight, these 2 groups were
combined into 1 group while retaining the obese as a sepa-
rate group. The fit statistics for the 2-group model (lean plus
overweight vs. obese) indicated it was superior to the 3-group
model (lean vs. overweight vs. obese) (Bayesian information
criterion [BIC] = −249.5 vs. −243.4). Regression lines for
the 2-group model are shown in Figure 1. The intercepts are
not significantly different (P > 0.05); however, the slopes are
still different (P = 0.005). There were also significant differ-
ences in threshold sensitivity at visits 6 (P = 0.041) and 7
(P = 0.012).
Figure 1 Regression lines ± standard error by BMI group (lean and over-
weight = circles; obese = squares) over the course of 7 visits. Significant
differences in thresholds were observed at visits 6 and 7. The slopes of the
regression lines were significantly different (P = 0.005).
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4. 352 R.M. Tucker et al.
Thresholds that exceeded 0.18 M (5% w/v OA) occurred
in 47.9% (N = 23) of individuals at baseline and in 16.7%
(N = 8) of people at visit 7. All participants achieved a
threshold at least once during testing, and 31.3% (N = 15) of
participants obtained a threshold at each visit. Chi-square
analysis revealed that neither BMI group nor sex was asso-
ciated with the likelihood of the overall median threshold
being greater than 5%, and performance over time did not
differ by sex. However, 13 (27.1%) participants had a median
threshold greater than 5%, and 9 of these participants were
overweight (binomial distribution, P = 0.09). A review of
the data revealed 2 response patterns, one where once par-
ticipants obtained their first threshold they were reliable per-
formers and obtained a threshold at each subsequent visit
(reliable; N = 20), and one where those who did not consist-
ently obtain a threshold (unreliable; N = 28). Post hoc analy-
ses demonstrated that BMI did not predict reliability. The
intercepts of the 2 groups were not different, but the slopes
did show a strong trend for significant difference (P = 0.052)
(Figure 2).
Correlationswereobservedbetweeneachvisitandthemean
threshold concentration for the whole group (r = 0.495–
0.697; P < 0.001) (Supplementary Table S1). Thresholds
appeared to achieve stability, defined as each visit being sig-
nificantly associated with the visit preceding and following it,
at visit 5 (r = 0.477–0.665; P < 0.001). Correlations between
baseline and mean threshold concentrations followed dif-
ferent patterns in the lean plus overweight compared with
the obese (Table 1). Later visits tended to correlate with the
mean threshold in the obese, but the opposite was found in
both the lean and lean plus overweight groups with earlier
visits associated with mean performance. When tested, the
mean of the first 5 visits for the lean plus overweight groups
was significantly higher (less sensitive) than the mean of the
last 2 visits (P = 0.007). This was not the case for the obese
participants. Correlations between visits for lean only and
overweight only are shown in Supplementary Table S2.
Total fat grams, saturated fat grams, and percent fat were
significantly correlated with each other (r = 0.862–0.981;
P < 0.001). Regardless of weight category, saturated fat
intake was positively correlated with baseline sensitivity
among all participants; that is, as intake increased, threshold
concentrations increased (sensitivity decreased) (Table 2).
The intake of fat, as measured by BRFS, did not differ
among lean, overweight, and obese individuals (P > 0.05).
Among the lean plus overweight participants, total fat intake
in grams at baseline was significantly associated with thresh-
old sensitivity (r = 0.571; P = 0.001). All 3 BRFS fat meas-
ures were significant and positively correlated with overall
mean thresholds (total fat r = 0.561; P < 0.001; saturated fat
grams: r = 0.521; P = 0.001; percent fat: r = 0.573; P < 0.001).
No consistent pattern of associations between thresholds
and hunger were observed. Although the lean reported sig-
nificantly higher average hunger compared with the obese
(45.6 ± 3.20 mm vs. 31.0 ± 5.2 mm; P = 0.04), the overweight
did not differ from the lean or obese (39.0 ± 4.8 mm). Average
hunger levels were not associated with intake across BMI
groups.
Discussion
Threshold sensitivity to OA was measured in lean, over-
weight, and obese individuals over the course of 7 test visits.
Statistical analyses revealed no differences between the lean
and overweight group, so the 2 groups were combined (lean
plus overweight). The slope of threshold concentrations ver-
sus visit was significantly different and negative for the lean
plus overweight compared with the positive slope for the
obese participants. This indicates that the rate of improve-
ment was significantly greater in the lean plus overweight
group compared with the obese. The best estimate of the
lower limits of OA acid detection (visit 7) indicated the obese
were less sensitive than the lean plus overweight participants.
Although the present data do not permit a determination
for the discrepant responses of the obese versus the other
groups, BMI-based differences in externality and learning
offer possible explanations. The obese may be more attuned
to external stimuli (Nisbett 1968; Schachter 1968) and NEFA
sensory cues than individuals with lower adiposity. Thus, they
were already operating at the limits of their capabilities so did
not improve over time. In contrast, the lean and overweight
participants were initially less sensitized to NEFA concen-
trations in their environment (foods) so had greater capacity
for improvement. Rodent models suggest deficits in learning
and memory in obese animals compared with lean controls
Figure 2 Regression lines ± standard error by reliability grouping over
the course of 7 visits. Reliable performers (open circles) obtained their first
threshold and obtained a threshold at each subsequent visit (N = 18), com-
pared with those who did not consistently obtain a threshold (unreliable;
N = 30; triangles). A trend for significance (P = 0.052) was noted between
the 2 slopes.
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5. BMI and Fat Taste Sensitivity 353
(Farr et al. 2008). Weight loss via either Roux-en-Y gastric
bypass surgery or caloric restriction resulted in improvements
in memory in formerly obese rats (Grayson et al. 2013). In
humans, memory deficits were also observed in obese adults
compared with lean and overweight individuals, and these
findings were independent of age (Gunstad et al. 2006).
The increased sensitivity over time among the lean plus over-
weight may constitute an improvement in actual sensitivity or
an improvement in testing performance. Both explanations
have previously been invoked to explain increased sensitivity
after repeated testing (Eylam and Kennedy 1998; Kobayashi
and Kennedy 2002; Kobayashi et al. 2006; Tucker and Mattes
2013). An improvement in sensitivity could be the result of
increased receptor expression (Wysocki et al. 1989), represent-
ing a true, biologically mediated improvement in sensitivity.
Recent work in rodents suggests that expression levels of one
of the putative long chain fatty acid receptors, CD36, is influ-
enced by acute oral exposure to NEFA (Martin et al. 2011).
Although fasted lean and obese mice did not differ in terms of
expression level (Chevrot et al. 2013), postprandial responses
Table 1. Spearman’s rho (ρ) correlation coefficients for each visit by BMI group
Visit 1 Visit 2 Visit 3 Visit 4 Visit 5 Visit 6 Visit 7 Mean
Lean + overweight (N = 35)
Visit 1 ρ 1.000 0.565 0.498 0.285 0.397 0.158 0.358 0.763
P value <0.001 0.002 0.097 0.018 0.365 0.035 <0.001
Visit 2 ρ 1.000 0.447 0.411 0.448 0.285 0.245 0.729
P value 0.007 0.014 0.007 0.096 0.156 <0.001
Visit 3 ρ 1.000 0.474 0.528 0.235 0.480 0.686
P value 0.004 0.001 0.175 0.004 <0.001
Visit 4 ρ 1.000 0.734 0.369 0.480 0.658
P value <0.001 0.029 0.004 <0.001
Visit 5 ρ 1.000 0.407 0.455 0.728
P value 0.015 0.006 <0.001
Visit 6 ρ 1.000 0.347 0.469
P value 0.041 0.005
Visit 7 ρ 1.000 0.483
P value 0.003
Obese (N = 13)
Visit 1 ρ 1.000 0.162 −0.116 0.253 0.143 0.015 0.319 0.399
P value 0.598 0.705 0.404 0.642 0.962 0.289 0.177
Visit 2 ρ 1.000 −0.288 0.181 0.268 0.545 0.491 0.507
P value 0.340 0.555 0.376 0.054 0.088 0.077
Visit 3 ρ 1.000 −0.145 0.020 0.007 0.060 −0.080
P value 0.635 0.949 0.982 0.845 0.795
Visit 4 ρ 1.000 0.531 0.514 0.706 0.764
P value 0.062 0.072 0.007 0.002
Visit 5 ρ 1.000 0.539 0.510 0.673
P value 0.058 0.075 0.012
Visit 6 ρ 1.000 0.683 0.790
P value 0.010 0.001
Visit 7 ρ 1.000 0.875
P value <0.001
Bold values denote a significant association (P ≤ 0.001).
byguestonOctober12,2016http://chemse.oxfordjournals.org/Downloadedfrom
6. 354 R.M. Tucker et al.
differed between the lean and obese, with a decrease in expres-
sion in the lean an hour after the start of exposure. If rodents
are an appropriate model for human fat taste, this would sug-
gest that the obese would remain more sensitive during a test-
ing session, which our data do not support.
Understanding of the genetics of fat taste is in its infancy,
but previous work in a sample of 21 obese individuals sug-
gests that single nucleotide polymorphisms in the CD36 gene
were associated with sensitivity to OA (Pepino et al. 2012).
Thus, genetic differences may contribute to sensitivity dif-
ferences. In the present trial, more than 25% of participants
had a median threshold greater than 5%, but BMI did not
predict the likelihood of falling into this hyposensitive cat-
egory. Genetic differences may also explain the reliable and
unreliable performer subgroups that were observed as BMI
did not predict membership in these categories.
A more likely explanation for the improvement in the lean
and overweight is an improvement in performance (lower
thresholds) through training. If learning is responsible for
the improvement over time in the lean and overweight but
not obese, an explanation for this differential response pat-
tern is required. One theory is that a Western-style diet (high
fat, high sugar) contributes to neurodegeneration (Francis
and Stevenson 2013). Although most studies supporting
this hypothesis have been conducted in rodents or rely on
epidemiological associations, 1 intervention study fed 20
men a high-fat diet (74% of energy from fat) for 7 days after
a 3-day lead-in period (Edwards et al. 2011). Measures
of attention and awareness were significantly lower after
the high-fat diet intervention. Another study relying on a
similar design found diminished attention after 5 days on
a high-fat diet (Holloway et al. 2011). High-fat diet expo-
sure resulted in increased OA acid thresholds among lean
participants in previous work with no change in thresholds
in the overweight participants (Stewart and Keast 2012).
While we failed to detect differences in fat intake among
the lean, overweight, and obese participants, fat is often
regarded as unhealthy and is frequently underreported
(Briefel et al. 1997), especially by the obese (Livingstone
and Black 2003).
Evidence for detection threshold differences between lean
and overweight/obese participants is mixed. In contrast to
the present findings, there are other reports that overweight/
obese individuals have higher detection thresholds than their
lean counterparts with fewer than 4 test visits (Stewart et al.
2010; Stewart, Newman, et al. 2011; Stewart, Seimon, et al.
2011). Prior reports have not clearly described the level of
sensory testing experience of study participants; that is, if
subjects participate in multiple studies, learning could con-
found the results. The present work suggests this may be an
important methodological factor and could account for the
apparently inconsistent reports.
Thresholds for the group appeared to stabilize at visit
5. Limited power likely explains the lack of correlations
within the separate BMI groups. However, correlations
between threshold concentrations among visits followed
different patterns in the lean and lean plus overweight com-
pared with the obese. Later visits tended to correlate with
the mean threshold in the obese, but the opposite was found
in the lean and lean plus overweight groups with earlier vis-
its associated with mean performance. The fact that the lean
plus overweight group had a lower mean threshold for the
last 2 visits versus the first 5 suggests they were continuing
to improve.
Comparing the detection threshold results of one study to
another can be challenging due to differences in methodol-
ogy, stimulus preparation, vehicle composition, sample char-
acteristics, and so on. This is evidenced by a comparison to
our previous work that compared the effect of different test-
ing methodologies on OA detection thresholds (Tucker et al.
2013). Differences in threshold values between this study and
the previous are an order of magnitude higher in this study.
A number of factors distinguish this study from the first
study including more obese participants and the use of cen-
soring rather than assigning a value for those participants
without a threshold; each would tend to increase threshold
values.
By nearly all accounts, NEFA are aversive stimuli, unlike
triacylglycerol (TAG), the predominant form of dietary fat.
TAG generally imparts desirable sensory qualities to foods
Table 2. Spearman’s rho (ρ) correlation coefficients for diet-taste relationships and BMI group
Total fat (g) Saturated fat (g) Percent fat (%)
Baseline Mean Baseline Mean Baseline Mean
Whole group
(N = 48)
ρ NS NS 0.474 NS NS NS
P value 0.001
Lean plus
overweight
(N = 35)
ρ 0.517 0.561 NS 0.521 NS 0.573
P value 0.001 <0.001 0.001 <0.001
Obese (N = 13) ρ NS NS NS NS NS NS
P value
Bold values denote a significant association (P ≤ 0.001).
byguestonOctober12,2016http://chemse.oxfordjournals.org/Downloadedfrom
7. BMI and Fat Taste Sensitivity 355
such as creaminess and lubricity and may plausibly be directly
related to BMI (Zverev 2004). In this study and previously,
participants overwhelmingly described OA, a NEFA, as bit-
ter, although sour was also frequently mentioned (Tucker
et al. 2013). Participants also used adjectives associated with
flavors like “plastic,”“woody,”or “dirty.”Humans often learn
to appreciate tastes and flavors that are initially unpleasant,
like those of strong cheeses, fermented products, or alcohol.
Participants were asked to describe the taste quality of the
OA at each session (data not reported); none of the partici-
pants reported developing a liking for the stimulus despite
hundreds of exposures, though they also did not receive
postingestive feedback from consuming the OA during these
trials. While sensitivity is not necessarily a strong predictor
of preference and/or consumption (Moskowitz et al. 1974;
Lauer et al. 1976; Wise et al. 2007; Donaldson et al. 2009),
the presumed antecedents of weight gain, if there is an asso-
ciation between NEFA sensitivity and BMI, it would likely
be inverse—reduced intake of an unpleasant, energy-dense
stimulus. In agreement with this view, the present data reveal
an inverse relationship between threshold sensitivity and fat
intake. However, the association is strongest in lean and lean
plus overweight individuals, so the nutritional implications
of the relationship are questionable.
Our analysis revealed no meaningful associations between
hunger and OA thresholds. Others have also failed to
find associations between hunger and NEFA sensitivity
(Kamphuis et al. 2003). Differences in sensitivity by sex were
also not observed in this study.
The relationship between textural attributes and fat con-
tent of foods and emulsions has been studied extensively.
Particle size and viscosity are frequently cited as predictors
of fat content. The particle size of the emulsions presented
to participants in this study should not have allowed partici-
pants to discriminate between the vehicle and the stimulus
based on this potential textural cue. While physical properties
do not always accurately translate into consumer experience
(Kokini 1987; Akhtar et al. 2005), others have reported that
panelists could not discriminate between emulsions with a
mean droplet size of 0.5 µm and another with a mean drop-
let size of 2.3 µm (Akhtar et al. 2005). One study reported
that particles must be greater than 5.0 µm to be detected in
the oral cavity (Tyle 1993). Greater viscosity may also con-
tribute to the perceived fat content of foods and emulsions
(Mela 1988). The viscosities of the vehicle and the highest fat
containing stimulus were not different from each other at the
shear rate that may correspond most closely to that occurring
in the oral cavity (Wood 1968; Richardson et al. 1989), mak-
ing it unlikely that participants perceived viscosity cues that
allowed them to distinguish between the samples presented.
Our work suggests differences of fat taste sensitivity between
BMI categories under conditions of repeated testing where
thresholds decline for the lean and overweight but remain sta-
ble in the obese. Thus, the lean and overweight had lower limits
of detection for OA. Increased dietary fat intake was associated
with decreased NEFA taste sensitivity, but only in the lean and
lean plus overweight participants, so the nutritional implica-
tions are questionable. Underreporting of dietary fat intake
by obese individuals may have contributed to the failure to
observe diet-taste associations in this group. While possibly
unrelated to BMI, a subgroup of the population appears to be
relatively insensitive to NEFA taste. Further exploration of the
genetic contribution to fat taste will likely yield further insight
into individual differences in sensory responses.
Supplementary material
Supplementary material can be found at http://www.chemse.
oxfordjournals.org/
Funding
This work was supported by NIH/NCATS-Indiana Clin
ical and Translational Sciences Institute–TL1 Program
[A. Shekhar, PI; 5/01/08-04/30/13] and the United States
Department of Agriculture [HATCH IND084055].
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank Dr Ganesan Narsimhan, Ms Laura Zimmerer,
and Ms Cordelia Running for assistance with the particle size meas-
urements. We also thank Dr Osvaldo Campanella for the use of the
rheometer and Ms Cordelia Running for assistance with the viscos-
ity measurements.
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