All Level of government is yet to formulate legal practice of
sustainable extraction and uses of stone resources in only a few parts of
the Nepal, and there are few or no guidelines for the extraction and
uses of natural resources to follow. Nevertheless, the Stone industry
can independently utilize sustainable management techniques to
achieve the goals of meeting their needs for reserves without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
This study includes the existing data and literature with laboratory testing for the suitability
of stone and stone byproducts for different infrastructure projects. The different quarry site of
Nepal has been identified by Department of Mines and Geology and Road Construction and
Maintenance Materials Study (RCMMS), Department of Road. For this, Kotre quarry site is
selected which is located at the boundary of Kaski and Tanahun district. As per the estimated
area of Kotre quarry is 921887.119 square meter. It is found that the quarry is recharged due
to the transportation of aggregate from Himalayan zone by flood in the monsoon season. The
properties of aggregate are tested for the quality of the aggregate and required properties is
fulfilling by this quarry.
Lateritic soil is one of the main soil types in the tropical countries like India for
basic construction works. Since lateritic soils are the main underlying soil structure
in coastal Karnataka, its detailed study of mineralogical properties is of utmost
importance. The study area chosen is Udupi district and samples were procured from
coastal plains and hinterland regions. The samples taken from each places (three
layers-top, middle and bottom at around 2.5-3 m depth) were collected in zip locked
polythene bags and were oven dried at 1050 Celsius for 24 hours and then passed
through 75 μm IS sieve size. For clear images of the soil structure and for
identification of elements, samples were coated with gold sputtering. These samples
were tested by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-Ray
Spectroscopy (EDAX/EDS) and analyzed. SEM results show various minerals present
in the samples. EDAX results show the percentage of each element (like C, O, Si, K,
Cu, Ti, Mg etc) present in the sample. Therefore it can be concluded that laterites
change their composition from iron to aluminium resulting in bauxite ore as one
moves towards north in the coastal belt of Karnataka.
ENGINEERING CHARACTERISTICS OF VOLCANIC ROCK AGGREGATES OF RWANDAIAEME Publication
Applicability of the volcanic rock aggregates in the construction industry are still in the stage of exploration of finding best building materials. Usage of volcanic rock as an aggregate could prove one global identity of Rwanda in Infrastructure engineering as the place has abundance of rich volcanic rocks especially in the north-western part. This paper investigates the engineering behavior of volcanic rock aggregates with respect to performance standards e.g. compressive strength, point load test, and permeability analysis. Tested on International Standards of ASTM D4630-96(2008) and UNIEN 1926:2006, the outcome of the study is compared with one of the recent work on similar direction [19] to find volcanic rock aggregates from Rwanda could be suitably use in construction industry.
21st Century Human Habitat: Issues, Sustainability and Development
Utilization of Fly Ash in Road Construction in South Africa: Environmental Assessment
Lateritic soil is one of the main soil types in the tropical countries like India for
basic construction works. Since lateritic soils are the main underlying soil structure
in coastal Karnataka, its detailed study of mineralogical properties is of utmost
importance. The study area chosen is Udupi district and samples were procured from
coastal plains and hinterland regions. The samples taken from each places (three
layers-top, middle and bottom at around 2.5-3 m depth) were collected in zip locked
polythene bags and were oven dried at 1050 Celsius for 24 hours and then passed
through 75 μm IS sieve size. For clear images of the soil structure and for
identification of elements, samples were coated with gold sputtering. These samples
were tested by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-Ray
Spectroscopy (EDAX/EDS) and analyzed. SEM results show various minerals present
in the samples. EDAX results show the percentage of each element (like C, O, Si, K,
Cu, Ti, Mg etc) present in the sample. Therefore it can be concluded that laterites
change their composition from iron to aluminium resulting in bauxite ore as one
moves towards north in the coastal belt of Karnataka.
ENGINEERING CHARACTERISTICS OF VOLCANIC ROCK AGGREGATES OF RWANDAIAEME Publication
Applicability of the volcanic rock aggregates in the construction industry are still in the stage of exploration of finding best building materials. Usage of volcanic rock as an aggregate could prove one global identity of Rwanda in Infrastructure engineering as the place has abundance of rich volcanic rocks especially in the north-western part. This paper investigates the engineering behavior of volcanic rock aggregates with respect to performance standards e.g. compressive strength, point load test, and permeability analysis. Tested on International Standards of ASTM D4630-96(2008) and UNIEN 1926:2006, the outcome of the study is compared with one of the recent work on similar direction [19] to find volcanic rock aggregates from Rwanda could be suitably use in construction industry.
21st Century Human Habitat: Issues, Sustainability and Development
Utilization of Fly Ash in Road Construction in South Africa: Environmental Assessment
Physical, Mechanical and Chemical Characterization on Ancient Brick Masonry o...ijtsrd
Bagan, the Cultural Heritage City of Myanmar, was mainly composed of brick masonry monuments. Some monuments were stone masonry. All of these monuments are vulnerable to both disaster and natural degradation. In order to make proper conservation and repairing work, it is important to know the properties of ancient materials. Therefore, the physical properties and EDX analysis of the ancient bricks from different monuments of 11AD, 12AD, 13 AD and 18 AD were investigated. Due to the limited amount of samples, ancient mortar from monuments of 13 AD, and 18 AD were investigated. It is important to use the similar materials in conservation and repairing work of ancient monuments so that the physical properties and chemical characterization of the new brick from the modern brick mill near Bagan was also performed. Then, the physical properties unit weight, water absorption and mechanical properties compressive strength, flexural strength of ancient bricks were experimented in the laboratory. Energy-dispersive X-ray EDX analytical technique was performed for the chemical characterization of the ancient brick and mortar samples. In addition, the acid digestion test of ancient lime mortar was conducted in order to know the binder to aggregate ratio. From the evaluation of the physical properties results, ancient bricks were in good range of water absorption. The compressive strength of the ancient bricks were various due to the location of the sample, but most of them have high compressive strength. The chemical characterization results showed that the composition of the ancient bricks and modern bricks were similar but not identical. It was found that the bricks have preserved their originality against environmental and atmospheric affect and their mechanical properties showed that they were produced by appropriate technique. Thet Mon San | Kyaw Kyaw | Nyan Myint Kyaw "Physical, Mechanical and Chemical Characterization on Ancient Brick Masonry of Monuments, Bagan, Myanmar" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-1 , December 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd19100.pdf
http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/-/19100/physical-mechanical-and-chemical-characterization-on-ancient-brick-masonry-of-monuments-bagan-myanmar/thet-mon-san
Distribution and Mobility of Heavy Metal Materials in Settling Ponds Post Lat...IJERA Editor
The formation of waste matter sedimentation in settling ponds, along with accumulation of heavy metals, such as Nickel (Ni), Chrome (Cr3+ and Cr6+), manganese (Mn) and Cobalt (Co) and elements or compounds in laterite soil. These heavy metals will concentrate in different environmental geochemistry, which are laterite sediment layers pre- and post-mining. The purposes of this study are to identify changes of heavy metal distribution in settling ponds and analyze heavy metal mobility in settling ponds. The research methods were qualitative and quantitative methods. Laboratory research used AAS (Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer) which was studied, analyzed, and synthesized comprehensively. Data processing technique used SPSS v.21 software and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) method. The result showed that distribution of heavy metals Fe and Cr relatively strengthened constantly. The graphs of Fe and Cr were interpreted as similar mobility and mechanism of transportation os elements which can form chemical compounds. Meanwhile, metals Ni and Co had similar graph which was relatively flat constantly. This was interpreted as similar mobility of heavy metals in settling ponds. The mobility of heavy metals Fe and Cr were mostly concentrated to form ferrochrome compound in the sediment of settling ponds compared with Ni with its low mobility and Co with its very low mobility.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Analyses of Some Engineering Properties of Ado-Ekiti to Ilawe-Ekiti Road Soil...ijtsrd
This study sought to analyze the Engineering properties of Ado-Ekiti to Ilawe-Ekiti road soil. Soil samples were taken from three locations within the study area to laboratory for Atterberg Limits, Particle Size Distribution and Permeability tests. Results showed that the Liquid Limit (LL), Plasticity Index (PI), Shrinkage Limit (SL) and Permeability values varied from 28.48 to 32.50%, 12.03 to 23.60%, 0.6 to 0.72% and 5.14 x 10-5 ¬to 1.08 x 10-3 mms respectively for all the soil samples. Their clay or silt, sand and gravel also ranged from 15.3 to 34.1%, 48.1 "“ 77.2% and 3.8 "“ 13.6% respectively. The soil samples were generally and grouply classified as granular and A - 2 - 6 materials with mainly silty or clayey gravel and sand constituent materials. All the soil samples were good as subgrade, subbase and base materials. However, they have low permeability, which showed the reason for road failure in their locations. It is recommended that further study should be carried out. Samuel O. Akinlolu | Adeyemi E. Adetoro"Analyses of Some Engineering Properties of Ado-Ekiti to Ilawe-Ekiti Road Soil, Southwestern Nigeria" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-5 , August 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd15739.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/15739/analyses-of-some-engineering-properties-of-ado-ekiti-to-ilawe-ekiti-road-soil-southwestern-nigeria/samuel-o-akinlolu
Impact of urbanisation on water quality parameters – a case study of ashtamud...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
A CASE STUDY OF MINERAL RESOURCES AND ROCK FORMATIONS IN BASTAR REGION OF CHH...Editor IJMTER
The state to setup small, medium and heavy scale Mineral based Industries without importing
any major raw minerals from other state. The workable economic deposits of almost all minor and major
minerals located and also the state is reach in Power, Water and Human resources. Adequate quantity of
different kinds raw minerals are available for sustaining the conventional Industries like Thermal Power
Generation, Extraction, Cutting and Polishing units for Gem and Dimension Stones, Ancillary unit for
derived from the Cement and Iron Industries.
IjcA CRITICAL EVALUATION ON POZZOLONIC PROPERTIES OF SELECTED MATERIALS AND T...IAEME Publication
Increase in population in the country is demanding more and more infrastructure projects and
housing which intern is demanding more and more cement manufacturing. This is resulting in
releasing of huge amount of CO2 into the atmosphere which is causing environmental problems.
There is a need to look for alternative materials which lessen emanation of green house gasses. As
a piece of this various alternative materials to cement have been explored by various researchers.
In the present study it is focused on basalt, fly ash, metakaolin, tank sediments, sludge of vitrified
ceramic tile plant, clayey soil and clay deposits. Published articles related to the pozzolonic
materials are collected and complied.
Most relevant papers are sorted out and studied in depth to understand the problems,
methodology, results obtained and conclusions drawn. Metakaolin was tried by several researchers
and it is found to be promising At Present metakaolin available in the market is costly and this cost
factor is one of the constraint in utilization, hence we need to explore alternative low cost materials
that can be used in the place of existing metakaolin after treatment.
Physical, Mechanical and Chemical Characterization on Ancient Brick Masonry o...ijtsrd
Bagan, the Cultural Heritage City of Myanmar, was mainly composed of brick masonry monuments. Some monuments were stone masonry. All of these monuments are vulnerable to both disaster and natural degradation. In order to make proper conservation and repairing work, it is important to know the properties of ancient materials. Therefore, the physical properties and EDX analysis of the ancient bricks from different monuments of 11AD, 12AD, 13 AD and 18 AD were investigated. Due to the limited amount of samples, ancient mortar from monuments of 13 AD, and 18 AD were investigated. It is important to use the similar materials in conservation and repairing work of ancient monuments so that the physical properties and chemical characterization of the new brick from the modern brick mill near Bagan was also performed. Then, the physical properties unit weight, water absorption and mechanical properties compressive strength, flexural strength of ancient bricks were experimented in the laboratory. Energy-dispersive X-ray EDX analytical technique was performed for the chemical characterization of the ancient brick and mortar samples. In addition, the acid digestion test of ancient lime mortar was conducted in order to know the binder to aggregate ratio. From the evaluation of the physical properties results, ancient bricks were in good range of water absorption. The compressive strength of the ancient bricks were various due to the location of the sample, but most of them have high compressive strength. The chemical characterization results showed that the composition of the ancient bricks and modern bricks were similar but not identical. It was found that the bricks have preserved their originality against environmental and atmospheric affect and their mechanical properties showed that they were produced by appropriate technique. Thet Mon San | Kyaw Kyaw | Nyan Myint Kyaw "Physical, Mechanical and Chemical Characterization on Ancient Brick Masonry of Monuments, Bagan, Myanmar" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-1 , December 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd19100.pdf
http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/-/19100/physical-mechanical-and-chemical-characterization-on-ancient-brick-masonry-of-monuments-bagan-myanmar/thet-mon-san
Distribution and Mobility of Heavy Metal Materials in Settling Ponds Post Lat...IJERA Editor
The formation of waste matter sedimentation in settling ponds, along with accumulation of heavy metals, such as Nickel (Ni), Chrome (Cr3+ and Cr6+), manganese (Mn) and Cobalt (Co) and elements or compounds in laterite soil. These heavy metals will concentrate in different environmental geochemistry, which are laterite sediment layers pre- and post-mining. The purposes of this study are to identify changes of heavy metal distribution in settling ponds and analyze heavy metal mobility in settling ponds. The research methods were qualitative and quantitative methods. Laboratory research used AAS (Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer) which was studied, analyzed, and synthesized comprehensively. Data processing technique used SPSS v.21 software and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) method. The result showed that distribution of heavy metals Fe and Cr relatively strengthened constantly. The graphs of Fe and Cr were interpreted as similar mobility and mechanism of transportation os elements which can form chemical compounds. Meanwhile, metals Ni and Co had similar graph which was relatively flat constantly. This was interpreted as similar mobility of heavy metals in settling ponds. The mobility of heavy metals Fe and Cr were mostly concentrated to form ferrochrome compound in the sediment of settling ponds compared with Ni with its low mobility and Co with its very low mobility.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Analyses of Some Engineering Properties of Ado-Ekiti to Ilawe-Ekiti Road Soil...ijtsrd
This study sought to analyze the Engineering properties of Ado-Ekiti to Ilawe-Ekiti road soil. Soil samples were taken from three locations within the study area to laboratory for Atterberg Limits, Particle Size Distribution and Permeability tests. Results showed that the Liquid Limit (LL), Plasticity Index (PI), Shrinkage Limit (SL) and Permeability values varied from 28.48 to 32.50%, 12.03 to 23.60%, 0.6 to 0.72% and 5.14 x 10-5 ¬to 1.08 x 10-3 mms respectively for all the soil samples. Their clay or silt, sand and gravel also ranged from 15.3 to 34.1%, 48.1 "“ 77.2% and 3.8 "“ 13.6% respectively. The soil samples were generally and grouply classified as granular and A - 2 - 6 materials with mainly silty or clayey gravel and sand constituent materials. All the soil samples were good as subgrade, subbase and base materials. However, they have low permeability, which showed the reason for road failure in their locations. It is recommended that further study should be carried out. Samuel O. Akinlolu | Adeyemi E. Adetoro"Analyses of Some Engineering Properties of Ado-Ekiti to Ilawe-Ekiti Road Soil, Southwestern Nigeria" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-5 , August 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd15739.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/15739/analyses-of-some-engineering-properties-of-ado-ekiti-to-ilawe-ekiti-road-soil-southwestern-nigeria/samuel-o-akinlolu
Impact of urbanisation on water quality parameters – a case study of ashtamud...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
A CASE STUDY OF MINERAL RESOURCES AND ROCK FORMATIONS IN BASTAR REGION OF CHH...Editor IJMTER
The state to setup small, medium and heavy scale Mineral based Industries without importing
any major raw minerals from other state. The workable economic deposits of almost all minor and major
minerals located and also the state is reach in Power, Water and Human resources. Adequate quantity of
different kinds raw minerals are available for sustaining the conventional Industries like Thermal Power
Generation, Extraction, Cutting and Polishing units for Gem and Dimension Stones, Ancillary unit for
derived from the Cement and Iron Industries.
IjcA CRITICAL EVALUATION ON POZZOLONIC PROPERTIES OF SELECTED MATERIALS AND T...IAEME Publication
Increase in population in the country is demanding more and more infrastructure projects and
housing which intern is demanding more and more cement manufacturing. This is resulting in
releasing of huge amount of CO2 into the atmosphere which is causing environmental problems.
There is a need to look for alternative materials which lessen emanation of green house gasses. As
a piece of this various alternative materials to cement have been explored by various researchers.
In the present study it is focused on basalt, fly ash, metakaolin, tank sediments, sludge of vitrified
ceramic tile plant, clayey soil and clay deposits. Published articles related to the pozzolonic
materials are collected and complied.
Most relevant papers are sorted out and studied in depth to understand the problems,
methodology, results obtained and conclusions drawn. Metakaolin was tried by several researchers
and it is found to be promising At Present metakaolin available in the market is costly and this cost
factor is one of the constraint in utilization, hence we need to explore alternative low cost materials
that can be used in the place of existing metakaolin after treatment.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF MODIFIED CONCRETE USING FLY ASH AND STONE DUSTAM Publications
Construction activity in India during the last decade has more than doubled. Concrete has been the most preferred construction material for over five decades. It is being increasingly used day by day all over the world due to its versatility, mouldability, high compressive strength and many more advantages. The problem of how to meet the increasing demand and cost of concrete in sustainable manner is a challenge in the field of civil engineering and environmental studies. Alternative materials generally used are mainly the industrial wastes which are facing the problems of safe disposal and cause environment hazards. Fly-ash and Stone dust are such industrial wastes in huge quantity facing the safe disposal. Fly-ash is a product developed as industrial waste during the production of electricity in Thermal Power Plants, where coal is prime material. Due to its highly puzzolonic and cementatious properties, Fly ash can be used in much larger amount as cement replacement material in concrete than practiced as of today. Stone dust is a byproduct generated from quarrying activities involved in the production of crushed coarse aggregate in crusher and stone quarries. River sand is becoming a very scarce material. The sand mining from our rivers have become objectionably excessive in view of both economy and environment. Stone dust can be used as an alternative to natural sand and its effects on the strength and workability of the concretes need to be investigated. Unfortunately limited research has been conducted to explore the potential utilization of stone dust in concrete mixture. In view of the above, present investigation is an attempt towards the assessment of suitability use of Fly-ash and stone dust in concrete production.
AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF MODIFIED CONCRETE USING FLY ASH AND STONE DUSTAM Publications
Construction activity in India during the last decade has more than doubled. Concrete has been the most preferred construction material for over five decades. It is being increasingly used day by day all over the world due to its versatility, mouldability, high compressive strength and many more advantages. The problem of how to meet the increasing demand and cost of concrete in sustainable manner is a challenge in the field of civil engineering and environmental studies. Alternative materials generally used are mainly the industrial wastes which are facing the problems of safe disposal and cause environment hazards. Fly-ash and Stone dust are such industrial wastes in huge quantity facing the safe disposal. Fly-ash is a product developed as industrial waste during the production of electricity in Thermal Power Plants, where coal is prime material. Due to its highly puzzolonic and cementatious properties, Fly ash can be used in much larger amount as cement replacement material in concrete than practiced as of today. Stone dust is a byproduct generated from quarrying activities involved in the production of crushed coarse aggregate in crusher and stone quarries. River sand is becoming a very scarce material. The sand mining from our rivers have become objectionably excessive in view of both economy and environment. Stone dust can be used as an alternative to natural sand and its effects on the strength and workability of the concretes need to be investigated. Unfortunately limited research has been conducted to explore the potential utilization of stone dust in concrete mixture. In view of the above, present investigation is an attempt towards the assessment of suitability use of Fly-ash and stone dust in concrete production.
A review on utilization of mine waste on black cotton soileSAT Journals
Abstract Mine wastes are one of the chronic waste concerns. The volume of solid waste generated during mining process, is one of the main pollution concern. The presence of high concentration of heavy metals and acid producing mineral phases can endanger the environment if management of these wastes are not addressed properly. Mine wastes have numerous ecological effects viz Air, Land and Water. There is a great difficulty in finding space for the storage of wastes generated in enormous quantity. The review of past studies indicated that 50 to 60% of mine waste by volume can be used as coarse grained particle and 10 to 15% by volume as fine aggregate. Despite quite a lot of attempts to diminish the amount of waste, mine waste remains one of world’s largest waste streams. Black cotton soil on the other hand is problematic due to the presence of momtmorillonite that imparts high swell- shrink potentials. These soils are very hard when dry but loose strength completely when wet. Pavement surface on poor soil subgrade show early distress causing pavement failure. The present study examines the utilization of these wastes as stabilizers for black cotton soil for unpaved road construction. Keywords: Mine Waste, slag aggregate, Solid Waste Materials, Iron Ore slag
Experimental Analysis of the Use of Coconut Shell as Coarse AggregateIOSR Journals
The high cost of conventional building materials is a major factor affecting housing delivery in the
world. This has necessitated research into alternative materials of construction. In this study, coconut shell is
used as light weight aggregate in concrete. The properties of coconut shell and coconut shell aggregate
concrete is examined and the use of coconut shell aggregate in construction is tested. The project paper aims at
analyzing flexural and compressive strength characteristics of with partial replacement using M30 grade
concrete. The project also aims to show that Coconut shell aggregate is a potential construction material and
simultaneously reduces the environment problem of solid..Beams are casted, tested and their physical and
mechanical properties are determined. The main objective is to encourage the use of these „seemingly‟ waste
products as construction materials in low-cost housing.
PROPERTIES OF SUSTAINABLE MORTAR WITH COPPER SLAG AS FINE AGGREGATEIAEME Publication
The construction industry around the globe is progressing at a very high pace. Numerous infrastructural projects demand a vast supply of natural raw materials. The over-exploitation of the natural resources for construction has a negative impact on the environmental. Thereof making construction unsustainable. Utilization of industrial waste in construction is gaining force, not only due to non-availability of the good quality natural raw material but also due to the great potential of various industrial by-products to be a valuable resource. The present experimental study is conducted to investigate the feasibility of Copper slag as fine aggregate in mortar mixes. Total ten mortar mixes with varying percentages of copper slag were prepared,and their properties are compared with properties of mortar mix comprising natural river sand (reference mortar). The mixes were evaluated for flow, density, compressive strength, percentage water absorption, percentage pore voids and abrasion resistance. Present study infers that the inclusion of copper slag as fine aggregate improves the compressive strength, flow, abrasion resistance and reduces percentage water absorption and percentage pore voids in the mortar.
Investigating the Properties of Cement Concrete Containing M Sand as Fine Agg...ijtsrd
M sand also called artificial sand or crushed sand, the prepared by crushing rocks, stones, or larger aggregates into small size particles in the quarry. The study is aimed at the complete replacement of conventional material like river sand used as fine aggregate. By using M sand manufactured sand crushed sand . M sand here acts as a fine aggregate in the cement concrete. The experiment is carried out by finding the value of slump, compressive strength, and split tensile strength. Natural fine aggregate is replaced by M sand to complete mix proportion in the concrete. M sand shares similar properties as conventional Fine Aggregates and gives good split tensile and compressive strength to the concrete. The results are compared with the control mix of design mix M30. The specimens are tested after 7 days and 28 days of curing. Complete replacement of fine aggregate with manufactured sand concrete makes the cost of construction can be controlled. Strength, workability, and durability test also studied. Compressive strength is the most important property of concrete it is also increasing. Complete replacement of fine aggregate with crushed sand production of concrete increasing. It is dust free in M sand which is a good sign to do the replacement. Environment preservation and natural resources conservation is the soul of country development.The application of crushed sand mix for residential building structural members such as column, beam, slab, and foundation and plastering are also elicited. The study brings out the fact that it is also more economical than the typical cement concrete.The findings of this research call for the safe use of manufactured sand. Economical concrete mix is a very useful material for construction, which offers a range of economic, technical, and environmental enhancing and preserving advantages and is destined to become a dominant material for construction in the new era. With increasing structure construction work, its availability and less transportation cost also an important factor as an alternative for river sand. Ankit Pandey | Afzal Khan "Investigating the Properties of Cement Concrete Containing M-Sand as Fine Aggregate for M30 Grade Concrete" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-7 | Issue-2 , April 2023, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com.com/papers/ijtsrd53978.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com.com/engineering/civil-engineering/53978/investigating-the-properties-of-cement-concrete-containing-msand-as-fine-aggregate-for-m30-grade-concrete/ankit-pandey
Risk identification is important for all Housing and Real estate projects among various risks
cadastral survey risk is one, which play important role during land purchasing, pooling, plotting
and laying out the project. This is significant on especially in multicultural communities like
Nepalese society. It includes identification of cadastral survey risks and probable disputes among
neighbor regarding the border line of the land and question about laying down the construction
projects. It is important to minimize those problems for successful project delivery and increase the
profitability of the project. Objective of this paper is to identify the cadastral risks and find the
dispute of the housing and the real estate projects. This research present the survey and analysis
and conclusion based on the response.
Engineering management to urban development, particularly construction projects are
usually considered a ‘high risk job’ mostly because of, a lack of adequate government’s act
with necessary policies, environmental information, and urban construction experiences.
Similar construction projects may have very different risk characteristics of different
development regions in Nepal. It is difficult for a newcomer to identify new risks, in a new
environment and politically instable in the country. It is more difficult to assess these risks
and impact of relationships among them. On the one hand, ignoring these risks is
irresponsible and unrealistic decisions by the professionals. On the other hand, identifying
and assessing all the new risks and their relationships is a very complicated, time-consuming,
and expensive process. This process is possible for the majority of projects, especially when
there are adequate amounts of information, skilled technical team, and enough time. When
such a complex scenario faced the accessing and responding these vital risk factors in urban
development projects becomes extremely important. Engineering knowledge is the basic tools
to apply for drastic change in the country's infrastructures for urban development.
The occupational accidents are not standardized. Particularly, developing countries do not have
guided information on their accidents due to safety, health and environment which are lack of
proper systems. The number of accidents occurring in each project are not projected and
published in Nepal. Training, awarding for the workers is not done or not effective. Safety
engineers along with the workers need to aware to every project is not yet started. Project owner,
consultant and contractors must be responsible along with the construction safety Act which
must be promulgated as soon as possible to response the risk.
In this chapter, it is discuss the risk factors involved in infrastructure construction
projects. Under the theoretical Perspective model, following topics are being
discussed: Introduction, Infrastructure and urbanization in regional context,
Infrastructure and urbanization in Nepalese context, Role of infrastructure housing
apartment and real estate, Housing and real Estate in developing countries and worth
of the infrastructure projects. Finally summaries of this chapter is outlined
Workers' health and safety is an important asset , it enhances the productivity, efficiency, quality of every industry if well maintained. Construction material producer are vital industries from where supplying the demand of emerging construction materials to infrastructure and habitat projects as per projects' need. These industries employing lot of workers but they are not being worry about health and safety. Different convention of ILO as well as WHO have emphasizes to respond the issues related workers health and safety. Nepal had not yet ratified ILO convention No. 155 on occupational safety and health. Therefore lot of death, fatalities are suffered due to health and safety. It is important asset of workers that must be taken seriously by all stake holders as well as the nation. To make civilize society, all should be aware about every one's health and safety that too, workers health of safety is very important issues in every industry.
The main purpose of this paper is identify the risks involved in housing and
real estate of construction projects in Nepal and ranks them as per the severity. In this
research, first the risks involved in construction projects life cycle has been identified
with the help of professional expertise and verified with the help of housing profession
arranged in a respondent in systematic hierarchical structure. Questionnaire surveys and
literature review were used for data collection. Next, based on the obtained data a
network was based on the statically system has been designed for the evaluation of
project risks. After data analysis, the result has been published and finally conclusion
has been drawn.
All most all infrastructure projects are being over running in terms of either time or amount and even deteriorated
the quality of the projects. For new professionals and the experts are learning bad train which must be stop it as soon as
possible. This is because of contributed risk factors, No body, either government agency of Nepal take care about this risk
factors or from public, the infrastructure projects which are losing a lot every minute, quality and money. This research
explores to analyze, and mitigate the understanding of risk management in the infrastructures development projects. Deeper
understanding by means of detailed study during pre-planning and planning phase is expected to enhance more effective risk
management and, therefore, a better productivity and better quality to be achieved, which creates the satisfactions to all
stakeholders.
Sand quality and cost-effective leads infrastructure in rural villages, a fundamental questions are identification of
sources of construction sand mines, available quality and supply management how to maintain it is big challenges?
Should the license holder suppliers or a government agency above them manage the construction of the
infrastructure project? To answer this question, we surveyed all Society of Consulting Architectural and Engineering
Firms, Nepal (SCAFE) members involved in infrastructure projects, As per Federation Contractors‟ Association of
Nepal (FCAN), Sand quarry operator, Sand suppliers and sand washing plant operators in Kathmandu valley of
Nepal. Findings clearly indicate that the most important causes were lack of proper management, awareness and
understanding, quality, test skill and knowledge with contractor, consult and other stake holders. Also government
and authority have not taken action to support legal aspects and control illegal operation as well as maintain supply
management of construction sand for infrastructure projects.
The infrastructure construction sectors are usually complex. Zero risk construction projects are only an
assumption. The objective of this paper is to identify the risks factor associated with the urban infrastructure
construction projects causing delay. The research found that those risks are directly associated to clients,
contractors, sub-contractors that would cause delay in the construction work. Other factors are also
identified such as project, financial, political, technical, market risk, managerial, resource risk, and force
majeure. All risk factors affect the time, cost and quality performance of the construction project. From risk
management perspective, it is the process on which identifies the risks and analyzed with qualitatively and
quantitatively. All associated risks can treat by various mitigation processes and then mitigating method are
monitored to control the risks. Risk management distinguishes between success and failure of a project.
So, Nepal could use it effectively to meet its growing need of infrastructure and job opportunity
The occupational accidents are not standardized to rating the risk factors for timely execution of infrastructures. Particularly, developing countries do not have guided information on their accidents due to safety, health and environment which are lack of proper systems. The number of accidents occurring in each infrastructures construction projects are not projected and published in Nepal. Training, awarding for the workers is not done or not effective. Safety engineers along with the workers need to aware to every construction project is not yet started. Project owner, consultant and contractors must be responsible along with the construction safety act which must be promulgated as soon as possible to response the Health, Safety and Environment risks. Safety engineering and prosperous Nepal are two side of same coin. By ignoring safety engineering to achieve prospers Nepal and happy Nepali is baseless dream .There would be lot of chances to inviting the risk factors which can lose much more.
Nepal is beautiful country. According to new geographical structure there are six metropolitan
cities, eleven sub-metropolitan cities. Seventeen cities are already urbanized and two hundred and
seventy-six municipalities are also newly emerging cities. The objective of this research is mainly
urban infrastructure development, its challenges, explore the problems, identify defective
coordination within the interdisciplinary ministry, suggest for integrated infrastructure, to aware
risk factors associated during urban infrastructures. The methodology adopted was according to
various literature reviews and surveys conducted on the sport. Respondent were selected from
concerned authorities, this research shows everyone want affordable housing, public hospital,
school, college, university, drinking water, communication, drain and sanitation facilities and wide
road are prime needs. It was found the defective procurement policy including various risk factors,
a lack of adequate government’s act with necessary policies, vision of leader is not globally
thinking and locally acting, human resource is not compatible, the poor performance of contactor
and consultant, project manager is not being professional and allocating budget is not enough,
since one authority built, immediately other authority dig the trench. if government started
integrated urban infrastructure projects would better for future and proper risk management plan
needs to establish.
Construction industry is one of the largest and most important industries in Nepal. Construction safety in
the industry still suffers from ignorance and lack of supervision and accident rate on construction projects
is very high. The objective of this study is to identify the awareness lunched in the construction industries
that relate to safety, problems related ergonomic health and safety, and the status of safety engineering
management as perceived by construction and consultancies to help reduction of accidents. A survey
was conducted by using a numbers of questionnaires which was distributed to 38 respondents. Analysis
of the responses found the most important factors that included: “Awareness programs are lunching in
construction industries about health, safety and environment “Weather Construction firms are managing
problems related ergonomic health and safety in construction sites? How well is the management of safety
engineering in construction projects by every firm of Nepal?
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1. Koirala et al. World Journal of Engineering Research and Technology
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SUSTAINABLE STONE EXTRACTION FOR USING AS
CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL AND SUITABILITY PROPERTIES:
CASE STUDY OF KOTRE QUARRY OF NEPAL
Er. Buddhi Raj Joshi1
and Dr. Madhav Prasad Koirala*2
1
Lecturer School of Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Pokhara University.
2
Prfessor, United Technical College, Subject Committee Member, Civil and Architecture,
Pokhara University, Pokhara.
DOI: 10.20959/wjert20186-995
Article Received on 18/09/2018 Article Revised on 09/10/2018 Article Accepted on 30/10/2018
ABSTRACT
All Level of government is yet to formulate legal practice of
sustainable extraction and uses of stone resources in only a few parts of
the Nepal, and there are few or no guidelines for the extraction and
uses of natural resources to follow. Nevertheless, the Stone industry
can independently utilize sustainable management techniques to
achieve the goals of meeting their needs for reserves without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
This study includes the existing data and literature with laboratory testing for the suitability
of stone and stone byproducts for different infrastructure projects. The different quarry site of
Nepal has been identified by Department of Mines and Geology and Road Construction and
Maintenance Materials Study (RCMMS), Department of Road. For this, Kotre quarry site is
selected which is located at the boundary of Kaski and Tanahun district. As per the estimated
area of Kotre quarry is 921887.119 square meter. It is found that the quarry is recharged due
to the transportation of aggregate from Himalayan zone by flood in the monsoon season. The
properties of aggregate are tested for the quality of the aggregate and required properties is
fulfilling by this quarry.
KEYWORDS: Stone and Stone byproduct, Quarry, Extraction, Properties.
wjert, 2018, Vol. 4, Issue 6, 137-157.
World Journal of Engineering Research and Technology
WJERT
www.wjert.org
ISSN 2454-695XOriginal Article
SJIF Impact Factor: 5.218
*Corresponding Author
Dr. Madhav Prasad
Koirala
Prfessor, United Technical
College, Subject Committee
Member, Civil and
Architecture, Pokhara
University, Pokhara.
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1. INTRODUCTION
Construction Materials obtained from natural aggregates, sand, gravel, and crushed stone are
granular materials composed of rock fragments that are extracted or mined or quarried and
used in the infrastructures except for such operations as crushing, washing, and sizing.
Natural aggregate obtained from mine is an essential commodity in modern construction
projects. Apartments, National and international roads, Tunnels, Bridges, railroads, airports,
dams, Canal and energy generation facilities are all heavily dependent Natural stone and
stone products. Every stage of life of human and animal or plant, nearly every individual in
society uses products made with Stone and stone product. The suitability of the quarry
material and the proper utilization of quarry should be guided by legal policy and values. The
technical properties are vital for the proper management of quarries. There are many potential
and existing quarry sites for the extraction of such stone materials in the country. These sites
differ in size, type, and quality of extracted stone material. Department of Road and Ministry
of Geology and Mines conducted a study related to the quarry site identification of stone
aggregates. It has identified potential quarry sites and the respective quality of stone
aggregates for the application in the construction and maintenance of engineering structure.
The study “Road Construction and Maintenance Materials Study” conducted in 1990 A.D. by
Department of Road was mainly focused in the identification of technical properties of
aggregates. The sustainability issues are another vital question for the quarry management. In
addition to this, many quarries is used for the purpose other than road construction. Demand
on stone aggregates is one of the major components of infrastructure development is
tremendously increasing. Local authorities mainly are dealing with the permission and
revenue collection from the private entrepreneurs from the quarry. Most of the quarry sites
are very affecting the stability of the river bank and bed. They are creating very critical
environmental and geological hazards to the surrounding community. It needs the special
attention and classification of quarries as per technical as well as environmental context.
These quarries should be regulated on the basis of scientific reasons.
1.1 Background
The availability of natural resources in the different parts of the country is the foundation for
overall economic development of the nation. Earth‟s crust, the rock is the base for the
physical infrastructure development. Historically, the construction is the major indicators of
human civilization. Furthermore, balanced mass of the rock is major indicator for the
localized stability of the hill slopes as well as depressed part of the topography. The demand
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on such resource is ever increasing; hence the extraction rate is rapidly increasing. The
utilization of the natural resources for economic benefit is matter of sustainability.
It is believed that after thousands of years, rocky materials finally turn into sand or clay. The
sand that eroded from sandstone rocks, deposited as a beach, dune or desert. After millions of
years, sandstone rocks turned into sandstone cliffs and eventually eroded for the second time
(Koirala &Joshi, 2017).
The Kotre, one of the main quarry sites for stone aggregate has been taken as the case study
for this research. The Pokhara valley is located in the Midland Region lying between Great
Himalayas in the north and Mahabharat Range in the south. The valley has unique basin
landscape, and it is surrounded by hills made up of Midland Meta sediment Group. The
Midland Meta sediment Group is composed of meta-sandstone, quartzite and phyllites. The
Seti River starts from Annapurna Range and the Machhapuchhre Himal, which are composed
of the Himalayan Gneiss and Tibetan Tethys. The Tibetan Tethys consists of Paleozoic and
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks containing fossiliferous limestone. The transported fossiliferous
limestone is collected at the Kotre quarry site. Therefore, selection of aggregates depends on
these properties and specification set by national and international norms. Works on
aggregates and their properties have been made earlier in different areas by several authors
(Tamrakar et al. 1999; Maharjan and Tamrakar 2003; Thapaliya 2005; Dhakal et al. 2006;
Maharjan and Tamrakar 2007; Tamrakar et al. 2007). Tamrakar et al. (1999) suggested that
the mechanical properties of sandstones and limestone depended on the rock types and
content of calcium carbonate, and were independent on deposition age of rocks. Maharjan
and Tamrakar (2003) evaluated quality of silt stone samples from the Tistung formation for
concrete aggregate and found that the aggregates were appropriate for concrete aggregates.
Thapaliya (2005) studied lime stones of the Chandragiri formation, southern Kathmandu, and
showed that the rocks were medium to high strength, durable and suitable for both
monumental and construction purposes. Maharjan and Tamrakar (2007) evaluated quality of
the river gravels for aggregates and concluded that the majority of gravels had diverse
chemical groups, high durability and good workability for road and concrete aggregates.
Tamrakar et al. (2007) analyzed sand stones from the Siwalik group and concluded that the
strength of the sand stones depends primarily on proportion of void space in sand stones. The
research on evaluation of quality of quarried materials was conducted only for the quarries
operated in the peripheral part of the Kotre. Kotre quarry site is the largest aggregate
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extraction site situated in Tanahun district of Nepal. The natural and crushed rock aggregates
from Kotre area are being supplied to the market without following any technical
specification. Therefore, this study aims in exploring and evaluating the suitability crushed
rock aggregates for different infrastructure projects.
1.2 Problem Statement and hypothesis
There are serious debates on the utilization of natural resources in the country. Moreover,
there are many other illegal quarry sites working for supplying materials locally. The
engineering part of these quarry location, methods of extraction, environmental impact and
many other aspects being challenges.
The main hypothesis in this topic of the research is:
a. The community concerns on the sustainability issues of the stone quarry sites are truthful.
b. The technical methods of the extraction are not proper.
c. The suitability of the stone materials for the particular purpose has not been studied.
1.3 Objectives of the research project
The broad objective of the proposed research is to study the suitability and sustainability of
stone quarry sites in Nepal.
Further the specific objectives of the research project are:
a. Study of the issues regarding quarry sites and their policy matters;
b. Identify the sustainability indicators for the proper quarry management;
c. To study the prevailing methods of the extraction, types of quarry, application of
extracted materials.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Sustainability of stone and aggregate
If aggregate is to be produced from new sources, certain conditions must be met.
Sand, gravel, or rock must exist in sufficient quantity and quality to make mining worthwhile,
and it must be accessible to transportation systems and to markets. The property must be of
sufficient size to locate a pit or quarry and processing equipment, and be owned by a person
or people willing to sell or lease it at a reasonable price. The deposit must physically be able
to be mined without causing unacceptable impacts to the environment. The extraction and
processing site must qualify for all necessary permits. The approving officials and the public
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must be convinced that the operation can take place without adversely affecting the
environment or their lifestyle. In other words, the operator must be able to obtain a „social
license‟ to mine. The operation must be profitable considering all costs including:
exploration, acquisition, permitting, operation, environmental controls, compliance with
regulations, transport to market, and reclamation. The production of aggregate involves
extraction and processing of the raw material into a useable product, transport of that
commodity to the point of use, and the reclamation of mined-out pits or quarries. The
following is a general description of the production of natural aggregate. Global Issue the
Environment Protection……The infrastructure, housing, and real estate projects degrade the
environment if it is allowed run without planning. In order to implement even a one project, it
is essential to import the construction materials, construction equipment, human resources
and new technology from inside and outside the country. During construction period, lots of
chemicals are used. By-product generated from the projects affects the environment. The
byproduct and chemicals need to be disposed properly in the appropriate places (Koirala,
2017).
2.1.1 Extraction
Sand and gravel deposits commonly are excavated from pits utilizing conventional earth-
moving equipment. Mining crushed stone generally requires drilling and blasting of solid
bedrock (also referred to as ledge or ledge-rock), which breaks the rock into rubble of a size
suitable for crushing. Crushed stone, sand and gravel commonly are obtained from dry pits or
quarries, but in some settings may be mined from water-filled excavations using dredges
mounted on barges, or with draglines. Sand and gravel or rock rubble at the mine face is
transported by truck or conveyor to a processing plant. Sand and gravel may or may not be
crushed, depending on the size of the largest gravel particles and the desired product.
Depending on the specifications of the final product, the processed material may be washed
to remove dust. Sand may be screened from the mixture and processed separately. After
screening, sorting, and washing (if necessary), the sand and different size gravel/rock
particles are moved by a conveyors to separate stockpiles where they are stored until sold and
shipped. But there is no separate washing unit available in the Kotre Quarry site. There is no
blasting process adopted for the mining quarry sites. Besides that, there is no dust control
system installed for the protection of natural environment.
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Fig 1: Crusher Plant, Kotre.
2.1.2 Transportation: Most aggregate is sold in bulk. Upon sale, aggregate is loaded on
trucks, railcars, barges, or freighters for transport to a destination. Aggregate is a high-bulk,
low value commodity, and transportation can add substantially to the cost at the point of use.
The cost of transportation of aggregates in the European Union is about 13% of the total cost
of the aggregate (Bleischwitz and Bahn-Walkowiak, 2006). Trucks are by far the most
flexible and most common means of transporting aggregate. They can be loaded and
unloaded at many locations using a variety of techniques and can accommodate most delivery
schedules. Rail and barge are much less flexible because they utilize fixed route systems
following strict schedules and require considerable investment capital in terms of loading
facilities, off-loading facilities, and distribution yards. Trains and barges achieve economy by
moving large volumes of aggregate long distances on regular schedules (Hayes, 1991).
2.1.3 Reclamation: Reclamation may be implemented following four reclamation
strategies: progressive, segmental, interim, or post-mining (Norman and Lingley, 1992).
Progressive reclamation immediately follows the removal of aggregate, but may be
impractical for operations that must blend mined material from different parts of the pit or
quarry. Segmental reclamation follows the removal of minerals in designated sections of the
mine, is cost efficient, establishes final slopes as part of the mining operation, and works best
in homogeneous deposits. Interim reclamation temporarily stabilizes disturbed areas with
fast-growing grasses or legumes, and at a later time implements the final reclamation plan.
Post-mining reclamation does not begin until the entire mine has been exhausted, which may
lead to deterioration of stockpiled soils, a longer re-vegetation time frame, and high bonding
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liability (Norman and Lingley, 1992). Reclamation can produce economic benefits by reusing
pits or quarries as residential property, industrial and commercial properties, office parks,
landfills, golf courses, recreational areas, and botanical gardens.
2.1.4 Potential environmental impacts and their mitigation
The overall contribution of aggregate extraction to resource depletion, competing land-uses,
global warming, and energy use is rather low (Bleischwitz and Bahn-Walkowiak, 2006).
Nevertheless, aggregate extraction and processing cause environmental impacts including
changes to the landscape, noise, dust, vibrations from blasting, and degradation of
groundwater and surface water.
i. Changes to the landscape: The most obvious environmental impact of aggregate
extraction is a change to the landscape, generally from undeveloped or agricultural lands to a
pit or quarry. After closure, the pit or quarry may be reclaimed to function as the original
habitat. Progressive, segmental, or interim reclamation can speed habitat recovery. The area
of extraction may have contained important archaeological, paleontological, or geological
features that can be identified during pre-quarry inventories. Ironically, such features may be
recognized only after aggregate operations begin because aggregate extraction uncovers a
relatively large area at a relatively slow pace, sometimes leading to serendipitous discoveries.
ii. Noise and dust: The primary source of noise and dust from aggregate extraction is from
vehicle movements, processing equipment, and blasting. Aggregate producers are responsible
for ensuring that the noise and dust emitted from the pit or quarry do not exceed regulated
levels. Low-noise equipment and dust suppression or collection systems can significantly
reduce impacts.
iii. Vibrations from blasting: Most of the energy of a quarry blast is expended on breaking
the rock. Extensive research by the former US Bureau of Mines resulted in ground vibration
and air blast standards that are recognized worldwide and have become industry standards for
safe blasting (Siskind et al., 1980a, 1980b). Impacts from blasting can be mitigated by
maintaining blast vibrations below well-documented limits on ground motion and air
concussion (Langer et al., 2004).
iv. Impacts on groundwater: The environmental impacts of aggregate operations on
groundwater are highly dependent on the local geology, hydrology, and climate. In dry
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climates, evaporation of water from pits or quarries may lower the water table. In humid
climates, precipitation may flow into a quarry and recharge groundwater. Groundwater flow
in springs, gaining streams, and wells may be impacted by nearby aggregate operations that
pump groundwater from the pit or quarry. Extracting rock from Karst areas can have a severe
impact on the groundwater, but the impact can commonly be controlled with well-designed
and implemented environmental management procedures (Langer, 2001b). In highly
permeable deposits, slurry walls or grouting may be necessary to isolate the operation from
the water table.
v. Impacts from transportation: Aggregate is commonly delivered from the pit or quarry
to the construction site by truck, which can create problems of noise and exhaust as the trucks
pass nearby dwellings. Truck traffic ultimately intermingles with automobile traffic creating
potential hazards such as those caused by trucks that transport other consumer products. The
environmental impacts and hazards of trucks can be minimized when the trucks are well
maintained and operated, and when automobile drivers allow reasonable space for truck
drivers to maneuver and stop safely. Trucks can be equipped with mud flaps and load covers
to prevent loose material from being thrown from wheels and loads. Limiting the number of
quarry entrances and exits, and constructing acceleration and deceleration lanes at pit or
quarry entrances can allow trucks to enter and exit traffic smoothly. Delivery routes can be
designed to minimize interference with neighborhood traffic.
vi. Energy consumption: Producing aggregate requires the use of energy which in turn
causes the release of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. The energy consumption required
to bring aggregate to a useful state is referred to as „embodied energy‟. The energy
consuming activities of aggregate extraction and processing include: Removing vegetation
and soil, building the processing facilities, and otherwise preparing the site for operation;
drilling, blasting (for crushed stone), and excavating the material and transporting material
from the excavation site to the processing facility by truck or conveyor;
vii. Managing impacts through best management: Limiting environmental impacts from
aggregate mining commonly requires following best management practices, which should be
available as handbooks and guidelines. Industry practices have become so advanced in many
industrialized countries that aggregate extraction adhering to best management practices can
be considered a temporary, rather than permanent, land use (Wellmer and Becker-Platen,
2002). Increasingly, aggregate companies are receiving certification from the International
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Organization for Standardization (ISO) by a voluntary international standard for
environmental management. This standard is primarily concerned with the activities an
organization takes to minimize harmful effects on the environment and to continually
improve its environmental performance.
2.2 Properties of Stone Aggregate
It denotes all the required properties like grading need to be satisfactory, specific gravity,
flakiness, elongation, water absorption, crushing strength including physical and chemical
test must verify the requirement for the stone and stone byproducts.
i. Gradation Analysis: Sieve analysis helps to determine the particle size distribution of
the coarse and fine aggregates. This is done by sieving the aggregates as per IS: 2386 (Part I)
– 1963. In this we use different sieves as standardized by the IS code and then pass
aggregates through them and thus collect different sized particles left over different sieves.
For this the sieve of sizes – 80mm, 63mm, 50mm, 40mm, 31.5mm, 25mm, 20mm, 16mm,
12.5mm, 10mm, 6.3mm,4.75mm, 3.35mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600µm, 300µm, 150µm and
75µm are used. After weighing the sample retained in each sieve the results of the sieve
analysis may be recorded graphically on a semi-log graph with particle size as abscissa (log
scale) and the percentage smaller than the specified diameter as ordinate.
Fig. 2: Gradation analysis curve.
With reference to the plotted graph the value of D10, D30 and D60 are estimated and hence
coefficient of Uniformity and Curvature should be calculated as:
CC= (D30* D30) / (D10*D60)
Cu= (D60/D10)
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If the Value of Cc=1-3 and Cu> 4 for gravel and > 6 for sand is satisfied the aggregate is
referred as well graded otherwise poorly graded. If some sized particle of aggregate are not
present in the mix then the aggregate is call gap graded.
ii. Specific Gravity of Coarse and fine aggregate: The specific gravity of the aggregate is
considered to be a measure of strength and quality of material. The specific gravity of
aggregate ranges from 2.5-3.0.
iii. Flakiness and elongation index: Flakiness and elongation indices were determined using
the methods of determining particle shape by BS 812 (BS I 1989). During FI test, aggregate
sample was sieved through different sieve sizes; at least 200 pieces of each fraction were
taken, weighed and allowed to pass through the selected slot-size which had width equal to
0.6 times the mean dimension. The fraction of samples passing through the thickness gauge
was weighed and FI was calculated as below:
Flakiness index (FI) = (WT/W)*100 (%): Where, WT is the weight of the aggregate passing
through the slot and W is the total weight of the test sample. During elongation index test,
aggregate was allowed to pass through the length gauge whose longest dimension was greater
than 1.8 times their mean dimension. Elongation index (EI) = (WL/W)*100 (%): Where,
WL is weight of aggregate retained in the length gauge and W is the total weight of test
sample. Low percentage of FI shows that aggregate contains only a few flat grains and high
percentage of EI indicates the presence of only small number of elongated grains. According
to DOR 2001 the FI for base course should be less than 25% and for sub base should be less
than 30%.
iv. Water Absorption Test: Aggregates having more water absorption are more porous in
nature and are generally considered unsuitable unless they are found to be acceptable based
on strength, impact and hardness test. Absorption values are used to calculate the change in
the weight of an aggregate due to water absorbed in the pore spaces within the constituent
particles, compared to the condition, when it is deemed that the aggregate has been in contact
with water long enough to satisfy most of the absorption potential. The water absorption of
aggregate ranges from 0.1-2%.
v. Aggregate Crushing and Impact Value Test: Aggregate used in construction should be
enough to resist crushing under load. If aggregate are weak, the stability of the structure is
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likely to be adversely affected. The strength of coarse aggregate is determined by crushing
strength test. This test helps to determine the aggregate crushing value of coarse aggregates
as per IS: 2386 (Part IV) – 1963. Aggregate crushing value (ACV) and Aggregate impact
value (AIV) were determined using a compression testing machine and hammer respectively
following ASTM (1979). ACV provides the relative measure of resistance to crushing under
the gradually applied compressive load while AIV is the resistance of the stones to fracture
under repeated impact. ACV and AIV were calculated using the equations:
ACV = (W2/W1) 100 (%),
AIV = (W3/W1) 100 (%)
Where, W1 is the total weight of the dry sample (grams), W2 is the weight of the aggregate
passing 4.75 mm sieve, and W3 is the weight of an aggregate passing on 2.36 mm. The ACV
< 10% indicates exceptionally strong, 10–20% Strong, 20–30% satisfactory for road
surfacing & > 35% Weak for road surfacing. The aggregate crushing value for cement
concrete pavement shall not be exceeding to 30%. Similarly, the Aggregate impact value
should be under the standard value of ASTM, 10-20%, BS < 20% and NRS < 30%.
vi. Abrasion Resistance: Hardness and toughness of aggregates associated together are
often carried out in the Los Angeles Abrasion test (LAA). The principle of the test is to find
the percentage wear due to the relative rubbing action between the aggregate and the steel
balls used as abrasive charge. This test has been standardized by the ASTM C: 535 (ASTM
1981). LAA was calculated using the following equation:
LAA = (W1–W2/W1)*100 (%)
Where, W1 is weight of original sample and W2 is weight of aggregate retained on 1.70 mm
IS sieve after test. The percentage is a measure of the degradation or loss of material as a
result of impact and abrasive actions.
vii. Sodium Sulphate Soundness Test: Soundness test is a good measure of how resistant an
aggregate is to chemical weathering. Soundness test determines the resistance to
disintegration of aggregates due to alternate cycles of dry and wet condition. Sample of size
10–14 mm and mass 455 gm for the test was washed with distilled water and oven dried at
105–110°C. A saturated solution of sodium sulphate was produced with the density of 1.32
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g/cm3
. The test specimen was then subjected to five 48 hours immersion and drying cycles.
The sodium sulphate soundness value was calculated as:
SSV = (W1ssv–W2ssv/W1ssv)*100 (%)
Where, W1ssv is the initial weight of the sample and W2ssv is the weight retained on 10 mm
after the test. SSV less than 12% means the aggregates samples are sound and resistant
against chemical weathering and frost susceptibility.
3. METHODOLOGY
Quantitative approach with post positivist worldview, experimental strategy of inquiry
adopted. It has conducted pretest and hence a post-test measurement was ensured. Post-
positivists hold a deterministic philosophy in which causes probably determine effects or
outcomes. Thus, the problems studied by post-positivist reflect the need to identify and
access the causes that influence outcomes, such as found in experiments (Creswell, 2011).
3.1 Primary Data Collection: Primary data has been collected from various literature like
book, National and international Journal, and various publications.
3.2 Secondary Data Collection: Secondary data has been collected from the stone extraction
site by field test or laboratory test adopted.
3.3 Research Area: Kotre Quarry site.
Fig 3. Google Earth Photograph of Kotre Quarry site.
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3.1.1 Identification of Stone Quarry Site of Nepal
Rocks are the main construction materials since the Stone Age. Some of the rocks like
marble, basalt, granite and red sandstones are used in decoration; Phyllite, Slates, flaggy
quartzite and schist are used for roofing; limestone, dolomite, quartzite, sandstone are used
for aggregate in various construction works, road paving and flooring. Vast amount of river
boulders, cobbles, pebbles and sands are mined as construction materials. Department of
mines and Geology (DMG) (1988) has evaluated such materials (Boulders = 347,006,000m3
,
Cobbles = 214,261,000m3
and Pebbles = 229,205,000m3
) in the Major Rivers of Terai region.
District Development Committees (DDCs) are the local authorities, who provide licenses to
the highest bidders to operate quarries on the riverbeds in annual basis. Vast amount of such
construction materials are available in almost all the districts of Nepal.
Limestone: More than 1.298 billion metric tons of cement grade limestone deposits are
already known from the Lesser Himalayan region only. Exploration of limestone by DMG, in
the past was able to identify a number of large to small size limestone deposits. Some of the
main limestone deposits are given below.
Table 1: Quarry Sites of Nepal.
Location of Limestone deposit/
District
Deposit
(MT.)
Present Status & Remarks
Sindhali Limestone, Udayapur 72 Mines and factory in operation
Bhanise & Okhare, Limestone
Makwanpur
20 Mines and factory in operation
Chobhar Limestone, Kathmandu 14.5 Factory is closed
Jogimara Limestone, Dhading 3.6 Mine in operation by Hetaunda Cement Ind.
Beldanda Limestone, Dhading 1.72 Mines and factory in operation.
Kakaru Khola, Sindhuli 1 Mines and factory in operation.
Narpani Limestone, Arghakhanchi 17 Production started
Nigale Limestone, Dhankuta 6.3 Cement Plant under construction
Badichaur Limestone, Makwanpur NA Cement Plant under construction
Dang Limestone NA Cement Plant under construction
Rolpa Limestone, Rolpa NA Cement Plant under construction
Chaukune Limestone, Surkhet 31 Process to establish a cement industry
Kajeri Limestone, Salyan 29 Process to establish a cement plant.
Sarada limestone, Dang 525 Proposed for a large cement factory
Hapure Limestone, Dang 26.5 Process to establish a cement plant
Gandhari Limestone, Dang 17.6 Process to establish a cement plant
Halesi Limestone, Khotang 8.0 Mining not possible
Lakharpata Limestone, Surkhet 30.0 Evaluation warranted
Supa Khola Limestone, Arghakhanchi 8.20 High overburden ratio
Diyarigad, Chauraha, and Bhimeshor >250.00 Promoted for detail exploration and mining
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Limestone, Baitadi for a cement Ind.
Chuladhunga – Ghyampathumka
Limestone, Udayapur
40.00 Planned to promote a cement industry
Galtar Limestone, Udayapur 21.54 Planned to establish a cement factory
Bhattedanda Limestone Lalitpur 5.68 Detail evaluation warranted
Lele Limestone, Lalitpur 3.98 Recently established a cement factory
Nandu Limestone, Kavre 4.67 Detail evaluation warranted
Pandrang Limestone, Makwanpur 2.56 Planned for cement industry
Badichaur Limestone, Makwanpur 2.80 In process to establish cement factory
Darshan Danda Limestone, Gorkha NA Planned for cement industry
Kanchan Limestone Quarry, Palpa 1.60 Quarry is in operation since long time
Shakti Khor, Chitwan 3.20 Industry established
Others >150.00 Possible deposits
Total deposit >1,297.59 Proved + Probable + Possible
Source: Department of Mines and Geology (DMG, FY 2066/67) and "Road Construction and
Maintenance Materials Study (RCMMS)".
The methodology is explained as follows. In the first step, a thorough literature review was
performed to identify the key elements that can explore the stone quarry as per required
hypothesis and objective of research. Next pre-test was conducted in research area and finally
post test was performed to get the required data. Based on the survey result and analysis,
relevant conclusions and recommendations were drawn.
4. DATA AND ANALYSIS
Testing of Aggregate: All tasting mentioned below are conducted either in field or on
laboratory.
4.1 Gradation Analysis: The number of sieve analysis of the coarse aggregate and fine
aggregate is conducted and the sample graph with result is presented as following: The value
of Cu is found between 2.04 to 3.70 of coarse aggregate and 3.08 to 6.67 for of aggregate and
the value of Cc is 1.00 to 1.64 of coarse aggregate and that of fine aggregate is 1.00 to 2.25.
The value of Cu should be greater than 4 for sand and greater than 6 for gravel and value of
Cc should be in between 1 to 3 to be the well graded aggregate. This is not satisfied for whole
sample of coarse aggregate. Some value indicates that the fine aggregate is well graded and
almost of the test sample of fine aggregate is found as poorly graded.
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For Coarse Aggregate: Sample testing
Fig 4. Sample gradation curve.
Table 2: Gradation Parameters.
For Fine Aggregate
Fig 4.1: Sample Gradation curve.
Table 3: Gradation Parameters.
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Cu 4.00 3.08 4.17 4.50 4.00 4.00 6.67 6.15 6.31 5.57
Cc 1.00 1.02 1.04 1.08 1.27 1.67 2.07 2.12 2.25 1.62
D10 = 5.00 Mm
D30= 10.00 Mm
D60 = 18.50 Mm
Cu= 3.70
Cc= 1.08
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Cu 2.04 3.70 2.23 2.18 2.38 2.85 2.73 2.76 2.77 2.66 2.65
Cc 1.31 1.08 1.64 1.63 1.60 1.02 1.12 1.21 1.13 1.02 1.00
D10 = 0.13 Mm
D30= 0.23 Mm
D60 = 0.40 Mm
Cu= 3.08
Cc= 1.02
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4.2 Specific Gravity of aggregate
The specific gravity of the aggregate is found to be 2.46- 2.84 means dry density of 2040-
2630 g/cm3. According to ASTM this value should be 2-3.1 and NRS 2.662 which almost
satisfied to use for road base and sub base course.
Table 4: Specific Gravity of aggregate.
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sp. Gra. 2.69 2.61 2.58 2.84 2.63 2.59 2.58 2.60 2.46 2.51
4.3. Flakiness and Elongation Index
The FI and EI of coarse aggregate are found to be 16.04% to 23.00% and 79.00% to 88.09%
respectively. According to DOR 2001 the FI for base course should be less than 25% and for
sub base should be less than 30% and EI should be greater than 70 %.
Table 5: Flakiness and Elongation index of aggregate.
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FI 16.60 13.20 16.04 19.90 19.08 23.00 21.02 20.06 21.44
EI 86.03 84.09 79.00 81.20 83.00 88.09 81.50 80.20 83.80
4.4. Water Absorption Test
The water absorption of coarse aggregate is found to be 1.00% to 1.90% and that of fine
aggregate is 1.00% to 2.15%. According to BS this value should be less than 1%, ASTM
should be less than 3% and NRS should be less than 4% which satisfied the ASTM and NRS
Standard ranges.
Table 6: Water absorption of aggregate.
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fine 1.00 2.00 2.15 1.57 1.89 2.00 1.79 1.52 1.38 1.10
Coarse 1.20 1.90 1.00 1.57 1.04 0.79 0.99 1.38 1.24 1.19
4.5 Aggregate Crushing and Impact Value Test
The aggregate crushing value for cement concrete pavement is found to be 25.00% to 28.54%
which is less than 45 % requirement to use in road base coarse. Similarly, the aggregate
impact value is found to be 21.03% to 24.12% which is under the standard value of ASTM,
10-20%, BS < 20% and NRS (NRS) < 30%.
Table 7: Crushing and Impact Value of Aggregate.
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ACV 27.00 28.54 28.04 26.09 25.74 27.29 26.32 25.00
AIV 21.03 22.01 22.84 23.93 22.00 24.12 24.60 23.70
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4.6 Abrasion Resistance
The value of LAA is found to be 27% to 40%. This test has been standardized by the ASTM
C: 535 (ASTM 1981) and the value of LAA for base course is limited to 30-35% and that of
Sub base course is 45%.
Table 8: Abrasion Value of Aggregate.
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
LAA 29.30 32.19 34.60 28.00 32.65 30.50 33.00 34.86
4.7 Sodium Sulphate Soundness Test
The SSV value of aggregate is lies between 1.40% to as 5.40%. The less than 12% means the
aggregates samples are sound and resistant against chemical weathering and frost
susceptibility. This indicates that the aggregate is chemically sound to use in road base and
sub base course.
Table 9: Soundness value of Aggregate.
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Soundness 2.30 2.70 1.40 1.59 2.23 4.20 5.40 3.90 4.28 4.80
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion
Nepal is beautiful country having enough Natural resources. Among them stone and stone
byproduct is important construction material. The proper policy has not yet initiated by
providence and local level regarding the stone extraction. This study includes the study of
existing data and literature review with laboratory testing for the suitability and sustainability
of stone aggregate for different infrastructure projects. The different quarry site of Nepal has
been identified by Department of Mines and Geology (DMG, FY 2066/67) and "Road
Construction and Maintenance Materials Study (RCMMS)", Department of Road. For this,
Kotre quarry site is selected which is located at the boundary of Kaski and Tanahun district of
Nepal. The Total area of Kotre quarry site is estimated using the GPS data is 921887.119
sqm. The different properties of aggregate are tested for the sustainability regarding quality of
the aggregate. For this the physical, mechanical and chemical properties of Kotre stone
aggregate is tested. The gradation of aggregate is tested and found that it is hard to maintain
the well graded aggregate requirement for different construction. The specific gravity of
aggregate is found to be 2.46-2.84 which lies between 2-3.1of ASTM standard and 2.662 of
NRS. The flakiness index is observed as 16.04% to 23.00% and Elongation index is 79.00%
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to 88.09%. The water absorption of coarse aggregate is found to be 1.00% to 1.90% and that
of fine aggregate is 1.00% to 2.15% which satisfied the specification set by NRS 2001. The
aggregate crushing value for cement concrete pavement is found to be 25.00% to 28.54%
which is less than 45 % requirement to use in road base coarse. Similarly, the aggregate
impact value is found to be 21.03% to 24.12% which is under the standard value of ASTM,
10-20%, BS < 20% and NRS (NRS) < 30%. The value of LAA is found to be 27% to 40%.
This test has been standardized by the ASTM C: 535 (ASTM 1981) and the value of LAA for
base course is limited to 30-35% and that of Sub base course is 45%. The SSV value of
aggregate is lies between 1.40% to as 5.40%. The less than 12% means the aggregates
samples are sound and resistant against chemical weathering.
5.2 Recommendations
The demand of Stone and aggregate in Nepal is increasing tremendously. Recently, there are
many concerns on the export of stone aggregates to India. Moreover, there are many illegal
quarry sites working for supplying materials locally. The engineering part of these quarry
location, methods of extraction, environmental impact and many other aspects should be
regularized. Concerning to the Kotre Quarry site, almost of the demand of stone aggregate is
fulfilled. The sustainability of quarry site should be the major concern. Not unlike any
development (commercial, residential, government, etc.), quarry operations can greatly
modify landscape and topography, can impact wildlife populations, and require supplemental
quantities of water and energy. Additionally, potential occupational health and safety risks
may exist for quarry employees, and local residents may experience noise and vibrations. The
dust can be controlled by adequate dust catchment or air filtration systems in saws and
drilling machines. The establishment of roadway misting should highly recommend
controlling the duct effect on nearby highway. The native vegetation throughout the quarry‟s
operation should be established to stabilize and to control erosion. The cleaning water is
collected from the nearby river without any treatment. It recommended to establishment of
filtration of water for the cleaning of aggregate. The Care should be taken to minimize the
operational footprint at the quarry site. It is advised that each quarry establish a maintenance
and conservation plan to sustain site integrity. The strategy may include the goals described
site clearance and organization, minimizing erosion and runoff, respecting and conserving
ecosystems and quarry closure practices. At last, it is recommend to do further research
regarding the bitumen-aggregate and cement aggregate binding properties.
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