This article examines how hunger and food imagery pervade Shakespeare's Macbeth, reflecting widespread anxiety about food provision in early modern England. It argues that the brief encounter between the weird sisters and a sailor's wife in Act 1, Scene 3 depicts hunger and deprivation, with the witch's demand for chestnuts suggesting her own desperate hunger. Throughout the play, noble characters express ambitions and fears through food-related language, implying that even during Macbeth's tyrannical rule when banquets imply plenty, the food supply may be precarious for all. Thus food becomes universal shorthand for all significant concerns, as it occupied a central place in early modern society where shortages were common due to factors like war and poor harvests
The document discusses life and society in early colonial America, specifically in the Chesapeake region and New England. It covers several topics:
1. Tobacco cultivation and the rise of indentured servitude dominated the Chesapeake economy in the 17th century. Friction with Native Americans increased as tobacco expanded further inland.
2. Dissatisfied indentured servants and small landowners in the Chesapeake launched Bacon's Rebellion in 1676 against the governor due to issues with Native American attacks.
3. The transatlantic slave trade brought millions of enslaved Africans to the Americas, with around 400,000 ending up in North America. The southern colonies adopted slavery
This document discusses the use of medievalism in Victorian and World War I literature. During the Victorian era, there was a large resurgence of interest in the Middle Ages, dubbed medievalism. Many Victorian writers and artists used medieval themes and settings in their works to critique contemporary Victorian society and government. They often idealized the medieval past as a simpler time. This medievalism persisted into World War I, as writers and thinkers looked back nostalgically to a perceived pre-industrial golden age.
The document provides an overview of Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales. It describes how a group of pilgrims from various social classes agree to tell stories on their journey from London to Canterbury to honor Thomas Becket. Chaucer intended the work to satirize and portray English society in the late 14th century through the characters and their tales. The unfinished work consists of a general prologue introducing the pilgrims followed by tales told by each along the way. It was highly popular and helped establish English as a literary language.
During Queen Victoria's 63-year reign from 1837-1901, England experienced immense social, economic and technological changes including the Industrial Revolution, expansion of the British Empire, and growth of cities. Victorian literature reflected both the positives of this progress as well as the resulting social problems like urban poverty. Writers from Tennyson to Dickens to Hardy questioned whether divine order still existed in the modernizing world and attacked the hollowness of the upper classes. By the late Victorian era, society faced new intellectual influences like Darwinism that further challenged traditional beliefs.
Lesson 3-British Folk Heroes And FolklorePatrickwolak
The document discusses several topics in British history through folklore and literature:
1) The legend of King Arthur illustrates values from Celtic, Roman, and medieval cultures like honor and bravery.
2) Beowulf depicts a warrior culture in Scandinavia where kings protected their people and demanded loyalty. It represents a time of invasion.
3) Robin Hood stories show class struggles under feudalism, with Robin stealing from the rich and helping the poor who suffered under Prince John's rule.
4) William Wallace and Robert the Bruce led Scotland's fight for independence from British rule, with Wallace being executed for his rebellion.
The document discusses the Augustan Age in England from 1702-1760. It was named after the Roman Emperor Augustus by Oliver Goldsmith to draw a parallel between the golden age of Latin culture under Augustus and the reign of Queen Anne from 1702-1714. The Augustan Age was characterized by the spirit of the Enlightenment and thinkers like John Locke. During this period, England's wealth and status as a world power grew. Notable authors of the time included Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift, Daniel Defoe, and Samuel Johnson. New genres like novels and magazines also emerged.
The Victorian period in England from 1830-1901 was characterized by:
- Queen Victoria's long rule from 1837-1901 and the Victorian values of earnestness, morality, and propriety.
- A time of peace, prosperity, and rapid industrialization as Britain became the world's leading imperial power.
- Significant social reforms addressing issues like child labor, slavery, and workers' rights in response to problems of the era.
- Cultural and literary achievements including the rise of the novel as a dominant form and works addressing social issues by authors like Dickens.
William Shakespeare wrote Macbeth in the early 1600s during the Elizabethan era in England. The play explores themes of ambition, corruption of power, and the supernatural through its main characters - Macbeth, a Scottish general who murders the king to take the throne, and Lady Macbeth, his wife who encourages the murder. Other characters include Banquo, Duncan, and Macduff, who eventually defeats Macbeth to restore order.
The document discusses life and society in early colonial America, specifically in the Chesapeake region and New England. It covers several topics:
1. Tobacco cultivation and the rise of indentured servitude dominated the Chesapeake economy in the 17th century. Friction with Native Americans increased as tobacco expanded further inland.
2. Dissatisfied indentured servants and small landowners in the Chesapeake launched Bacon's Rebellion in 1676 against the governor due to issues with Native American attacks.
3. The transatlantic slave trade brought millions of enslaved Africans to the Americas, with around 400,000 ending up in North America. The southern colonies adopted slavery
This document discusses the use of medievalism in Victorian and World War I literature. During the Victorian era, there was a large resurgence of interest in the Middle Ages, dubbed medievalism. Many Victorian writers and artists used medieval themes and settings in their works to critique contemporary Victorian society and government. They often idealized the medieval past as a simpler time. This medievalism persisted into World War I, as writers and thinkers looked back nostalgically to a perceived pre-industrial golden age.
The document provides an overview of Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales. It describes how a group of pilgrims from various social classes agree to tell stories on their journey from London to Canterbury to honor Thomas Becket. Chaucer intended the work to satirize and portray English society in the late 14th century through the characters and their tales. The unfinished work consists of a general prologue introducing the pilgrims followed by tales told by each along the way. It was highly popular and helped establish English as a literary language.
During Queen Victoria's 63-year reign from 1837-1901, England experienced immense social, economic and technological changes including the Industrial Revolution, expansion of the British Empire, and growth of cities. Victorian literature reflected both the positives of this progress as well as the resulting social problems like urban poverty. Writers from Tennyson to Dickens to Hardy questioned whether divine order still existed in the modernizing world and attacked the hollowness of the upper classes. By the late Victorian era, society faced new intellectual influences like Darwinism that further challenged traditional beliefs.
Lesson 3-British Folk Heroes And FolklorePatrickwolak
The document discusses several topics in British history through folklore and literature:
1) The legend of King Arthur illustrates values from Celtic, Roman, and medieval cultures like honor and bravery.
2) Beowulf depicts a warrior culture in Scandinavia where kings protected their people and demanded loyalty. It represents a time of invasion.
3) Robin Hood stories show class struggles under feudalism, with Robin stealing from the rich and helping the poor who suffered under Prince John's rule.
4) William Wallace and Robert the Bruce led Scotland's fight for independence from British rule, with Wallace being executed for his rebellion.
The document discusses the Augustan Age in England from 1702-1760. It was named after the Roman Emperor Augustus by Oliver Goldsmith to draw a parallel between the golden age of Latin culture under Augustus and the reign of Queen Anne from 1702-1714. The Augustan Age was characterized by the spirit of the Enlightenment and thinkers like John Locke. During this period, England's wealth and status as a world power grew. Notable authors of the time included Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift, Daniel Defoe, and Samuel Johnson. New genres like novels and magazines also emerged.
The Victorian period in England from 1830-1901 was characterized by:
- Queen Victoria's long rule from 1837-1901 and the Victorian values of earnestness, morality, and propriety.
- A time of peace, prosperity, and rapid industrialization as Britain became the world's leading imperial power.
- Significant social reforms addressing issues like child labor, slavery, and workers' rights in response to problems of the era.
- Cultural and literary achievements including the rise of the novel as a dominant form and works addressing social issues by authors like Dickens.
William Shakespeare wrote Macbeth in the early 1600s during the Elizabethan era in England. The play explores themes of ambition, corruption of power, and the supernatural through its main characters - Macbeth, a Scottish general who murders the king to take the throne, and Lady Macbeth, his wife who encourages the murder. Other characters include Banquo, Duncan, and Macduff, who eventually defeats Macbeth to restore order.
This document discusses how 18th century British women writers addressed colonialism in their works, which has often been overlooked. It argues that women saw themselves as engaged in public debates and felt compelled to comment on British colonial expansion. Works like Wollstonecraft's Vindication of the Rights of Women and novels by Smith, Behn and Austen touched on colonial topics. The document examines how women writers portrayed the negative impacts of colonialism, such as British men leaving home for the colonies, endangering their national identity and morals. Novels tried to discourage colonial migration or retrieve men home through marriage. They expressed fears that time abroad risked Britons going "native." The document aims to further study how women reconciled
This summary provides a concise overview of the key points about The Canterbury Tales in 3 sentences: The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer describes a group of 29 pilgrims traveling to Canterbury who each agree to tell stories on the journey. The work begins with a general prologue introducing each of the pilgrims from various social classes. Though unfinished, the tales provide insight into late medieval English society through Chaucer's use of an "estates satire" framework.
Tracing Colonialism in 19th Century British Novels by Farhana Haque in Resear...CrimsonpublishersMedical
The aim of this paper is to map out aspects of colonialism and embedded colonial spirit in the works of the Nineteenth century British novelists. To do so i have chosen three quintessential english novels, jane austen’s mans field park (1814), charlotte bronte’s jane eyre (1847), and its prequel wide sargasso sea (1966) written by jean rhys. These three novels from three different eras, the romantic period, the victorian period and the postcolonial modern times, therefore illustrated how literature can often be ingrained with supremacist ideologies and it can also be the means of resistance against the forces of colonialism.
SHAKESPEARE’S DOMINANT WOMEN INVERTING THE GENDER DIVIDEKUNAL BASU
1) Shakespeare created dominant female characters like Lady Macbeth, Margaret, Volumnia, Goneril and Regan who challenged gender norms and pursued power and ambition in different ways. These characters inverted the traditional patriarchal order by being strong, ambitious and manipulative.
2) Lady Macbeth convinced Macbeth to commit regicide so they could gain power. Volumnia encouraged her son Coriolanus' military success to achieve honor. Margaret used her position as Queen of England to gain political power over others.
3) These characters demonstrated strength, intelligence and a willingness to commit violence that broke social conventions of female behavior in the 16th century. However, they were balanced by
Shakespeare’s dominant women inverting the gender divideShantanu Basu
1) Shakespeare created dominant female characters like Lady Macbeth, Margaret, Volumnia, Goneril and Regan who challenged gender norms and pursued power and ambition in different ways. These characters inverted the traditional patriarchal order by being strong, ambitious and manipulative.
2) Lady Macbeth convinced Macbeth to commit regicide so they could gain power. Volumnia encouraged her son Coriolanus' military success to achieve her own honor. Margaret used her marriage to King Henry VI to pursue power and influence his decisions. Goneril and Regan exploited their aging father to gain authority.
3) These characters demonstrated Shakespeare experimenting with inversions of traditional gender roles in
The document provides information about various aspects of life during the Elizabethan Era in England, including:
1) The Elizabethan Era began in 1558 under the rule of Queen Elizabeth I and was a time of great progress, stability, and national pride in England.
2) Daily life varied depending on social class but generally included opportunities for employment, entertainment like theater, and dealing with outbreaks of the plague.
3) Notable Elizabethan writers included William Shakespeare, Edmund Spenser, Christopher Marlowe, Sir Philip Sidney, and Ben Jonson, who contributed to the flowering of English literature during this period.
4) Theater became increasingly popular as the first permanent theaters, like The Theatre and the
Free Printable Stationery - Letter Size. Online assignment writing service.Kayla Jones
Here are the key details about the Coffee Cult religion:
- The Coffee Cult was created as a unifying religion that accepts all kinds of coffee drinkers, regardless of how they take their coffee.
- Members of the Coffee Cult, known as coffee drinkers, have been in conflict with tea, hot chocolate and soda drinkers for dominance since the beginning of time.
- Coffee is at the center of all rituals and worship. Morning and afternoon prayers center around the ritualistic preparation and drinking of coffee.
- Converts are expected to forsake other beverages and dedicate their lives to the consumption and promotion of coffee.
- Traditional garb includes comfortable clothes and accessories featuring coffee-related symbols like coffee
Critique Response Sample Summary Response EssaKayla Jones
Here are the key points made in the document:
- Since the Age of Enlightenment, people have emphasized words like "how" and "why" to acquire knowledge.
- There remains an insatiable desire for information and understanding across all disciplines.
- This quest for knowledge through questioning dates back to the Enlightenment era but continues today.
Definisi Dan Contoh Paragraph Cause And EffeKayla Jones
1. The document provides steps for requesting writing help from the HelpWriting.net site, including creating an account, submitting a request form, and reviewing writer bids before choosing a writer and placing a deposit.
2. After receiving the paper, the customer can ensure it meets expectations and authorize payment, or request revisions.
3. HelpWriting.net promises original, high-quality content and offers refunds for plagiarized work, aiming to fully meet customer needs.
Analysis on A s Laundry Shop A Profit Maximization Approach.pdfKayla Jones
This document analyzes A's Laundry Shop in Mintal, Davao City to determine how to maximize its profits. Data on the shop's revenues, expenses, capital and labor were collected and analyzed using production functions, optimization software and other tools. The results showed that profits would be maximized at Php38,694.31 per month by using Php13,978.71 in capital and hiring 1-2 laborers costing Php5,626.77 total. This would allow production of 2,914.99 kilograms of laundry. A SWOT analysis was also conducted to provide recommendations like expanding services and investing in technology.
A Close and Distant Reading of Shakespearean Intertextuality.pdfKayla Jones
The document discusses Shakespearean intertextuality in contemporary fiction. The author examines over 170 texts from 11 authors across genres, identifying over 2,400 references to Shakespeare comprising over 7,900 words. These references are categorized and analyzed to determine quotation strategies. Additionally, computational methods are used to identify references at a larger scale. The qualitative and quantitative approaches validate each other and explore scaling up the analysis, addressing representativeness. Authors in magical realism often use references politically to discuss postcolonial and patriarchal power structures. The thesis combines close and distant reading to further the study of Shakespeare's influence on contemporary literature.
A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE STATUS AND APPLICATION OF THE RESPONSIBILITY TO PR...Kayla Jones
The document provides a critical analysis of the status and application of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) doctrine in international law. It discusses the debate around whether R2P qualifies as an emerging norm or customary international law. While some scholars view it as such, others argue it is merely a political principle and not legally binding. The document aims to analyze R2P's legal framework and whether it has developed into customary international law. It contends that R2P has not reached that level and is not a novel concept, but rather reaffirms existing principles of international law.
A Developmental Evolutionary Framework for Psychology.pdfKayla Jones
This document outlines a developmental evolutionary framework for psychology as an alternative to evolutionary psychology, which is founded on the assumptions of the modern synthesis of evolutionary biology. The proposed framework integrates the study of developmental and evolutionary mechanisms within one explanatory model. It argues that knowledge of developmental processes is necessary to understand evolutionary change, and that psychology can contribute to this endeavor through research in comparative and developmental psychology. The framework rejects the dichotomies of the modern synthesis and favors a relational approach that sees development as a dynamic, context-sensitive process involving interactions between genetic, environmental, and experiential factors across multiple timescales.
A Pedagogical Model for Improving Thinking About Learning.pdfKayla Jones
This document describes a pedagogical model called Gap to Got It Plus (GTGI+) Learning Thinking Stages that is used in a teacher professional learning program called The Learning Thinking Scope. The program aims to improve thinking about learning for students and teachers. It is underpinned by four elements - learning clarity, thinking questions, thinking talk, and thinking feedback. The program has been implemented across nine schools in Australia. The pedagogical model provides a framework for teachers to develop evidence-based strategies and school-wide routines to improve student learning outcomes through collective efficacy and teacher-led inquiry.
This document discusses definitions and measurements of obesity and body fat distribution. It addresses the lack of consistency in defining and measuring obesity, which has hindered comparisons between populations. While body mass index (BMI) is commonly used to classify fatness, other measures like waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio are also discussed. Measuring intra-abdominal fat content specifically may better correlate with metabolic health risks than just general measures of fatness. An international standard for defining and measuring obesity is still needed.
This document provides an introduction and overview of agri-tourism. It defines agri-tourism as attracting travelers to areas used for agricultural purposes. It lists many potential agri-tourism activities including overnight stays, special events, recreation, fresh/value-added products, and education. It discusses how agri-tourism can fit into a farm plan as a supplementary, complementary, or primary enterprise. It outlines the steps to planning an agri-tourism business, including personal assessment, establishing goals and objectives, assessing internal and external resources, and developing a business plan. It emphasizes the importance of planning to ensure success in agri-tourism.
A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF STRESS MANAGEMENT- CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES, MODELS...Kayla Jones
This document provides a theoretical framework for understanding stress, including contemporary approaches and models. It begins by discussing the history and evolving definitions of stress. Major approaches and theories are then summarized, including the General Adaptation Syndrome, Lazarus' theory, and resource theories. The document highlights several structural frameworks developed over the years to understand stress and discusses their usefulness for further empirical research.
Assessing Testing Practices with Reference to Communicative Competence in Ess...Kayla Jones
This document summarizes a research study that assessed essay writing testing practices with reference to communicative competence at the undergraduate level in Pakistan. The study investigated how teachers evaluate essay writing skills and if their practices align with the Common European Framework of Reference. A questionnaire was administered to 134 teachers at universities in major Pakistani cities. The results showed deficiencies in testing practices, including a lack of agreed-upon criteria to evaluate communicative competence. The study aims to improve essay writing assessment and make it more valid and relevant.
This document provides an abstract for a 4th National Research Conference on Climate Change held at the Indian Institute of Technology Madras from October 26-27, 2013. It includes the detailed program for the two-day conference covering sessions on climate change science and impacts, mitigation, and adaptation. The first day's program includes three sessions with oral presentations on topics like glacial changes in the Himalayas, climate impacts on agriculture, and climate change adaptation strategies. It also includes a session on high-resolution regional climate modeling and a poster session on adaptation projects. The abstracts provided give an overview of the research presented at the conference on assessing climate impacts and developing mitigation and adaptation solutions for India.
A research strategy for text desigbers The role of headings.pdfKayla Jones
The document describes a series of 17 experiments conducted to study the effects of headings in text. The experiments tested variables like the position of headings, form of headings (questions vs statements), and their impact on recall, searching unfamiliar text, and retrieval from familiar text. The initial experiments found that headings aided recall and searching, but position did not matter. Replicating studies with a different text and age group found headings aided searching and retrieval but not recall. Further experiments found no difference between question and statement headings. The research strategy involved systematically conducting studies that built upon previous results to develop a more robust understanding of headings.
An Analysis Of Consumers Perception Towards Rebranding A Study Of Hero Moto...Kayla Jones
1. The document analyzes consumers' perceptions of the rebranding of Hero MotoCorp, an Indian motorcycle manufacturer, after its breakup from a joint venture with Honda.
2. Primary and secondary research methods were used, including focus groups and surveys, to understand how consumers viewed the new branding elements like logo, tagline, and color scheme compared to the previous branding.
3. Statistical analysis found several factors that influenced consumers' views of the rebranding decision, and t-tests showed differences in perceptions of the new tagline and logo color compared to the previous branding. The rebranding of such a major Indian brand provided insights into consumer responses to rebranding exercises.
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This summary provides a concise overview of the key points about The Canterbury Tales in 3 sentences: The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer describes a group of 29 pilgrims traveling to Canterbury who each agree to tell stories on the journey. The work begins with a general prologue introducing each of the pilgrims from various social classes. Though unfinished, the tales provide insight into late medieval English society through Chaucer's use of an "estates satire" framework.
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SHAKESPEARE’S DOMINANT WOMEN INVERTING THE GENDER DIVIDEKUNAL BASU
1) Shakespeare created dominant female characters like Lady Macbeth, Margaret, Volumnia, Goneril and Regan who challenged gender norms and pursued power and ambition in different ways. These characters inverted the traditional patriarchal order by being strong, ambitious and manipulative.
2) Lady Macbeth convinced Macbeth to commit regicide so they could gain power. Volumnia encouraged her son Coriolanus' military success to achieve honor. Margaret used her position as Queen of England to gain political power over others.
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1) Shakespeare created dominant female characters like Lady Macbeth, Margaret, Volumnia, Goneril and Regan who challenged gender norms and pursued power and ambition in different ways. These characters inverted the traditional patriarchal order by being strong, ambitious and manipulative.
2) Lady Macbeth convinced Macbeth to commit regicide so they could gain power. Volumnia encouraged her son Coriolanus' military success to achieve her own honor. Margaret used her marriage to King Henry VI to pursue power and influence his decisions. Goneril and Regan exploited their aging father to gain authority.
3) These characters demonstrated Shakespeare experimenting with inversions of traditional gender roles in
The document provides information about various aspects of life during the Elizabethan Era in England, including:
1) The Elizabethan Era began in 1558 under the rule of Queen Elizabeth I and was a time of great progress, stability, and national pride in England.
2) Daily life varied depending on social class but generally included opportunities for employment, entertainment like theater, and dealing with outbreaks of the plague.
3) Notable Elizabethan writers included William Shakespeare, Edmund Spenser, Christopher Marlowe, Sir Philip Sidney, and Ben Jonson, who contributed to the flowering of English literature during this period.
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Here are the key details about the Coffee Cult religion:
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- Members of the Coffee Cult, known as coffee drinkers, have been in conflict with tea, hot chocolate and soda drinkers for dominance since the beginning of time.
- Coffee is at the center of all rituals and worship. Morning and afternoon prayers center around the ritualistic preparation and drinking of coffee.
- Converts are expected to forsake other beverages and dedicate their lives to the consumption and promotion of coffee.
- Traditional garb includes comfortable clothes and accessories featuring coffee-related symbols like coffee
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Here are the key points made in the document:
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- There remains an insatiable desire for information and understanding across all disciplines.
- This quest for knowledge through questioning dates back to the Enlightenment era but continues today.
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1. The document provides steps for requesting writing help from the HelpWriting.net site, including creating an account, submitting a request form, and reviewing writer bids before choosing a writer and placing a deposit.
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3. HelpWriting.net promises original, high-quality content and offers refunds for plagiarized work, aiming to fully meet customer needs.
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This document analyzes A's Laundry Shop in Mintal, Davao City to determine how to maximize its profits. Data on the shop's revenues, expenses, capital and labor were collected and analyzed using production functions, optimization software and other tools. The results showed that profits would be maximized at Php38,694.31 per month by using Php13,978.71 in capital and hiring 1-2 laborers costing Php5,626.77 total. This would allow production of 2,914.99 kilograms of laundry. A SWOT analysis was also conducted to provide recommendations like expanding services and investing in technology.
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The document discusses Shakespearean intertextuality in contemporary fiction. The author examines over 170 texts from 11 authors across genres, identifying over 2,400 references to Shakespeare comprising over 7,900 words. These references are categorized and analyzed to determine quotation strategies. Additionally, computational methods are used to identify references at a larger scale. The qualitative and quantitative approaches validate each other and explore scaling up the analysis, addressing representativeness. Authors in magical realism often use references politically to discuss postcolonial and patriarchal power structures. The thesis combines close and distant reading to further the study of Shakespeare's influence on contemporary literature.
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The document provides a critical analysis of the status and application of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) doctrine in international law. It discusses the debate around whether R2P qualifies as an emerging norm or customary international law. While some scholars view it as such, others argue it is merely a political principle and not legally binding. The document aims to analyze R2P's legal framework and whether it has developed into customary international law. It contends that R2P has not reached that level and is not a novel concept, but rather reaffirms existing principles of international law.
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This document provides an abstract for a 4th National Research Conference on Climate Change held at the Indian Institute of Technology Madras from October 26-27, 2013. It includes the detailed program for the two-day conference covering sessions on climate change science and impacts, mitigation, and adaptation. The first day's program includes three sessions with oral presentations on topics like glacial changes in the Himalayas, climate impacts on agriculture, and climate change adaptation strategies. It also includes a session on high-resolution regional climate modeling and a poster session on adaptation projects. The abstracts provided give an overview of the research presented at the conference on assessing climate impacts and developing mitigation and adaptation solutions for India.
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ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
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core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
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advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
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of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
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significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
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land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
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Appetite And Ambition The Influence Of Hunger In Macbeth
1. Appetite and Ambition:
The Influence of Hunger in Macbeth
Katherine Knowles
Abstract: This article examines the prevalence of food and
food-related imagery in Macbeth, arguing that the severe
anxiety about the provision of food that affected a large
proportion of the population of early modern England has a
profound influence on the play. It surfaces first in the brief
encounter between the weird sisters and the sailor’s wife in
1.3 – an episode which depicts hunger and deprivation
overtly – and re-emerges in the language of the noble
characters, who, though they do not suffer such an obvious
shortage of food themselves, nevertheless express their
desires, fears and ambitions through the language of eating,
suggesting that during Macbeth’s tyrannical reign – despite
the appearance of plenty that the banquets imply – food
supply might be precarious for all social strata. Thus food
becomes, in Macbeth, universal shorthand for all that is
significant, reflecting the fundamental place it occupied in
the minds of early modern people: a centrality that has
perhaps been lost to modern western society where food is
plentiful and easily obtained.
“What moved the masses most in the societies of five or three hundred years ago?
[…] It was, above all, hunger, and the urgent need to relieve it through food.” Roy
Porter1
Macbeth is not a play obviously associated with hunger. Think of
Macbeth in relation to food, and the celebrated banquet scenes immediately
spring to mind. An expression of prosperity and plenty, the banquet
2. Knowles/Appetite and Ambition 2
Early English Studies • Volume 2 • 2009
became synonymous with excess, especially in England at the time Macbeth
was first performed.2
Chris Meads suggests that:
Food, its abundance and the consumption of it, seemed to gain the
English a reputation in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Eating, the skill of cooking, and the virtue of hospitality were highly
regarded both at home and abroad […]. Negotiating the fine line
between the virtue of hospitality and the vice of gluttony is anxiously
explored in a variety of texts [...] 3
Hospitality expressed through food is central to Macbeth, with the hero first
hosting a feast to celebrate Duncan’s victory over the rebels and later
attempting to cement his own kingship through the banquet at which
Banquo’s ghost makes its unwelcome appearance. Yet despite the play’s
affluent setting, and the apparent abundance of food available to its noble
characters, a subtle undercurrent of fear of scarcity and privation and an
obsession with food and food culture run through the play. This thread of
anxiety over the provision of food is forcefully and immediately present in
the characters of the weird sisters, and their often-overlooked dealings with
the largely invisible low-status people who lurk at the periphery of the
play, but it also manifests unexpectedly in the language of the noble
characters for whom lack of food would not seem to be an immediate
concern.
Diane Purkiss has argued that Macbeth uses the characters of the
weird sisters only to highlight the national and political concerns of the
play: “Shakespeare could only find significance in the stories of village
witchcraft if they became signs of events in the public sphere; failure to
churn butter or the death of a child hardly matters unless it signifies
something about where Scotland stands.”4
However, I contend that the
references to food shortages and hunger that characterise the weird sisters’
brief appearance in 1.3 are integral to the meaning of the play, and that
what Purkiss characterises as, “events in the public sphere,” are dependent
upon and intimately connected to the more prosaic concerns of food
provision represented by stories of village witchcraft. In other words,
where Scotland stands politically hardly matters unless the butter churns
and its people are well-fed. Examining how concern about food operates
on all levels in Macbeth, this paper argues that provision of food – a very
real and pressing concern at lower levels of society during the early
modern period – becomes for Macbeth’s noble characters the symbolic focus
of all their hopes, anxieties, and fears. In Macbeth metaphorical hunger
(ambition or desire) is as strongly associated with food as physical hunger
3. Knowles/Appetite and Ambition 3
Early English Studies • Volume 2 • 2009
(appetite), along with the accompanying disruptions of war, civil strife, and
tyrannical rule, is directly linked to food crises.
HUNGER AND WITCHCRAFT
The following brief and seemingly tangential episode introduces the
spectre of hunger to Macbeth:
1 Witch: Where hast thou been sister?
2 Witch: Killing swine.
3 Witch: Sister, where thou?
1 Witch: A sailor’s wife had chestnuts in her lap,
And mounch’d, and mounch’d, and mounch’d: ‘Give me,’
quoth I:
‘Aroynt thee, witch!’ the rump-fed ronyon cries.
(Mac. 1.3.1-6)5
Superficially, this exchange merely sets the scene for Macbeth’s subsequent
meeting with the sisters, indicating their malevolence and capacity for
disruption. Examined closely, however, several aspects of this incident
suggest hunger and deprivation in both 1 Witch and the sailor’s wife. The
witch depicts the sailor’s wife as an archetype of greed and indulgence:
gorging herself on chestnuts. Yet this interpretation may well be
misleading, since chestnuts were often a food of the very poor, relied upon
when other crops had failed, as Diane Purkiss notes: “The witch asks for
food and is rudely refused. The food she asks for is a staple diet of the
poor; bread was sometimes made with chestnut flour when wheat was
scarce.”6
Antoinette Fauve-Chamoux, quoting Charles Estienne and Jean
Liébault’s L’agriculture et maison rustique (1583), also stresses the chestnut’s
association with scarcity, stating that in “the sixteenth century, we discover
that ‘an infinity of people live on nothing else but this fruit’ [the
chestnut].”7
Yet despite the connection between chestnuts and poverty, the
witch describes this sailor’s wife as a “rump-fed ronyon.” Defined in the
O.E.D., “Ronyon,” is “a fat bulky woman,” with “rump-fed,” implying
either that she is fed on rump steak or literally that her rump is well-fed.8
Both interpretations imply gluttony and excess in the sailor’s wife, as does
the witch’s almost hypnotically repetitive insistence that the women
“mounch’d, and mounch’d, and mounch’d.” Given the woman’s status as a
sailor’s wife and the connotations of poverty and dearth attached to
chestnuts, it is unlikely that she is overfed or indulging to excess. Perhaps,
the witch interprets the woman as fat because she herself is even poorer
4. Knowles/Appetite and Ambition 4
Early English Studies • Volume 2 • 2009
and crucially hungrier than the sailor’s wife. If so, the witch’s “Give me”
may not merely be an uncouth demand but also a desperate cry for
sustenance, directed at a poor woman by one who is even more deprived.9
The hospitality that is to be displayed in the Act 1, scene 7 banquet, where
plentiful food is offered by Macbeth’s household to the King and all the
thanes, is here foreshadowed by its opposite: in the world of the witches
and the sailor’s wife, food is not generously offered but urgently
demanded and angrily refused. Yet the civil unrest prompted by the Thane
of Cawdor’s rebellion, which allows Macbeth to excel on the battlefield and
ultimately results in the celebratory banquet of 1.7, may also be partly
responsible for the hunger experience by the witch and the Sailor’s Wife,
since war was a leading cause of famine in medieval and early modern
Europe. Mack P. Holt describes how, during the French Wars of Religion,
“rural peasants unprotected by city walls found themselves the easiest
target for pillaging troops. But the seizure of livestock not only meant that
they might be unable to bring in their harvest or replant the following year,
it also reduced the fertilization of what crops they were able to continue to
harvest.”10
It is likely that the original audience of Macbeth would
understand the connection between war and food scarcity all too well,
although it is perhaps less immediately obvious to modern readers and
spectators.
Indeed, seventeenth-century theatre-goers would not have had to
look as far afield as France to see the frightening reality of dearth, nor its
relationship to civil unrest, for when Macbeth was first performed the
English agrarian crisis of the 1590s was still vividly within living memory
for playwright and audience alike. During this decade food shortages
gripped the country: Joan Thirsk describes how “the autumn of 1594
brought a disastrous harvest failure, and this was but the first of a series of
four. The subsistence farmer was quickly reduced to abject helpless misery;
he could not feed his family, let alone pay his rent.”11
The capital was by no
means exempt from feeling the pinch of hunger during this time, as Peter
Clark argues: “In London the seasonal pattern of deaths in 1597 [...] points
to starvation as an important causal factor of the high mortality.”12
The
pressure of these food shortages, accompanied by the associated rise in the
price of grains and other foodstuffs, led to riots and disorder in London in
1595, an episode that Buchanan Sharp calls “one of the most serious social
crises of Shakespeare’s own lifetime.”13
The impression that this period of
want and uncertainty must have made on the inhabitants of the city should
not be underestimated, and it is clear that the original audience of Macbeth
would have been aware of the many examples – at home and abroad – of
hunger and food-shortages both causing and resulting from exactly the
kind of conflict and civil unrest which occurs throughout the play.
5. Knowles/Appetite and Ambition 5
Early English Studies • Volume 2 • 2009
It is not only the civil unrest experienced by Macbeth’s Scotland that
has resonances with hunger: the presence of the three “witches” also
strongly indicates the importance of this theme in the play. Piero
Camporesi stresses a connection between witchcraft and lack of food – “the
relationship between witchcraft, undernourishment and hunger goes
without saying” – and describes how a Lombardy doctor, Girolamo
Cardano (1501-1576), identified the difficulty of distinguishing between a
poor and hungry old woman, and a witch:
There are these little women, wretched, living in valleys on herbs and
wild vegetables […] So, being decidedly thin, deformed, with eyes
discharging, pale, and rather indistinct, with their black bile and
melancholy they display a strange intuition. They are taciturn and
dazed, and they hardly differ from those who are thought to be
possessed by the devil; fixed in their thoughts …What is affecting
them, however, is the sickness of black bile, plus the getting of food,
lack of money […]14
Cardano’s description of the malnourished woman who is thought to be a
witch, or who thinks herself a witch, correlates with Banquo’s description
of the weird sisters in Macbeth:
“What are these,
So wither’d and so wild in their attire,
That look not like th’inhabitants of the earth,
And yet are on’t? Live you? or are you aught
That man may question? You seem to understand me,
By each at once her choppy finger laying
Upon her skinny lips […]” (1.3.39-45)
Where Cardano’s description calls the women “thin” and “deformed,”
Banquo’s assertion that the weird sisters are “wither’d” and “wild,” with
“skinny lips” conveys the same sense of decay and ill-health. It would be
reductive to suggest that the weird sister’s “powers” are necessarily
hallucinatory: the product of poverty and malnutrition; yet, whether we
believe in the witches or not, clearly witchcraft and anxiety about food are
inescapably related. 15
Macbeth’s weird sister’s desire for food reflects real-life accounts of
suspected witchcraft in early modern English villages, as Purkiss argues:
In shaping their stories of witchcraft, women focused on an
encounter with the suspected women involving either an exchange,
usually of food or food-related items, or a failed exchange of food, or
6. Knowles/Appetite and Ambition 6
Early English Studies • Volume 2 • 2009
sometimes merely a discussion about food [...]. Food is therefore a
constant theme in depositions of witchcraft.16
The altercation between the weird sister and the sailor’s wife in Macbeth
certainly involves a failed exchange of food. If, as Purkiss suggests, tension
over food was at the heart of many witchcraft accusations, it may be the
weird sister’s demand for the chestnuts, as much as her wild and ragged
appearance, that marks her out as a “witch” in the eyes of the sailor’s wife.
Alan Macfarlane documents the connection between accusations of
witchcraft and hunger in sixteenth-century Essex:
one type of behaviour seems to have been common to all of them [the
accused]. This was begging, combined with grumbling or cursing
when they were refused. For example, Mother Cunny asked a
neighbour for some drink, but ‘his wife being busie and abrewing,
tolde her she had no leysure to give her any. Then Joane Cunnye
went away discontented.’ Next day her refuser was in terrible pain.17
If food is a constant theme in depositions of witchcraft it is because food
was a constant source of concern and worry in early modern lives, and
especially in the lives of women, who were overwhelmingly responsible
for food preparation.18
It is perhaps apt that these concerns remain
marginal and implicit in Macbeth, for they remained so in the records of the
time: just as Macbeth foregrounds the feasting and banqueting of the nobles
while the undercurrent of hunger and want represented by the witches and
their victims exists on the periphery of the drama, so in historical accounts
the situation of the poor was also suppressed, as Stephen Mennell explains:
The celebrated banquets of the Middle Ages and Renaissance, known
to us from literary sources like Rabelais and from numerous
documents throughout Europe, give a misleading image of typical
eating in that period […] the well-chronicled feasts are symptomatic
of the period only in that there was often little to chronicle below this
level, and the great mass of people were lucky to be eating much at
all.19
In stark contrast to the popular image of the gluttonous Renaissance
banquet, overindulgence was the exception rather than the rule, and,
although England did not suffer as badly from famine as continental
Europe, Keith Thomas reminds us that “in the seventeenth century […] it
was rare, but certainly not unknown, for men to die in the streets from
starvation or exposure.”20
With food supplies precarious and the line
between survival and famine tenuous, it is little wonder that witchcraft
7. Knowles/Appetite and Ambition 7
Early English Studies • Volume 2 • 2009
was often blamed for otherwise inexplicable but devastating occurrences
such as the failure of crops or the death of livestock. Macbeth’s second
witch’s admission that she has been “killing swine” accords with the image
of the witch as a woman who destroyed the livestock of her neighbours
and left them facing hunger (1.3.2). Yet, as my reading of the exchange
between Macbeth’s witch and the sailor’s wife suggests, anxiety about food
is not limited to victims of witchcraft, but it also manifests in the witch
herself. Purkiss argues that the prominence of food in witches’ confessions
suggests that a shortage or absence of sufficient food in the women’s real
life was compensated for by imagined feasts and banquets:
in the few English confessions involving accounts of the [devil’s]
Sabbath, food is more central to events than sex [...]. However the
devils’ feast is duplicitous, since ‘they were never the fuller or better
for the same’ [...]. [F]antasies of abundant diabolic feasts [...]
represented a nurturance absent from the witch’s environment.21
In fact, these “fantasies of diabolic feasts,” though they seem to mark the
witch as transgressive and anomalous, are comparable to the dreams and
fantasies of plentiful food that seem to have sustained the wider
population in times of hardship. Massimo Montanari argues that “The best
cure for the fear of hunger lay in dreams: dreams of tranquillity and a full
stomach, of abundance and overindulgence; a dream of the land of
Cuccagna [Cockaigne or Lubberland in English accounts] where the supply
of food was inexhaustible and readily available.”22
What emerges is a
thread of commonality between ‘witches’ and their accusers. The beliefs
and actions of both groups seem to have been motivated – at least in part –
by fear of hunger and the desire for sufficient food, which was not often
readily available. It is possible to read these tensions in Macbeth in 1Witch’s
demand for chestnuts and the sailor’s wife’s accusatory “Aroynt thee,
witch!” (1.3.6).
FOOD AS POWER
The witches’ brief appearance in 1.3 evokes an image of women,
themselves hungry and malnourished, who interfere with the food
supplies of a rural population that remains largely invisible in the noble
world of Macbeth. This image seems to reproduce, in miniature, the larger
and more obvious preoccupation with food that surfaces in real-life
accounts of witchcraft from the early modern period, in which, as Thomas
argues, “many of the accused persons […] ‘were women in the habit of
8. Knowles/Appetite and Ambition 8
Early English Studies • Volume 2 • 2009
going from house to house, and from door to door for a pot of milk, yeast,
drink, pottage, or some such relief, without which they could hardly
live.’”23
Diane Purkiss highlights the lack of attention she feels Shakespeare
pays to such concerns, arguing that while the weird sisters’ appearance
makes brief reference to the wider concerns of food production and
subsistence that occupied the minds of early modern village women, on the
whole such concerns are subordinated to and subsumed by the wider
‘male’ story of Macbeth. For Purkiss, in Macbeth the primary female concern
(appetite and provision of food) is eclipsed by the primary male concern
(ambition):
The reference [to killing swine] is so brief that any reading feels like
overexpansion. Witches attacked pigs in village stories, but here
those stories are condensed into a single gesture [...] the last thing
that is conjured up here is a domestic animal, a plump porker on
which a family might depend for winter protein [...]. In Macbeth
women’s stories are put to work as part of the more grandiose male
narrative of the play [...]. [W]hat was rich, complex and coherent in
the stories of village women is reduced to signs of vague disorder
here.24
Yet the reference to “killing swine,” albeit brief, serves no purpose other
than to situate the witches and their victims in a context of want and
deprivation that would be instantly recognisable to contemporary
audiences, and while the “more grandiose male narrative of the play” is
indeed concerned with power and ambition, I will argue that these
concepts are inextricably connected with food and food provision in the
early modern period, and that concern about these issues pervades Macbeth
at every social level. Referring specifically to the medieval period, but
making a point that can be applied just as pertinently to the early modern,
Caroline Walker Bynum argues that
In our industrialized corner of the globe, where food supplies do not
fail, we scarcely notice grain or milk, ever present supports of life,
and yearn rather after money or sexual favours as symbols of power
and of success [whereas] food was, in medieval Europe, a
fundamental economic – and religious – concern.25
In fact, what Purkiss calls the “grandiose male narrative” of Macbeth is
itself concerned with, and more importantly expressed through, language
and imagery of food, and the simple, physical need for food, is not as
unconnected from the more complex intellectual and spiritual desire for
9. Knowles/Appetite and Ambition 9
Early English Studies • Volume 2 • 2009
power as it might seem. Meads argues, “Revenge and greedy ambition are
made analogous with appetite in banquet scenes, or within plays
containing them [...] the Latin root of ‘appetite,’ petere – to seek to obtain, to
seek to attain – renders the association appropriate.”26
The witch’s appetite-
driven demand “Give me!” finds a parallel in Macbeth’s ambition-driven
desire for the crown (1.3.5). As I argue below, the pervasive early modern
concern with hunger penetrates even the nobles in Macbeth, and despite
Massimo Montanari’s assertion that “Real hunger was unknown to the
privileged classes, but not the fear of it,” Shakespeare’s play suggests that,
because of Macbeth’s usurpation and the unrest and tyranny that follow it,
even for the nobles, “real hunger” may only be kept at bay by the
narrowest of margins.27
To understand how appetite and ambition are inextricably connected
in Macbeth, the significance of food in the lives of early modern nobility
must be understood. As Roy Porter argues, “Eating well was more
important than being rich, famous, or of high status – conspicuous food
consumption in fact stood as proof of all these attributes.”28
It is significant,
then, that Macbeth’s attempt to consolidate and cement his position as king
is dramatised in the pivotal banquet scene of 3.4, rather than through his
coronation, which is not staged. The coronation marks the symbolic
transference of power onto the new king, but it is the hosting of the feast –
proving his ability to provide abundance of food for himself and his
followers, demonstrating that he, unlike the lowly Sailor’s wife, is in a
position to be bountiful – that will mark him as a truly powerful leader. As
Meads notes, “The newly crowned Macbeth is anxious to consolidate his
power, privately by arranging the murder of Banquo and Fleance, and
publicly by visibly defining it to his courtiers in terms of a formal
banquet.”29
The significance of monarchs feasting and banqueting in public
is emphasised by King James VI’s Basilikon Doron, a manual in the art of
kingship written for his eldest son: “‘It is meet and honourable,’ James
advises Henry, for the king ‘to eate publicklie’ to ‘eshew the opinion that
yee love not to haunte companie, which is one of the markes of a Tyrant.’”30
Macbeth seems keen to avoid such accusations, assuring his courtiers that
it is only “To make society the sweeter welcome” that he “will keep
[himself] til supper-time alone,” and then, at the banquet itself, underlining
his eagerness to sit amongst them: “Ourself will mingle with society, / And
play the humble host” (3.1.42-43, 3.4.3-4). Tellingly, Banquo’s ghost
interrupts the banquet and the necessary display of kingly joviality never
takes place. As with the earlier banquet, when Lady Macbeth scolded her
husband for deserting the company – “[Duncan] has almost supp’d. Why
have you left the table?” (1.7.29) – Macbeth displays his inability to sit and
eat with his fellows. His murderous actions have set him apart from other
10. Knowles/Appetite and Ambition 10
Early English Studies • Volume 2 • 2009
men, and he can no longer partake of, what Dyson calls, the “harmony,
fellowship and union” of which “banquets and feasting are traditional
symbols.”31
Yet food extends its influence beyond the public show of the banquet
and permeates more private moments of the play. Macbeth not only uses
feasting to signify power and authority, he also seems to equate it with
personal security and comfort. Disturbed and guilt-ridden in the moments
after Duncan’s murder, Macbeth despairs that he has “murther’d sleep”
(2.2.41). Yet in his ravings, sleep metamorphoses into that other essential of
life, food, to become, “chief nourisher in life’s feast” (2.2.39). Intriguingly,
Macbeth figures sleep as the most important component of life – more
crucial, we infer, than food itself – and yet he can only express its
importance, and his desolation at its perceived loss, through the language
of food and nourishment. Later, when he feels his security and self-
assurance threatened by the existence of Banquo and Fleance, Macbeth
once again turns to images of food to express his unease:
“We have scorch'd the snake, not kill'd it:
She'll close and be herself, whilst our poor malice
Remains in danger of her former tooth.
But let the frame of things disjoint, both the worlds suffer,
Ere we will eat our meal in fear and sleep
In the affliction of these terrible dreams […]” (3.2.13-18)
Sufficient sustenance and the ability to eat in peace seem to be the
figurative benchmarks by which Macbeth measures his success, security,
comfort, and happiness. The man who earlier craved power at the expense
of all other things, who expressed his readiness to “jump the life to come”
if he could only have the crown, is perhaps beginning to realise the value of
less prestigious, but more fundamental assets (1.7.7).
Interestingly, Macbeth’s enemies employ almost identical language
when expressing their wish for the return to order and calm that Macbeth’s
downfall will bring. Discussing Macduff’s plan to rouse Malcolm to re-
claim his throne, an anonymous Lord conveys his hope:
“That, by the help of these – with Him above
To ratify the work – we may again
Give to our tables meat, sleep to our nights,
Free from our feasts and banquets bloody knives,
Do faithful homage and receive free honours:
All which we pine for now […]” (3.6.32-37)
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Macbeth and this Lord have utterly opposite hopes and ambitions, yet they
articulate these conflicting hopes in the same terms: feasting and sleeping.
Food unites these opposed characters, becoming universal shorthand for
security, comfort, order and peacefulness. These noble characters may not
feel the shortage of food to the same degree as the rural poor represented
by the witch and the sailor’s wife. They do not dream the hungry peasant’s
dream of the land of Cockaigne, where “the earth, no longer worked,
miraculously produces pre-cooked foods; the trees do not toss down buds
and leaves, but hams and clothes; the animals, their own butchers,
spontaneously roast themselves for the comfort of men’s stomachs.”32
Yet
the Lord’s longing to “again / Give to our tables meat” suggests that even
the aristocracy may be feeling a degree of scarcity under Macbeth and that
they certainly fear the dearth and want that typically accompanies tyranny
and civil unrest.
GLUTTONY AND TYRRANY
Food is so prevalent in this play that it is striking to find the sin of
gluttony notably absent from Malcolm’s list of self-confessed vices in 4.3.33
Malcolm tells the horrified Macduff that he is incontinently lustful,
desperately avaricious, and utterly lacking in
“Justice Verity, Temp’rance, Stableness,
Bounty, Perseverance, Mercy, Lowliness,
Devotion, Patience, Courage, Fortitude.” (4.2.92-94)
Nowhere does he specifically mention gluttony, yet the language in which
his lust and avarice are described is steeped in images of eating. When
confronted with Malcolm’s confession of lust, Macduff replies “We have
willing dames enough", and expresses disbelief that Malcolm can possibly
have “That vulture in you, to devour so many / As will to greatness
dedicate themselves,” invoking an image of perverted eating – scavenging
on carcasses – to convey his distaste (4.3.73-75). Again, when describing his
avarice, Malcolm turns to images of appetite and over-eating to convey the
extent of his vice:
“Were I king,
I should cut off the nobles for their lands;
Desire his jewels, and this other’s house:
And my more having would be as a sauce
To make me hunger more [...]” (4.3.78-82)
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Malcolm’s invocation of greed as a metaphor for economic acquisition is in
accordance with contemporary discourses which link famine and tyranny.
Writing when the food crisis of the 1590s was at its peak, Sir Hugh Plat, the
author of Sundrie New and Artificiall Remedies Against Famine (1596),
complained vehemently about “base & unmerciful lordes” or “covetous
and vnmercifull Lords” who raised grain prices on whims in order to
increase their revenues, demanding “why should rich men feast when the
poore are ready to famish?”34
Malcolm’s (false) depiction of himself as a
tyrant who would swallow up his subjects’ means of survival also recalls
the anonymous Lord’s earlier complaint that, under Macbeth’s rule, he is
unable to put sufficient meat on his table. It reminds us that Macbeth is
truly the kind of ruler that Malcolm only pretends to be: a tyrant who,
despite his attempts to put on a display of bounty and abundance through
banquets, is certain to inflict scarcity and want on his subjects, high and
low status alike.
Gluttony, therefore, becomes almost an unspoken über-vice in 4.3:
images of excessive and uncontrolled eating are the means by which
Malcolm inspires revulsion and horror in Macduff. In this respect, the
world of the nobles might indeed seem far removed from the world of the
witches and the sailor’s wife, for, as Bynum comments, “The possibility of
over-eating […] was a mark of privilege, of aristocratic or patrician
status.”35
Yet although, as Montanari argues, during the early modern
period “the area of social privilege and political power was ever more
glaringly opposed to the world of hunger and fear,” it is clear that in
Macbeth the line between these two spheres is by no means clearly drawn.36
In the minds of the noble characters, the world of hunger and fear informs,
and encroaches on, their experience of political power and privilege,
compelling them to express their most deeply felt hopes, anxieties, and
fears through reference to food.
“LIKE A HELL-BROTH BOIL AND BUBBLE”: BAD FOOD
Food not only signifies comfort, security, and power for the nobles in
Macbeth but also emerges in a recurring theme of ‘bad’ or adulterated food
and of perverted acts of food preparation and nurturing. After their first
encounter with the weird sisters, Banquo wonders to Macbeth,
“Were such things here as we do speak about?
Or have we eaten on the insane root
That takes the reason prisoner?” (1.3.83-85)
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His first thought is that the witches are a hallucination produced by the
ingestion of a mind-altering substance. This uncertainty highlights the
double-edged power of food, resonating with the theme of disorienting
doubling and equivocation that dominates the play. Mankind must eat; it is
essential to wellbeing and survival. Yet, to ingest food is to make oneself
vulnerable to its influence and to accidental or deliberate poisoning.
Macbeth’s fear of divine retribution for Duncan’s murder is expressed
through the metaphor of poisoning:
“This even handed justice
Commends th’ingredience of our poison’d chalice
to our own lips.” (1.7.10-12)
And an amalgamation of the poisoned chalice and the loss of reason feared
by Macbeth and Banquo is inflicted on Duncan’s unlucky grooms when
Lady Macbeth drugs “their possets” in order that she and her husband can
commit the murder for which the grooms will be blamed (2.2.8).37
It is
fitting that it is Lady Macbeth who drugs the grooms, since women’s role
as preparers of food often resulted in suspicion:
cooking was so much a woman’s role that it appeared, to men,
not merely arcane but threatening. When medieval men projected
their hostility toward women into suspicion of what went on in the
women’s quarters, they frequently spoke of women’s control of food.
Men suspected women (especially wives) of manipulating them by
adding potions or poisons to their meals.38
Lady Macbeth’s drugging of the grooms not only resonates with this idea
of female food-manipulation, but it also connects her with her social
opposites, the weird sisters, prefiguring in miniature the more shocking
and potent travesty of food-preparation they perpetrate when they create
in their cauldron the “hell-broth” that will bring forth the apparitions that
foretell Macbeth’s downfall (4.1.19).39
With this act, the weird sisters
perform an inversion of ‘natural’ housewifery. They reverse the traditional
female role, which is to prepare wholesome meals to nourish children, and
instead prepare an unnatural, inedible concoction that brings forth ghostly
visions of children who herald for Macbeth, not growth or prosperity, but
destruction and decay.40
This strong association between nourishment and
children is felt once again earlier in Macbeth, when Lady Macbeth’s avows
to her husband that she would “have pluck’d [her] nipple” from the
“boneless gums” of her nursing babe, “and dash’d the brains out” rather
than go back on her word, as she believes Macbeth has done (1.7.57-58). It
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is no coincidence that her fantasised infanticide takes place while the infant
is nursing, for this act epitomises the mother-child bond and the
responsibility of the mother to nourish and protect the vulnerable baby.
That Lady Macbeth imagines transforming the giving of sustenance – and
therefore life – into violence and death, underscores her terrible resolve.
When Lady Macbeth wishes to emphasise the need for cold-hearted
resolution, she does so by articulating a perversion of maternal instinct,
turning an act of nurturance into an act of destruction. When an agitated
Macbeth longs for the sense of personal security he feels he has forfeited,
he does so in terms of eating meals in peace. When he strives to express
how his own brutality has left him numb and desensitized to feelings of
terror, he says he has “supp’d full with horrors,” suggesting that he has
consumed, and indeed become consumed with, visions and acts of terror,
until – in a terrible literalization of the adage “you are what you eat” – he
has become, himself, a “horror” (5.5.13). Food imagery accompanies almost
every expression of passion in this play: repeatedly and insistently,
characters turn to images of food and feeding to articulate their charged
states of mind, reflecting the centrality of food-provision to all aspect of
early modern life.
This association of food with success is nowhere more apparent than
in Macbeth’s final desperate appearances. In 5.5, confronted with both
mortal and metaphysical opposition and lashing out at his followers and
enemies alike, Macbeth refers to the idea of famine twice in quick
succession. The ever-present idea of scarcity, which has simmered just
below the surface of the play thus far – implied, but not made explicit –
now takes centre-stage. Faced with the approach of the armies of Malcolm
and his allies, Macbeth encourages his followers with the assurance that
“Our castle’s strength
Will laugh a siege to scorn: here let them lie,
Till famine and the ague eat them up.” (5.2.2-4)
A mere 40 lines later, he threatens his own messenger – who tells him
Birnam Wood is moving – with the same fate:
“If thou speak’st false,
Upon the next tree shalt thou hang alive,
Till famine cling thee: if thy speech be sooth,
I care not if thou dost for me as much.” (5.5.38-41)
It is fitting that in his darkest moments Macbeth figures famine as the
harshest punishment, for throughout the play he has expressed his wishes
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for security in terms of food and feasting. His forecast that famine and ague
will “eat up” the enemy force is particularly fascinating, since it mingles an
image of starvation with one of ravenous consumption. Famine is
personified as the devourer of the hungry, and those who have nothing to
eat become food themselves, while Macbeth’s assertion that he “care[s]
not” if he himself starves indicates the extent to which his experience of
violence and tyranny have left him devoid of natural human feelings. For
an early modern audience, familiar with the ever-present anxiety over bad
harvests, soaring grain prices, and the resultant dearth, such a dismissive
attitude to the possibility of starvation must indeed have signified
Macbeth’s inhumanity, and supported his assertion that he has “forgot the
taste of fears” (5.5.9).
CONCLUSION
Macbeth appears to present two opposed worlds of food: the
prominent world of the rich, characterised by banqueting and feasting; and
the briefly glimpsed, hunger-driven world of the witches and the sailor’s
wife, characterised by privation and the desperate desire to protect what
small stocks of food are available. Yet the parallels between the weird
sisters and Lady Macbeth and the obsession with food that seems to
underlie the language of Macbeth and the Scottish lords demonstrate that
these worlds are not as separate as they appear. While, as Purkiss argues,
the “grandiose” narrative of Macbeth is indeed concerned with ambition,
power, and success, this narrative does not swallow up the concerns of the
poor. Rather the fear of hunger endured by the largely hidden poor
encroaches upon the world of the nobles, shaping their reactions and
experiences. The nobles seem acutely aware of the freedom plentiful food
gives them and of the precariousness of the plenty they enjoy. Food and
imagery of eating, therefore, come to underlie expressions of desire, fear,
anxiety and hope in the play. Transcending social and gender divides, food
becomes in Macbeth a symbol of unifying significance: sufficient food
allows the pursuit of other aims and ambitions, while insufficient food
renders all other concerns meaningless and superfluous. If the nobles in
Macbeth are not a part of the “masses” described by Roy Porter as moved
“above all [by] hunger, and the urgent need to relieve it through food,”
they are, at least, acutely aware of, and afraid of, hunger’s power, a power
that must have resonated with Macbeth’s early modern audience. This
audience who would themselves remember periods of dearth all too well
and surely lived in fear of future food shortages.
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Katie Knowles received her PhD from The University of Liverpool in 2008. Her
thesis explored the dramatic function of the children in Richard III, King John and
Macbeth, drawing connections between the performance history of these characters
and the changing historical concepts of childhood. Her research interests include
children and the family in Early Modern drama, cultural histories, and the
performance history of Shakespeare’s plays. She is a contributor to the Early
Modern section of the Routledge Annotated Bibliography of English Studies, and
currently teaches English Literature part-time at the University of Liverpool, and
at Liverpool Hope University.
1
Roy Porter, “Preface” to Piero Camporesi, Bread of Dreams: Food and
Fantasy in Early Modern Europe. Trans. David Gentilcore (Oxford: Polity,
1989), 8.
2
Although Macbeth is set in medieval Scotland, like most of Shakespeare’s
dramas it relies heavily upon seventeenth-century English assumptions
and conventions. For example, while the play acknowledges that medieval
Scotland operated a system of elected monarchy or ‘tanistry’ (see 1.4.37
where Duncan “establish[es] [his] estate” upon Malcolm), both the play’s
emphasis on patrilineage and references in later acts to Malcolm’s “due of
birth” (3.6.25) rely on an early modern English audience’s belief that
patrilineal inherited monarchy is sacrosanct and that Macbeth has not only
committed regicide but usurped the throne from the king’s eldest son.
However, while it largely appeals to contemporary English concerns,
Macbeth also exploits popular stereotypes of Scotland with which its
original audience would have been familiar, particularly the assertion,
found in Holinshed’s Chronicles, that the Scots were “a nation greatlie bent
to that horrible practise [of witchcraft].” Raphael Holinshed, The first and
17. Knowles/Appetite and Ambition 17
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second volumes of Chronicles comprising 1 The description and historie of
England, 2 The description and historie of Ireland, 3 The description and historie
of Scotland: first collected and published by Raphaell Holinshed, William
Harrison, and others: now newlie augmented and continued (with manifold
matters of singular note and worthie memorie) to the yeare 1586. by Iohn Hooker
aliàs Vowell Gent and others. With conuenient tables at the end of these volumes
(London: Henry Denham, 1587), 37.
3
Chris Meads, Banquets Set Forth: Banqueting in English Renaissance Drama
(Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001), 13.
4
Diane Purkiss, The Witch in History: Early Modern and Twentieth-Century
Representations (London: Routledge, 1996), 209.
5
All quotations taken from William Shakespeare, The Arden Shakespeare
Complete Works, ed. by Richard Proudfoot, Ann Thompson and David Scott
Kastan. 3rd
series (Thomas Nelson and Sons: Walton-on-Thames, 1998).
6
Purkiss, The Witch in History: Early Modern and Twentieth-Century
Representations, 209.
7
Antoinette Fauve-Chamoux, “Chestnuts,” in The Cambridge World History
of Food, vol.1, ed. Kenneth F. Kiple and Kriemhild Conee Ornelas
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 359.
8
See the Oxford English Dictionary Online, under “runnion”.
9
Keith Thomas argues that witchcraft accusations in England in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were overwhelmingly the result of
conflicts “not between the rich and the very poor, but between the fairly
poor and the very poor” Religion and the Decline of Magic (London:
Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1971), 564. A situation similar to that between
the witch and the sailor’s wife can be found in Dekker, Ford and Rowley,
The Witch of Edmonton, ed. Arthur F Kinney (London: A&C Black, 1998). In
this play, Old Banks calls Elizabeth Sawyer a witch when he discovers her
collecting firewood on his land: “OLD BANKS: Out, out upon thee, witch.
SAWYER: Dost call me witch? OLD BANKS: I do, witch, I do. […] What
makest thou upon my ground? SAWYER: Gather a few rotten sticks to
warm me” (2.1.17-20). Although the dispute is here over a demand for
firewood rather than food, the scenario is analogous to that in Macbeth, and
both Elizabeth Sawyer and Old Banks are poor characters of low social
status, as, I suggest, are the witch and the Sailor’s wife.
10
Mack P. Holt, The French Wars of Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1995), 199.
11
Joan Thirsk, “Enclosing and Engrossing,” in The Agrarian History of
England and Wales 1500-1640, ed. Joan Thirsk (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1967), 228.
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12
Peter Clark, “A Crisis Contained? The Condition of English Towns in the
1590s,” in The European Crisis of the 1590s: Essays in Comparative History, 47
(London: George Allen & Unwin, 1985).
13
Buchanan Sharp, “Shakespeare’s Coriolanus and the Crisis of the 1590s,”
in Law and Authority in Early Modern England, ed. Buchanan Sharp and
Mark Charles Fissel (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2007), 36.
14
Camporesi, Bread of Dreams: Food and Fantasy in Early Modern Europe, 125.
Cardano’s account refers to Italy, but English witchcraft suspects seem, by
and large, to have also fitted this description. Referring to sixteenth and
seventeenth-century England, Keith Thomas says, “deterioration in the
position of the dependent and elderly helps to explain why witches were
primarily women, and probably old ones, many of them widowed. ‘They
are usually such as are destitute of friends, bowed down with years, laden
with infirmities’, said a contemporary. Their names appear among
witchcraft indictments, just as they do among the recipients of parochial
relief. For they were the persons most dependent upon neighbourly
support.” (562-3).
15
Diane Purkiss, in her study of witchcraft insists that “one thing we and
the other characters can be sure of is that the witches are witches and not
simply odd old women.” Purkiss, The Witch in History: Early Modern and
Twentieth-Century Representations, 210.
16
Ibid., 96.
17
Alan Macfarlane, Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England: A Regional and
Comparative Study (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1970), 159.
18
See Purkiss, The Witch in History: Early Modern and Twentieth-Century
Representations, 96.
19
Stephen Mennell, All Manners of Food. 2nd
edition (Chicago: University of
Illinois Press, 1996), 22.
20
Ibid, 25. Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, 6.
21
Purkiss, The Witch in History: Early Modern and Twentieth-Century
Representations, 137.
22
Massimo Montanari, The Culture of Food. Translated by Carl Ipson
(Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), 94.
23
Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, 555, quoting R. Scot, The
Discoverie of Witchcraft (1584).
24
Purkiss, The Witch in History: Early Modern and Twentieth-Century
Representations, 209-10.
25
Caroline Walker Bynum, Holy Feast and Holy Fast: The Religious
Significance of Food to Medieval Women (London: University of California
Press, 1987), 1-2.
26
Meads, Banquets Set Forth: Banqueting in English Renaissance Drama, 32.
19. Knowles/Appetite and Ambition 19
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27
Montanari, The Culture of Food, 96.
28
Porter in Camporesi, Bread of Dreams: Food and Fantasy in Early Modern
Europe, 9.
29
Meads, Banquets Set Forth: Banqueting in English Renaissance Drama, 144.
30
Quoted in Carol Chillington Rutter, Shakespeare and Child’s Play:
Performing Lost Boys on Stage and Screen (London: Routledge, 2007), 231, n.
43.
31
J.P. Dyson, “The Structural Function of the Banquet in Macbeth,”
Shakespeare Quarterly, 14 (1963), 371.
32
Camporesi, Bread of Dreams: Food and Fantasy in Early Modern Europe, 80.
33
This omission is particularly striking since Holinshed reports that
Scotland was renowned for gluttony: “in Scotland likewise they haue giuen
themeslues […] vnto verie ample and large diet, wherein as for some
respect nature dooth make them equall with vs: so otherwise they far
exceed vs in ouer much and distemperate gormandize, and so ingrosse
their bodies that diuerse of them do often become vnapt to anie other
purpose than to spend their times in large tabling and bellie cheer”
(Holinshed, Chronicles, 165).
34
Sundrie New and Artificiall remedies against Famine, written by H.P. Esq.
uppon thoccasion of this present Dearth. (Printed by P.S. dwelling on
Breadstreet hill, at the signe of the Starre. 1596), A2 verso and A3. Accessed
through Early English Books Online.
35
Bynum, Holy Feast and Holy Fast: The Religious Significance of Food to
Medieval Women, 2.
36
Montanari, The Culture of Food, 94.
37
A posset is a warm drink of spiced or sweetened milk curdled with
alcohol. As Joan Fitzpatrick comments, “it is fitting that Lady Macbeth,
who wanted her own milk replaced with gall, should provide a milk-based
beverage whose potentially health-giving properties are inverted. ” Joan
Fitzpatrick, Food in Shakespeare: Early Modern Dietaries and the Plays
(Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007), 54.
38
Bynum, Holy Feast and Holy Fast: The Religious Significance of Food to
Medieval Women,190.
39
It is worth noting that many of the items in the cauldron listed during
the Second Witch’s incantation – snake, newt, toad, blindworm, dog’s
tongue – (4.1.12-19), are very similar to those found in an account of the
foodstuffs to which the starving citizens of Paris resorted during the siege
of 1590. In this account, translated and circulated in England, the
anonymous writer describes how “the flesh of Horses, Asses, Dogges, Cats,
Rats, Mice, Weasels, became daintie dishes at gentlemens tables, […] then
our queasie stomacks began to be contented with anything, were it a frying
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panne full of frogs, a dish of snailes, or a Skellett full of garden wormes.”
Later he describes how the citizens subsisted on flies and beetles, and
finally dug up bones from churchyards, and ground them up to make
bread. Thus while the witches’ “hell-broth” clearly signifies a perversion of
natural housewifery, it also adds to the sense that these characters are
suffering from food depravation, since it resonates with accounts of
starvation circulating in England in the decade before Macbeth was first
performed. See Anon., The coppie of a letter sent into England by a gentleman,
from the towne of Saint Denis in France Wherein is truely set forth the good
successe of the Kings Maiesties forces against the Leaguers and the Prince of
Parmas power. With the taking of a conuoie of victuals sent by the enemie to
succour Paris. And the grieuous estate of the said citie at this present. , Imprinted
at London: By Thomas Scarlet for Thomas Nelson, 1590, 17-20. Accessed
through Early English Books Online.
40
Joan Fitzpatrick makes the interesting suggestion that the witches’
incantation “double double” may allude to double-double beer, an
exceptionally strong, twice boiled beer, the effects of which were so
threatening to public order that Elizabeth I ordered the cessation of its
production. She further suggests that this interpretation figures the weird
sisters as female brewers, or “brewsters”, women who had a reputation for
producing polluted beer and cheating their customers. See Fitzpatrick, Food
in Shakespeare: Early Modern Dietaries and the Plays, 49-51. Such a reading
aligns the witches yet more strongly with Lady Macbeth as women who
pervert food-preparation. It also emphasises the domestic, familiar aspect
of these characters: alongside the horrifying and exotic ingredients the
witches add to their “hell-broth,” the reference to “double double” beer
might conjure up, for the seventeenth-century audience, an image of
womanhood recognisable from English village life.