Anxiety Psychology Psychological Disorder.pdf

DEFINIITON OF ANXIETY
• Anxiety is an emotion characterised by feelings of tension, worried
thoughts and physical changes like increased blood pressure - APA
• A feeling of apprehension and characterised by physical symptoms
such as palpitations, sweating and feelings of stress.
• Anxiety ha been defined as a feeling of dread, fear, or apprehension
often with no clear justification, as against fear , which arises as a
response to a clear and actual threat.

ANXIETY AND ANXIETY DISORDER
• PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDER is defined as a deviant, distressful and
dysfunctional pattern of thoughts, feelings or behaviours that interferes
with the ability to function in a healthy way.
• Anxiety is often misunderstood as fear. However anxiety disorder has
two aspects; one being the trigger and the other being dysfunctional
behaviour one engages in to avoid anxiety.
• ANXIETY DISORDERS are characterised not only by distressing,
persistent anxiety but also often by the dysfunctional behaviours that
reduce that anxiety.
• e.g. someone who likes to organise and clean their roomas against
someone who wash their hands until they scale or bleed.
• e.g. Wanting to take a break from social situations/ interactions versus
inability to step out for the fear of facing people.

RISK FACTORS
• Trauma: Witnessing or enduring
traumatic events, especially in childhood can
predispose one to develop an anxiety disorder.
• Stress due to illness : Having a health
condition or a serious illness can cause
significant worry about issues such as treatment and future
• Chronic and acute stress: Prolonged stress or an intense stressor can trigger anxiety. Eg
; excess work pressure/ death of a loved one
• Genetics : Family history of anxiety / stress can be an important factor to increase one’s
risk at developing anxiety
• Substance dependency

SYMPTOMS OF ANXIETY
Common signs and symptoms of Anxiety include :-
• Feeling nervous, restless and tense
• Having a sense of impending danger, panic and doom
• Having increased heart rate
• Breathing rapidly (hyperventilation)
• Sweating
• Trembling
• Feeling weak and tired
• Trouble concentrating or thinking about anything other
than present worry
• Having trouble sleeping
• Experiencing gastrointestinal (GI) problems
• Having difficulty controlling worry
• Having the urge to avoid things that trigger anxiety

ANXIETY DISORDERS IN DSM V
• Agoraphobia is a type of anxiety disorder in which you fear and often avoid places or situations that might cause you to
panic and make you feel trapped, helpless or embarrassed.
• Anxiety due to a medical condition includes symptoms of intense anxiety panic that are directly caused by a physical
health problem
• Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD), includes persistent and excessive anxiety and worry about activities or events - even
ordinary, routine issues. The worry is out of proportion to the actual circumstance, is difficult to control and affects how
you feel physically. Comorbid with other anxiety disorders and depression
• Panic disorder involves repeated episodes of sudden feelings of intense anxiety and fear or terror that reach a peak within
minutes (panic attacks). Feelings of impending doom, shortness of breath, chest pain, or a rapid, fluttering or pounding
heart (heart palpitations). These panic attacks may lead to worrying about them happening again or avoiding situations
in which they've occurred.
• Selective Mutism is consistent failure of children to speak in certain situations, such as school, even when they can speak
in other situations, such as home with close family members. This can interfere with school, work and social functioning.
• Seperation Anxiety Disorder is characterised by excessive anxiety related to separation from important figures.
• Social Anxiety Disorder ( Social Phobia) involves high levels of anxiety, fear and avoidance of social situations due to
feelings of embarrassment, self consciousness and concern about being judged or viewed negatively by others.
• Specific phobias are characterised by major anxiety when you are exposed to a specific object or situation and a desire to
avoid it.
• Substance-induced anxiety disorder is characterized by symptoms of intense anxiety or panic that are a direct result of
misusing drugs, taking medications, being exposed to a toxic substance or withdrawal from drugs.
• Other specified anxiety disorder and unspecified anxiety disorder are terms for anxiety or phobias that don't meet the
exact criteria for any other anxiety disorders but are significant enough to be distressing and disruptive.

PREVENTION
There is no way to predict for certain what will cause someone to develop anxiety disorder, but some steps
mentioned below can be used to reduce the symptoms of anxiety:
•Getting help early. Like many other mental and physical condition,
delay in seeking help can cause severe loss in terms of time which may
affect the prognosis of the disease and can lead to the anxiety to turn
into a full blown disorder
•Staying Active and finding time for recreation helps in maintaining
work life balance .
•Participating in activities that help us feel good about ourselves,
help in reducing the effects pf anxiety
•Meaningful and close interactions with loved ones can help lessen the
negative effects of anxiety, helping us feel confident about facing the challenges that may be triggering it
•Withdrawal from alcohol and other substances can lead to anxiety. Seeking help and
support to cope with these symptoms early on can be beneficial
•Getting enough and sound sleep hygiene.
•Meditating
•Maintaining a healthy balanced diet and exercise regime

COMPLICATIONS
Here are some issues that can become additional complications along with anxiety
• Depression is highly comorbid with anxiety disorder
• Substance misuse to avoid anxiety
• Insomnia
• Digestive and bowel problems
• Headaches and chronic pain
• Social Isolation
• Functional impairment at work and in personal life
• Suicide

TREATMENT
Treatment can include medicines, psychotherapy and coping skills
training
• Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is particularly useful in dealing
with anxiety. Along with other psychotherapies
• Medicines like tricyclics, benzodiazepines, Beta blockers etc are some
medications that can be taken ONLY with a doctor’s prescription
• Yoga, meditation, relaxing techniques are simple ways to ensure long
term benefits
• Maintaining a strong support system

IMPORTANCE OF EMOTIONAL
MANAGEMENT
Jiyaa Khatri

CONTENTS
1. About Emotional Intelligence at work
2. Fundamentals of Emotional Intelligence
3. Emotional Competence Framework
4. Benefits of Emotional Intelligence

What is emotional intelligence ????
Have you ever thought of why people of average intelligence
outperform people with the highest levels of intelligence
majority of the time?

Some research shows that IQ can help you to be successful to
the extent of 20 percent only in life. The rest of 80 percent
success depends on your EQ.

• Emotional intelligence (EQ) is the capacity of recognizing our
own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, for
managing emotions in ourselves as well as in our
relationships.
• EQ is critical to managing your behavior, moving smoothly
through social situations and making critical choices in life

FUNDAMENTALS OF EI (EQ)
4 Fundamental pillars of EQ
1. Self Awareness
2. Self Regulation
3. Empathy
4. People/Social Skills

1. Self Awareness
An emotionally intelligent person understands their own strengths
and weaknesses, as well as how to act accordingly.This quality
brings out confidence, without materializing over-confidence or on
the other hand, low self-esteem. People with a high EQ handle
criticism better, and can use their EQ to better introspect and
enhance their lives.

2. Self-Regulation
To live without feeling is death.To live engulfed by feeling is
infancy. An emotionally intelligent person can restrain and
control their feelings and emotions appropriately for different
situations.This is not the same as hiding or burying feelings
inside. A person with a high EQ can healthily express their
emotion with restraint and control.

3. Empathy
A healthy amount of empathy can improve one's life quality
significantly, allowing better connections to people on an
emotional level. Newer business studies also suggests that leaders
with better empathy and serving natures build stronger and more
sustainable leadership.

4. People Skills (Social Skills)
A person with good people skills enjoys being around others.They
are also likable by others. Connections to and communication
with other human beings are among the main fundamentals of
happiness.

Emotional Intelligence Framework
• The Intrapersonal
Realm
• The Interpersonal
Realm
• The Adaptability
Realm
• The Stress
Management Realm
• The General Mood Realm

The Intrapersonal Realm
concerns your ability to know
and manage yourself.
It embraces:
• Self Awareness
• Assertiveness
• Independence
• Self-Regard
• Self-Actualization

Self Awareness
The ability to recognize how you're
feeling and why you're feeling that
way and the impact your behavior
has on others
Assertiveness
The ability to clearly express
your thoughts and feelings,
stand your ground and defend a
position
Independence
The ability to be self-directed and self-controlled in your thinking and
actions and to be free of emotional dependency. Independent people
are self-reliant in planning and making important decisions.

Self Regard
The ability to appreciate your
perceived positive aspects and
possibilities as well as to accept your
negative aspects and limitations and
still feel good about yourself.
Self - Actualization
The ability to realize your
potential. This component of
emotional intelligence is
manifested by becoming
involved in pursuits that lead to
a meaningful, rich and full life.

The Inter-personal Realm
concerns your "people skills" — your
ability to interact and get along with
others. It is composed of three scales.
• Empathy
• Social Responsibility
• Interpersonal Relationship

Empathy
The ability to understand what
others might be feeling and thinking.
It is the ability to view the world
through another person's eyes.
Social Responsibility
The ability to demonstrate that
you are a cooperative,
contributing and constructive
member of your social group.
Interpersonal Relation
The ability to forge and maintain relationships that are mutually
beneficial and marked by give-and-take and a sense of emotional
closeness.

The Adaptability Realm
involves your ability to be flexible and realistic,and to
solve a range of problems as they arise. Its three scales
are :
•Reality
Testing
• Flexibility
• Problem Solving

Reality Testing
The ability to assess the
correspondence between what's
experienced and what objectively
exists. It is the capacity to see
things objectively, the way they are,
rather than the way we wish or fear
them to be.
Flexibility
The ability to adjust your
emotions, thoughts and behavior
to changing situations and
conditions. This component of
emotional intelligence applies to
your overall ability to adapt to
unfamiliar, unpredictable and
dynamic circumstances

Problem Solving
The ability to identify and define
problems as well as to generate and
implement potentially effective
solutions.

The Stress Management
Realm
concerns your ability to tolerate stress and control
impulses. Its two scales are :
• Stress Tolerance
• Impulse Control

Stress Tolerance
The ability to withstand
adverse events and stressful
situations without falling apart
by actively and positively
coping with stress.
Impulse Control
The ability to resist or delay an
impulse, drive or temptation to act.
Impulse control entails a capacity for
accepting your aggressive impulses,
being composed, and controlling
aggression, hostility and irresponsible
behavior.

The General Mood Realm
concerns your outlook on life, your ability to enjoy
yourself and others and your overall feelings of
contentment or dissatisfaction. It has two dimensions.
• Happiness
• Optimism

Happiness
The ability to feel satisfied with
your life, to enjoy yourself and
others and to have fun. Happiness
combines self-satisfaction, general
contentment and the ability to
enjoy life.
Optimism
The ability to look at the brighter
side of life and to maintain a
positive attitude even in the face of
adversity. Optimism assumes a
measure of hope in one's
approach to life

BENEFITS OF EQ
Having a high EQ is beneficial for both individual and the organization.
Some of the bottom line benefits of EQ are:
1. For the Organization
• Greater Productivity
• Grater Sales
• Worker Satisfaction
• Stability of staff
• Better Organizational communication
• Amazing Customer Service

BENEFITS OF EQ
2. For the Individual
• Increased Self Confidence
• High Motivation level
• Increased Speed
• Trustworthy
• Ready to face challenges
• Greater clarity of thoughts

Psychoanalytic Social Theory – Karen Horney
Psychoanalytic Social Theory is built on the assumption that social and cultural
conditions, especially childhood experiences, are largely responsible for shaping
personality.
People who do not have their needs for love and affection satisfied during
childhood develop basic hostility toward their parents and, as a consequence, suffer
from basic anxiety. Horney theorized that people combat basic anxiety by adopting
one of three fundamental styles of relating to others.
moving toward people
moving against people
moving away from people
Most normal people use any of these modes of relating to people but
neurotics are compelled to rigidly rely on only one.
Neurotic’s compulsive behavior generates a basic intrapsychic conflict that
may take the form of either and idealized self image or self hatred.
The idealized self image is expressed as:
o Neurotic search for glory
o Neurotic claims
o Neurotic pride
Self hatred is expressed as either
o Self contempt
o Alienation from self
Most of Horney’s writings are concerned with the neurotic personality but can be
applied to the normal personality.
Horney also had ideas about feminine psychology and the application of
psychotherapy.

Background
Very similar to Melanie Klein and other women psychoanalysts.
Trained in Europe with classical Freudian psychoanalysts
Objected to Freud’s view on women, instead, believing that culture, not
anatomy was responsible for the psychic differences between men and
women
Helped found the Chicago Psychoanalytic Institute
Close relationship with Eric Fromm which ended badly
Horney & Freud
She believed that strict adherence to psychoanalysis would lead to
stagnation in theory and practice
Objected to Freud’s beliefs about women’s psyche
Psychoanalysis should move beyond instinct theory and emphasize the
importance of cultural influences in shaping personality
Cannot overemphasize the importance of culture
Culture
Emphasizes competition among individuals
The basic hostility that emerges from competition results in feelings of
isolation
These feelings of being alone in a potentially hostile world lead to
intensified needs for affection, which cause people to overvalue love
As a result, many people see love and affection as the solution for their
problems
Genuine love can be a healthy, growth producing experience but the
desperate need for love provides a fertile ground for the development of
neuroses
Western culture contributes to this vicious cycle by:
cultural teachings of kinship and humility that are contrary to the attitudes,
namely aggression and the drive to win!
Societies demand for success and achievement are nearly endless so that
normal people have new, additional goals placed before them all the time
Furthermore, western society tells people that they are free and can
accomplish anything with hard work and effort without regard to genetics,
social position, and the competitiveness of others

These contradictions all stem from cultural not biological influences
Childhood is where the vast majority of life and neurotic problems stem
from
Even more debilitating personal problems all have their roots traced to the
lack of genuine warmth and affection
From childhood experiences she determined that people who rigidly repeat
patterns of behavior do so because they interpret new experiences in a
manner consistent with those previously established patterns
In order for children to develop normally they need to experience both genuine love
and discipline. Such experiences provide them with feelings of safety and
satisfaction that lets them grow in accord with their real self.
If these needs are not met the child develops basic hostility towards the
parents.
Repressed hostility leads to profound feelings of insecurity and a vague
sense of apprehension called basic anxiety
Both basic hostility and basic anxiety are intimately interwoven
Horney identified four ways of protecting themselves against feelings of being
alone and in a potentially hostile world:
1 – affection
2 – submissiveness
3 – power (a defense against the real or imagined hostility of others
o prestige (protection against humiliation expressed by the tendency to
humiliate others)
o possession (the buffering against destitution and poverty manifesting
itself as a tendency to deprive others
4 – withdrawal
These protective devices are not normally a sign of neurosis but when they become
unhealthy and people feel compelled to rely on them and employ a variety of
interpersonal strategies they are called compulsions.

Horney identified ten neurotic needs that characterize neurotics in their attempts to
combat anxiety.
1. neurotic need for affection and approval
2. neurotic need for a powerful partner
3. neurotic need to restrict one’s life within narrow boundaries
4. neurotic need for power
5. neurotic need to exploit others
6. neurotic need for social recognition or prestige
7. neurotic need for personal admiration
8. neurotic need for ambition and personal achievement
9. neurotic need for self-sufficiency
10. neurotic need for perfection and unassailability
These needs are boiled down to three neurotic trends, including;
1. moving toward people (needs 1 & 2)
2. moving against people (needs 3, 4, 5, 6, & 7)
3. moving away from people (needs 8, 9, & 10)

The Interaction of Basic Hostility & Basic Anxiety
With the Defenses against Anxiety
Basic Hostility
(Results from childhood feelings of rejection or neglect
By patents or from a defense against basic anxiety
Basic Anxiety
Results from parental threats or from a defense
Against hostility
Defenses against Anxiety
Normal Defenses Neurotic Defenses
Spontaneous Movement Compulsive Movement
Toward People Toward People
(friendly, loving personality) (compliant personality)
Against People Against People
(a survivor in a competitive society) (aggressive personality)
Away from People Away from People
(autonomous, serene personality) (detached personality)

What is normal vs. neurotic?
What are Horney’s Neurotic Trends?
Neurotic Trends
Personality Compliant Aggressive Detached
Basic conflict feelings of Protection against Feelings of
or source of helplessness hostility of others isolation
neurotic trend
Neurotic needs 1. affection & 4. power 9. self-sufficient
Approval and
Independence
2. powerful 5. exploitation 10. perfection
partner and prestige
3. narrow limits to 6. recognition and
life unassailability
7. personal admiration
8. personal achievement
Normal analog friendly, loving ability to survive autonomous and
in a competitive serene
society
Intrapsychic conflict

The two important intrapsychic conflicts are the
idealized self image
o In a healthy situation, individuals develop a healthy self-confidence
and security
o In an unhealthy environemtn the individual tries to develop a sens of
self-realization so as not to feel isolated and inferior
o They desperately acquire a stable sense of identity that is exaggerated
and this idealized self-image can take on one of three forms
o
 The neurotic search for glory
Need for perfection (should’s & should nots)
o Tyranny of the should’s
Neurotic ambition
o Compulsive drive toward superiority
Drive toward a vindictive triumph
o Put others to shame…humiliating others
 Neurotic claims
Sense of entitlement…idealized view of themselves
 Neurotic pride
False pride based not on the true self but on a spurious
image of the idealized self
self-hatred
o Self-hatred (relentless demands on the self)
o Merciless self-accusation
o Self-contempt
o Self-frustration
o Self-torment or self-torture
o Self-destructive actions & impulses
Feminine Psychology

Basic anxiety based not on sex but on cultural issues
Basic anxiety is at the core of men’s needs to subjugate women’s issues to
wish to humiliate men
Concept of penis envy is not tenable
Masculine protest is a pathological belief that men are superior to women
leading to a neurotic desire to be a man
o OR, a wish for all those qualities or privileges which in our culture
are regarded as masculine
Psychotherapy
Focus is on changing one or all of the neurotic trends
Help patients gradually grow in a direction of self-realization by:
o Giving up their idealized self-image
o Relinquishing their neurotic search for glory
o And, changing self-hatred to an acceptance of the real self
Even though patients have a strong investment in maintaining the status
quo, they do not, generally, wish to remain ill.
The three neurotic trends tend to be cast in favorable terms like love,
mastery, and freedom.
Because patients usually see their behavior in positive terms, their actions
appear to them to be healthy, right, and desirable
The therapist’s task then is to convince patients that their present solutions
are perpetuating rather than alleviating the core neurosis or problem which
takes time and effort to change!
There is NO quick fix.
Patients must understand the differences between their idealized self-image
and their real self.
This is accomplished through dream analysis, free association, and talking.

Critique
There is generally a lack of research on how this applies to normal
personalities.
Not really sure what the term self-realization actually means.
Her theory fall short on its ability to generate research and to submit its
terms to falsifiability (few testable hypotheses)(1).
Her theory, however, in terms of neurotics is well organized (5) but not so
with normal people.
Her guide to action of practitioners is better but there are few details on
exactly what to do with patients (2)
Her theory has low internal consistency and uses terms and concepts in
different ways (2)
While her writing is very clear her use of simple terms in her work gives
her a high mark (4)
Her theory of humanity is deterministic while the individual, to some
extent, has free choice (F>D)
Her theory is both optimistic and pessimistic with a tendency toward the
curative powers of human (O>P)
Her theory is both causal and teleological (C=T)
She believed in the strength and influence of the conscious, social
motivation over the unconscious (C>UC)
Her emphasis on the social nature of humans as well as cultural influences
places her theory as more social than biological (S>B)
Finally, she places emphasis on the similarities between people rather than
on their uniqueness (S>U).

WHAT IS LEARNING?
• Learning can be defined as the process, of acquiring a
relatively permanent change.
• The change can be in behaviour, thoughts, skills and
knowledge.
• Learning can be acquired by practice and experience.
• When we learn, we alter the way we perceive our
environment, the way we interpret the incoming stimuli
and therefore the way we interact or behave.
• John B. Watson was the first to study the effects on
learning on behaviour and was the founder of the school
of thought, popularly came to be known as
‘Behaviourism’

CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING
• Learning is constant and a key process to human
behaviour, from birth to death.
• Learning is permanent
• Learning is due to practice and experience but not
due to maturation or growth
• Learning can involve physical and mental
activities
• Learning can involve simple and complex tasks
• Learning can be conscious or unconscious

TYPES OF LEARNING
• MOTOR LEARNING : Motor learning refers to
daily activities like walking, standing, climbing,eating etc.
They involve muscle coordination and an individual learns
to perform them inorder to maintain a normal lifestyle.
• VERBAL LEARNING : involves the language we speak
along with the various communication devices we use.
Signs, pictures, letters, words, tones, symbols etc are tools
for verbal communication.
• CONCEPT LEARNING : refers to understanding
identifying concepts. Involves higher orders mental
processes like thinking, reasoning, intelligence, memory
etc. Involves two processes called, generalization and
abstraction, essential for recognition and identification.

• DISCRIMINATION LEARNING : learning to
differentiate between two stimuli and giving appropriate
responses. Eg – different sounds of horns of vehicles like
bus/ ambulance etc
• LEARNING OF PRINCIPLES : we learn principles
of science, grammar, mathematics to understand the
relationship between concepts and use them effectively eg
formulae, laws, correlations etc.
• PROBLEM SOLVING : is a higher order mental process
involving cognitive abilities such as thinking, reasoning,
observation, imagination etc., used for finding solutions.
• ATTITUDE LEARNING : is a predisposition towards an
object, person or thing. It can develop from childhood and
can direct our behaviour. It can be positive or negative.

THEORIES OF LEARNING
• TRIAL AND ERROR LEARNING (E. THORNDIKE) : ‘Puzzle
box’. Thorndike proposed that we learn gradually by making attempts and
mistakes over several trials. As the trials increase, the errors decrease.
• LEARNING BY CONDITIONING : literally refers to getting
‘used to’ or making an association between a stimulus and the corresponding
response. There are two types of conditioning theories, namely classical
conditioning and operant conditioning.
• LEARNING BY INSIGHT (KOHLER) : Based in Gestalt
psychology which talks about perceiving the ‘whole’ than the sum of its
parts, which leads to the sudden flash of an idea/ insight/ eureka moment.
Involves several higher order processes. Follows trail and error method
and involves creative thinking. ( Sultan exp)
• LEARNING BY OBSERVATION : Many of our behaviours are
learnt by observing others. We repeat the behaviours if they are reinforced,
leading to relatively permanent change in our behaviours. ( Bobo dolls)

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING – IVAN PAVLOV
• learning through association. Involves 3 stages; before
conditioning, during and after the conditioning has occurred.
1st phase an UCS (food) elicits an UCR (saliva)
2nd phase UCS (food) + NS (bell) --------- UCR (saliva)
3rd phase CR (bell) ------- CR (saliva)
• Acquisition : when the response to the neutral stimulus is
established and gradually strengthened. When the subject elicits a response the
previously NS, we can say that the response is acquired.
• Extinction : When the CR disappears after the CS ceases to be
paired with the UCS
• Spontaneous Recovery : When the CR suddenly reappears, after extinction at
the presentation of the CS.
• Stimulus Generalization : When a CR is elicited by stimuli similar to the CS.
Eg : Little Albert experiment
• Stimulus Discrimination : When the subject is able to differentiate between
the CS and other stimuli and doesn’t elicit a response to them.

OPERANT CONDITIONING/ INSTRUMENTAL LEARNING B F
SKINNER
• Learning occurs through rewards and punishments. Studied
using Skinner box.
• Behaviour is strengthened with the consequences are
favourable and weakened when they are unpleasant – law of
effect by Thorndike.
• Positive reinforcement : The behaviour is strengthened by
adding a favourable outcome to the situation. Eg praise/
reward
• Negative reinforcement : removal of an unpleasant outcome
from the situation after the desired behaviour Eg: participating
in an activity to avoid a test / lecture.
• Positive punishment : present an unfavourable outcome to
weaken a response eg scolding (by application)
• Negative Punishment: Removal of a pleasant stimulus to
weaken a response or behaviour (eg - taking away break ( by
removal)

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
• Refers to the process of learning by watching others, retaining
information, and then replicating behaviours that were obsereved.
• Also called as shaping, modeling. We are naturally inclined to it. Infants
as young as 21 days try and mimic our expressions
• Famous Bobo doll experiment to explain observational learning
• Children were more likely to imitate behaviour if the aggressive actions of
the adult received no response or was positively reinforced, whereas in
films where the act was punished, they were less likely to model the act.
• We are likely to imitate the behaviour :-
1. of people who we perceive to be warm & nurturing,
2. whose behaviour was rewarded, or if you were rewarded for the
behaviour in the past
3. When we lack confidence in terms of knowledge or skills
4. Authority positions or higher social standing
5. The situation is ambiguous or confusing
6. The persons are of our age, gender and have similar interests

DEFINITION OF MEMORY
• Memory is the means by which we draw
on our past experiences in order to use this
information in the present. (Sternberg,
1999)
• Memory is the process of maintaining
information over time. (Matlin, 2005)

STAGES OF MEMORY
Memory is a complex process that involves 3 major
processes namely, encoding, storage & retrieval.
Forgetting can occur due to encoding or storage failure.
• Encoding : encoding can be visual, acoustic &
semantic. (seeing, hearing & meaning)
• Storage: refers to the duration, location and capacity
of the information stored. STM can store information
for about 30 secs whereas the duration of LTM is for
a lifetime.
• Retrieval : STM is stored & retrieved sequentially
whereas LTM is stored & retrieved by association.

TYPES OF MEMORY
• Sensory Memory : Earliest form of memory. The
capacity is only half a second for visual and about
3-4 seconds for auditory memory.
• Short Term Memory: The span of short term
memory is about 20 – 30 seconds and the
capacity of storage is + or – 7 items (Magic
number 7 by George Miller), before they are lost
or transferred to long term memory.
• Long Term Memory : The span of long term
memories can range from days to a lifetime. The
capacity of LTM is unlimited.

RECALL
Milk Baby
Nine Sword
Swap Clock
Cell Army
Ring Fire
Lamp Horse
Apple Worm
Table Time
Hold Book
Desk Money

RECOGNIZE
Baby Green Tree Sword
Clock Money Fire Match
Seven Ring Hold Time
Apple Metal Pink Hands
Milk Horse Cell Book
Phone Toast Gate Train
House Worm Swap Army
Uniform Nine Lamp Flowers
Desk Lantern Bell Fire
Paper Hold Glue Table

MEASUREMENTS OF MEMORY
• Recall: Refers to the process of retrieving
information learnt previously. Free, Cued and
Serial recall.
• Recognition: Is a measure of memory that requires
one to identify material as familiar or having been
encountered before.
• Relearning: Also known as saving method.
Retention is faster with relearning.
• Reconstruction : measure of retrieving information
in the sequence it was learnt in and to be able to
construct the same sequence.

FORGETTING
• Trace Decay Theory : Assumes that memories leave a trace in
the brain. A trace is a physical/chemical change in the brain.
According to this theory, forgetting occurs as a result of
automatic decay or fading of memory trace if unrehearsed.
• Displacement Theory : simply suggests that information is lost
due to limited capacity of STM. And we tend to remember
items that are at the beginning or end (primacy or recency
effect)
• Interference Theory: Suggests that learning cannot happen
because of interference caused by old information/memories
(proactive interference) as against when you forget a
previously learned task due to learning of the new task
(retroactive interference)

MEMORY IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES
• Attention : In order for information to move from STM to LTM,
attend to the stimulus (study material) without distractions.
• Avoid cramming: Information that is processed in bits and
rehearsed regularly is remembered better.
• Structure & organize : grouping similar concepts into chunks/
clusters helps retention.
• Mnemonics: acronyms, rhyming words, expressions etc
• Visualize information : use visual cues like flashcards, drawings ,
other graphics
• Relate new information to old information to higher recall
• Read out loud or teaching others
• Vary your study routine, adding novelty helps recall
• Adequate rest/sleep: sleeping or napping after study helps recall

Guess who??
Edward Titchner
William Wundt

STRUCTURALISM
• The study of the elements of consciousness
• Conscious experience can be broken down into
basic conscious elements.
• Method of introspection to understand the
building blocks of the mind and how these basic
components interacted with one another.
• Criticized for reducing the complexity of
conscious mental processes into
parts/components.
• Introspection is subjective, hence deemed as
unscientific research method.

FUNCTIONALISM
William James
John Dewey
• Functionalism originated in the US in the 19th century to counter
Structuralism, and focused on empirical, rational approach than trial
and error experiment.
• Functionalism focused on the capability of the mind than on the
thought process., and how the mind adjusted to the environment.
• They focused on the practical approaches of research and paved way
to the development and growth of ‘Behaviorism’.

PSYCHODYNAMIC
Dr Sigmund Freud
• Emphasis on the role of
unconscious processes,
childhood experiences and
interpersonal experiences to
explain behavior and treat
illnesses.
• Structure of the psyche: ID,
ego & superego
• Defense mechanisms
• Psychosexual stages of
development

BEHAVIORISM
• Psychology seen as science and studied
in a scientific and objective manner
• Concerned with observable behavior.
• Behavior is learnt through conditioning
& interaction with the environment: CC
OC
• All behavior can be reduced to S-R
• Explanations can be scientifically tested
& proved
• Real life applications in therapy
• Ignores mediational processes
• Low ecological validity
• Nomothetic approach
• No account of biological factors
• We are not born with a blank slate

COGNITIVE
• In the 1960’s, the focus on mental processes like
thinking, memory, problem solving, language and
decision making
• Jean Piaget and Albert Bandura
• Information processing model where the mind is
compared to a computer to understand how the
information is acquired, processed, stored and
utilized.
• Later on cognitive-behaviour perspective became
popular upon which CBT is based.

BIOLOGICAL/ NEUROSCIENTIFIC
• Studies the physiological basis of behavior
• Look at genetics, endocrine systems, immune
system, functionality/dysfunctionality of brain
parts to understand behavior/ illness
• Use of MRI/PET which was not possible
earlier
• Neurotransmitters
• Dopamine/serotonin/ cortisol

HUMANISTIC & EXISTENTIAL
• Influenced by Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow
and Viktor Frankl emphasizes on the role of
motivation in thought and behavior.
• Concepts like self-actualization, unconditional
positive regard, free will and meaningful
purpose are key stones
• Positive psychology has its roots in these

DEFINITION
• Personality refers to individual differences in
characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving.
The study of personality focuses on two broad areas:
1. Understanding individual differences in particular
personality characteristics, such as sociability or
irritability.
2. Other is understanding how the various parts of a person
come together as a whole. -APA
• Personality is the dynamic organization within an
individual of those psychophysical
systems that determine his characteristics,
behavior and thought. - Gordon Allport

FIRST CLASSIFICATION OF
PERSONALITY
• Greek physician Hippocrates in 370 – 460 BCE proposed what may have been the first theory
of personality
• 4 humors or bodily fluids that affect personality traits and behavior.
• An individual is a combination of all four but there are two predominant that shape personality
Choleric: extroverted, independent, decisive, goal oriented, ambitious and make natural leaders.
Also violent, vengeful and short-tempered/aggressive.
Melancholic: analytical, deep thinkers, emotional, introverted, thoughtful, detail oriented,
perfectionists but anxious and sad.
Sanguine: talkative, enthusiastic, energetic, active and social. Tend to be charismatic, but have a
hard time being patient, calm or when there is nothing to do.
Phlegmatic: relaxed, peaceful, quiet and easy going. Not too expressive about their emotions

THEORIES
• Type Theories: psychological classification of different types of people.
Origin in Carl Jung’s work. Later developed by Meyer Friedman :Type A
& Type B personality theory.
• Trait theory: Traits are more constant. Catell’s 16PF and Big Five most
common. On a spectrum
• Psychoanalytic theory: Psychosexual stages of development
• Behaviorists theories: We shape up according to learning and
conditioning
• Cognitive theory: Cognition about self, world & future shape personality
• Humanistic theory: ‘Free will’ and subjective experiences as against
merely being forced by environment/unconscious
• Biological Theory: Brain function or dysfunction can shape us
• Genetic theory: focus on the activation & expression of genes in
interaction with the environment.
• Evolutionary theory: Through natural selection traits like dominance,
emotional stability, sociability, conscientiousness are developed for
survival & reproduction.
• Drive theory: instinctual needs that form habits and shape us

MEASURING PERSONALITY
• Several tests like NEO FFI, 16 PF, EPQ- R MBTI
• MBTI is a popular pre-employment tool
• Used to know yourself better, employment,
screening, etc
• Online tests are sometimes for entertainment too
and should be take with a grain of salt
• Standardized tools
administered by trained and
qualified professionals
only for formal assessment or
diagnosis

OCEAN MODEL ( BIG 5)
• Researchers believe that they are five core personality traits.
• You might find it helpful to use the acronym OCEAN (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeableness, and neuroticism) when trying to remember the big five traits
• Each of the five personality factors represents a range between two extremes. For example,
extraversion represents a continuum between extreme extraversion and extreme introversion. In the
real world, most people lie somewhere in between the two polar ends of each dimension.
• Openness :imagination and insight. People who are high in this trait also have a broad range of
interests, are curious about the world and other people and eager to learn new things and enjoy new
experiences. Tend to be more adventurous and creative. People low in this trait are often much more
traditional and may struggle with abstract thinking.
• Conscientiousness : Include high levels of thoughtfulness, good impulse control, and goal-directed
behaviors, tend to be organized and mindful of details. They plan ahead, think about how their
behavior affects others, and are mindful of deadlines
• Extraversion : excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, and high amounts of emotional
expressiveness, outgoing and tend to gain energy in social situations. People who are low(or
introverted) tend to be more reserved and have less energy to expend in social settings. Social events
can feel draining and introverts often require a period of solitude and quiet in order to "recharge."
• Agreeableness : Attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and other prosocial behaviors,
tend to be more cooperative while those low in this trait tend to be more competitive and sometimes
even manipulative.
• Neuroticism: Characterized by sadness, moodiness, and emotional instability, tend to experience
mood swings, anxiety, irritability, and sadness. Those low in this trait tend to be more stable and
emotionally resilient.

PERSONALITY DISORDERS
• DSM 5 lists 10 different
personality
disorders like anti-social PD,
borderline PD narcissistic PD Histrionic to name a
few
• Diagnosis of a PD can be very distressing
• Depending on the diagnosis and severity of the
case, a treatment plan can be devised.
• It may be inclusive of therapy, skills training,
medication or a combination of all three.

WHAT IS PSYCHOANALYSIS?
• Psychoanalysis is a set of psychological theories that have
their origin in the work of Sigmund Freud.
• The central premise of psychoanalysis is that unconscious
thoughts, feelings, desires, conflicts & childhood memories
shape up our personalities
• Clients bring unconscious processes into consciousness to
experience ‘catharsis’ & insight into current state of mind
• Relief from distress is sought by catharsis
• Anxiety/ depression due conflict between conscious &
unconscious
• Use of defense mechanisms

A LITTLE ABOUT FREUD
• Sigmund Freud was born in Vienna in 1856
• Began his career in therapy in 1886
• Case of Anna O by Josef Breuer in 1892
• Freud coined the term psychoanalysis
in 1896
• Interpretations of Dreams 1900
• Vienna Psychoanalytic society in 1907
Freud was the president
• Carl Jung broke away from Freud 1913
• Alfred Adler broke away in
• Death in London from mouth cancer in 1939

THE TWO FORCES
• All psychic energy generated from libido
• Mental states influenced by two opposing forces : cathexis &
anticathexis . Biological/ psychological
• Cathexis is the investment of psychic energy to an object, idea
or person to unhealthy degree
• Anticathexis is the process that blocks or supresses cathaxes
being used
• Repression is the best known anticathexis
• Human behavior motivated by Life instinct & Death Instinct
• Life Instinct related to basic need of survival, reproduction &
pleasure – need for food, shelter, love & sex
• Death Instinct related to unconscious desire for death – self
destruction – fights, wars, adventure sports etc

STRUCTURE OF PSYCHE/ PERSONALITY
• Unconscious mind is outside our
conscious awareness & includes early
childhood memories, secret desires,
hidden drives, urges, hopes, wishes etc.
• Unpleasant/ socially unacceptable
content causing pain/threat/conflict is
pushed into unconscious.
• Continues to affect how we think/act/
behave sometimes leading to psychological distress.
• Conscious mind includes everything in our awareness.
• Freud compared mind to an iceberg, the tip being conscious
while majority of the expanse being is unconscious.

ID EGO SUPEREGO
• ID : the demanding child. Present at birth. Is the
source of all psychic energy and works on the
‘pleasure principle’, striving for instant gratification.
The ID contains the primitive instincts/drives. The ID
creates a state of anxiety if needs are not satisfied
immediately. Eg : hunger of a baby
• Ego: Works on the ‘reality principle’, strives to
satisfy the ID’s needs in a realistic & socially acceptable
ways (delayed gratification). The ego discharges tension
through secondary processes & finds an object in the
real world to match the mental image created by the ID’s
primary processes. Conscious & unconscious.
Superego: emerges around 5 yes. Beliefs/values/ rules
inculcated by parents, authority figures. To make us
civilized. Idealistic standard instead of ego’s realistic
standards. Present in conscious, preconscious & unconscious.

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
• Oral Stage (Birth-1): Mouth is the erogenous zone.
Dependency on caregivers through oral gratification –
sucking, biting. Also develops trust & comfort through oral
stimulation. Challenge is the weaning process.
Overindulgence / under indulgence – Fixation.
Dependent/oral aggressive : smoking, drinking/ nail-biting.
• Anal Stage : (1-3yrs) Focus of libido on Bowel/Bladder
control
Anus. Conflict occurs during toilet training. Control gives a
sense of achievement/ independence. Encouraging parents
can lead to productive, creative, competent adults. Fixation –
Too lenient approach can lead to anal expulsive personality-
wasteful, messy/destructive and too punitive can lead to
anal-retentive – orderly, rigid, stringent, obsessive.

• Phallic stage ( 3-6 years): focus is the genitals.
Discover gender differences. Boys develop ‘Oedipus complex’ where they
see father as a rival for mother’s affections & wishes to replace the father
but fears ‘castration anxiety’. Electra complex is where girls feel the
affection for father. Women experience ‘penis envy’ and is some what
fixated at this stage. Eventually both identify with same sex parents as
models for gender identity. Karen H. disputed theory as demeaning &
inaccurate and proposed that men experience ‘womb envy’.
• Latency (6 – puberty): inactive sexual feelings.
Libido is sublimated into intellectual pursuits/ social interactions. Peer
pressure/ development of social skill/ self confidence, hobbies etc.
Development of ego & superego leads to a period of calm.
Fixation can occur resulting in inability to develop meaningful
relationships in adulthood.
• Genital stage ( puberty – death): active libido at puberty.
Sexual interest for the opposite sex begins & stays for life. Unlike other
stages, focus is on others/ group welfare/ balance between various areas
of life. Without fixation adult would be a warm, balanced & caring
personality. Fully developed ego & superego leading to social conformity.

DEFENSE MECHANISMS
• Displacement: directing our anger, frustrations, feelings & impulses on
people/objects that are a milder target. Eg: horrible boss – frustration on wife/kids
• Denial: to protect the ego from threat (Pain/Anxiety) Eg Addiction
• Repression: Ego supresses ID impulses/ memories anything that is threatening. Eg
memory of abuse in childhood
• Supression: A wife may be peeved about her husband’s behaviour. Because of
some guests around her, she may control her reaction and decide to bring it up later
when no one is around them.
• Regression: In stressful events, revert to behavior of previous developmental level/
psychosexual level where we are fixated. Eg : at unpleasant news a orally fixated
person might indulge in emotional eating/ verbal aggression
• Sublimation: Changing unacceptable impulses into acceptable/ productive
behaviors. Eg anger to kick boxing
• Projection: Taking our own unacceptable behaviors/ emotions & ascribing them to
someone else. Eg : if you don’t like someone, believing that they don’t like you

• Reaction formation: Taking the opposite
impulse/feeling/behavior. Eg : abusive relationships
• Rationalization: Giving plausible but incorrect
explanation of your behaviors. Eg: Victim in an
abusive relationship will justify the partner’s behavior
as a result of stress
• Intellectualization: Focusing on the reason/intellectual
component rather than emotions. Eg dealing with
death by saying it is better than suffering.
• Undoing: Compensate by doing something to cover
up your actions. Eg parents buying materialistic
things for time not spent
• Compensation: Overachieving in one area to make up
for failure in another.

THERAPY
• Talk Therapy (Free Association): Talking freely without agenda. The premise is
everything is relevant & eventually the unconscious material comes up. Time
consuming. Everything is documented. Therapist doesn't sit in front.
• Dream Analysis: dreams symbolically represent unconscious conflicts/wish
fulfillment as defense mechanisms are low. Some symbols are universal. Done in
context.
• Transference: Projects feelings about someone else onto the therapist, like love,
anger, dependence etc.
Positive transference is when you project enjoyable aspects of your past relationship to
the therapist. Can help.
Negative transference is when the projected feelings are negative but can enhance
treatment by providing internal cues for conflicts. Especially useful if the therapist can
use it to help a client overcome an emotional response that is out of proportion to reality.
Sexual transfer occurs when you fall in love, sexually/romantically attracted to the
therapist
Counter-transference occurs when the therapist transfers their own internal conflicts as a
response.

USES/CRTICISMS
STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
Intense Time consuming
Resolving deep rooted issues Prudish outlook
Close interaction with
therapist
Not much focus on
present/future
Deep insight Environmental/ cultural
interaction not give credit
Addressing
unconscious/dreams
Trained therapists
Addressing sexuality subjective
Defense mechanisms Not fit for many conditions

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
What is Psychosocial Development?
Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of personality in psychology.
Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages. Unlike Freud’s theory of
psychosexual stages, Erikson’s theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan.
One of the main elements of Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity.1
Ego identity is
the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction. According to Erikson, our ego identity is
constantly changing due to new experience and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. In
addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence also motivates behaviors and actions. Each
stage in Erikson’s theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the
person will feel a sense of mastery, which he sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality.2
If the stage is
managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.
In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. In
Erikson’s view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that
quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure.
Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust
 The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one year of age and is
the most fundamental stage in life.2
 Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of
the child’s caregivers.
 If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are
inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care
for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.
Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
 The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and is
focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.2
 Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's reasoning
was quite different then that of Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to control one’s body functions leads to a
feeling of control and a sense of independence.
 Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.
 Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a
sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.
Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt
 During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing
play and other social interaction.
 Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these
skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt and lack of initiative.3
Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority
 This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.
 Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
 Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and
belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt
their ability to be successful.

Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion
 During adolescence, children are exploring their independence and developing a sense of self.
 Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from
this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of
their beliefs and desires will insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation
 This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.
 Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people. Those who
are successful at this step will develop relationships that are committed and secure.
 Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of
personal identity was important to developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those
with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional
isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation
 During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
 Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in
their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the
world.
Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair
 This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.
 Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience many
regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
 Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this
phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain
wisdom, even when confronting death

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development Summary Chart
Stage Basic Conflict Important
Events
Outcome
Infancy (birth to
18 months)
Trust vs.
Mistrust
Feeding Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide
reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.
Early Childhood
(2 to 3 years)
Autonomy vs.
Shame and
Doubt
Toilet Training Children need to develop a sense of personal control over
physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to
feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and
doubt.
Preschool (3 to
5 years)
Initiative vs.
Guilt
Exploration Children need to begin asserting control and power over the
environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose.
Children who try to exert too much power experience
disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.
School Age (6 to
11 years)
Industry vs.
Inferiority
School Children need to cope with new social and academic demands.
Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in
feelings of inferiority.
Adolescence (12
to 18 years)
Identity vs.
Role Confusion
Social
Relationships
Teens needs to develop a sense of self and personal identity.
Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure
leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.
Young
Adulthood (19
to 40 years)
Intimacy vs.
Isolation
Relationships Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with
other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure
results in loneliness and isolation.
Middle
Adulthood (40
to 65 years)
Generativity vs.
Stagnation
Work and
Parenthood
Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them,
often by having children or creating a positive change that
benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness
and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow
involvement in the world.
Maturity(65 to
death)
Ego Integrity
vs. Despair
Reflection on
Life
Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of
fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom,
while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.

According to the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, children go through a series
of psychosexual stages that lead to the development of the adult personality. Freud's
stages of human development, which consisted of five psychosexual stages of
development, described how personality developed over the course of childhood.
While Freud's theory of personality development is well-known in psychology, it
has always been quite controversial, both during Freud's time and in modern
psychology.
One important thing to note is that contemporary psychoanalytic
theories of personality development have incorporated and emphasized ideas about
internalized relationships and interactions and the complex ways in which we
maintain our sense of self into the models that began with Freud.
Overview of Freud's Psychosexual Stages of DevelopmentFreud believed that
personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-
seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. An erogenous
zone is characterized as an area of the body that is particularly sensitive to
stimulation.
During the five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and
genital stages, the erogenous zone associated with each stage serves as a source of
pleasure.
Psychosexual energy, or the libido, was described as the driving force behind
behavior.
Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of
five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to
influence behavior later in life.
Each stage of development is marked by conflicts that can help build growth or stifle
development, depending upon how they are resolved. If these psychosexual stages
are completed successfully, a healthy personality is the result.
If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A
fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is
resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. A person who is fixated at
the oral stage, for example, may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral
stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.

Sigmund Freud's Life, Theories, and Influence
The Oral Stage
Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the
mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital
for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying
activities such as tasting and sucking.
Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for
feeding the child), the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this
oral stimulation.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less
dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the
individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result
in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.
The Anal Stage
Age Range: 1 to 3 years
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on
controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet
training—the child has to learn to control their bodily needs. Developing this control
leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.
According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents
approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet
at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable
and productive.
Freud believed that positive experiences during the toilet training stage serve as the
basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults.

However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need
during this stage. Some parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents.
According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative
outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that
an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a messy,
wasteful, or destructive personality.
If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an anal-
retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and
obsessive.
The Phallic Stage
Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on
the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between
males and females.
Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s
affection. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the
mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will
be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.
The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings
experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead
experience penis envy.
Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of
vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis
envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this
stage.
Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both inaccurate
and demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men experience feelings
of inferiority because they cannot give birth to children, a concept she referred to
as womb envy.

The Latent Period
Age Range: 6 to Puberty
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are
suppressed. Children develop social skills, values, and relationships with peers and
adults outside of the family.
The development of the ego and superego contributes to this period of calm. The
stage begins around the time that children enter school and become more concerned
with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.
The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is repressed or
dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as
intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the
development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.
As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for
children to become fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result
in immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.
The Genital Stage
Age Range: Puberty to Death
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final
stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest
in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of
a person's life.
Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the
welfare of others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a
balance between the various life areas.
If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be
well-balanced, warm, and caring.

Unlike many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego and
superego were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled
by the id, which demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and wants.
Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic urges
against the need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms.
Identity vs. Role Confusion in Psychosocial Development
Evaluating Freud's Stages of Human Development
Freud's theory is still considered controversial today, but imagine how audacious it
seemed during the late 1800s and early 1900s. There have been a number of
observations and criticisms of Freud's psychosexual theory on a number of grounds,
including scientific and feminist critiques.
Criticisms of the Psychosexual Stages of Development
• The theory is focused almost entirely on male development with little mention
of female psychosexual development.
• His theories are difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such as the libido are
impossible to measure, and therefore cannot be tested. The research that has
been conducted tends to discredit Freud's theory.
• Future predictions are too vague. How can we know that a current behavior
was caused specifically by a childhood experience? The length of time
between the cause and the effect is too long to assume that there is a
relationship between the two variables.
• Freud's theory is based on case studies and not empirical research. Also, Freud
based his theory on the recollections of his adult patients, not on actual
observation and study of children.
Ignores Homosexuality
Another criticism of the psychosexual stages is that the theory focuses primarily on
heterosexual development, and largely ignores homosexual development.
So how exactly did Freud explain the development of sexual preferences?
Freud's theory suggested that heterosexual preferences represent the "normal"
outcome of development and suggested that homosexual preferences represented a
deviation from this process.1
Freud's own viewpoints on homosexuality varied, at

times expressing biological explanations and at other times social or psychological
explanations for sexual preferences.
Unlike many thinkers of his time, Freud was unconvinced that homosexuality
represented a pathology. He also believed that attempts to alter a person's sexuality
were usually futile and often harmful.
In a famous 1935 letter to a mother who had written him to ask that he treat her
homosexual son, Freud wrote that while he believed homosexuality was not
advantageous, it was certainly not a vice or something to be ashamed of. Freud
wrote, "...it cannot be classified as an illness; we consider it to be a variation of the
sexual function, produced by a certain arrest of sexual development."
While Freud's theory implied that homosexuality was a deviation from normal
psychosexual development, many contemporary psychologists believe that sexual
orientation is largely influenced by biological factors.
While few people are strong proponents of Freud's theory of psychosexual
development today, his work made important contributions to our understanding of
human development. Perhaps his most important and enduring contribution was the
idea that unconscious influences could have a powerful impact on human behavior.
Freud's theory also stressed the importance of early experiences in development.
While experts continue to debate the relative contributions of early versus later
experiences, developmental experts recognize that the events of early life play a
critical role in the developmental process and can have lasting effects throughout
life.
The Nature vs. Nurture Debate
The Id
• According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy, making it the
primary component of personality.1
• The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.
• This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes instinctive and
primitive behaviors.
The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification
of all desires, wants, and needs.1
If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the

result is a state of anxiety or tension. For example, an increase in hunger or thirst
should produce an immediate attempt to eat or drink.
The id is very important early in life because it ensures that an infant's needs are met.
If the infant is hungry or uncomfortable, they will cry until the demands of the id are
satisfied. Young infants are ruled entirely by the id; there is no reasoning with them
when these needs demand satisfaction.
Examples of the Id
Imagine trying to convince a baby to wait until lunchtime to eat their meal. The id
requires immediate satisfaction, and because the other components of personality
are not yet present, the infant will cry until these needs are fulfilled.
However, immediately fulfilling these needs is not always realistic or even possible.
If we were ruled entirely by the pleasure principle, we might find ourselves grabbing
the things that we want out of other people's hands to satisfy our cravings.
This behavior would be both disruptive and socially unacceptable. According to
Freud, the id tries to resolve the tension created by the pleasure principle through the
use of primary process thinking, which involves forming a mental image of the
desired object to satisfy the need.1
Although people eventually learn to control the id, this part of personality remains
the same infantile, primal force throughout life. It is the development of the ego and
the superego that allows people to control the id's basic instincts and act in ways that
are both realistic and socially acceptable.
The Ego
• According to Freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the
impulses of the id can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world.2
• The ego functions in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.
• The ego is the personality component responsible for dealing with reality.3
Everyone has an ego. The term ego is sometimes used to describe your cohesive
awareness of your personality, but personality and ego are not the same. The ego
represents just one component of your full personality.

The ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id's
desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways. The reality principle weighs the
costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon or abandon impulses.
In many cases, the id's impulses can be satisfied through a process of delayed
gratification—the ego will eventually allow the behavior, but only in the appropriate
time and place.1
The term ego is often used informally to suggest that someone has an inflated sense
of self. However, the ego in personality has a positive effect. It is the part of your
personality that keeps you grounded in reality and prevents the id and superego from
pulling you too far toward your most basic urges or moralistic virtues. Having a
strong ego means having a strong sense of self-awareness.
Freud compared the id to a horse and the ego to the horse's rider. The horse provides
power and motion, while the rider provides direction and guidance. Without its rider,
the horse would wander wherever it wished and do whatever it pleased. The rider
gives the horse directions and commands to get it where it wants it to go.
The ego also discharges tension created by unmet impulses through secondary
process thinking, in which the ego tries to find an object in the real world that
matches the mental image created by the id's primary process.4
Examples of the Ego
Imagine that you are stuck in a long meeting at work. You find yourself growing
increasingly hungry as the meeting drags on. While the id might compel you to jump
up from your seat and rush to the break room for a snack, the ego guides you to sit
quietly and wait for the meeting to end.
Instead of acting upon the primal urges of the id, you spend the rest of the meeting
imagining yourself eating a cheeseburger. Once the meeting is finally over, you can
seek out the object you were imagining and satisfy the demands of the id realistically
and appropriately.
The Superego
The last component of personality to develop is the superego.
• According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five.

• The superego holds the internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire
from our parents and society (our sense of right and wrong).1
• The superego provides guidelines for making judgments.
The superego has two parts:
1. The conscience includes information about things that are viewed as bad by
parents and society. These behaviors are often forbidden and lead to bad
consequences, punishments, or feelings of guilt and remorse.5
2. The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for behaviors that the ego
aspires to.5
The superego tries to perfect and civilize our behavior. It suppresses all id's
unacceptable urges and struggles to make the ego act upon idealistic standards rather
than on realistic principles. The superego is present in the conscious, preconscious,
and unconscious.
Examples of the Superego
For example, if you give in to the urges of the id, the superego is what will cause
you to feel a sense of guilt or even shame about your actions. The superego may help
you feel good about your behavior when you suppress your most primal urges.
Other examples of the superego include:
• A woman feels an urge to steal office supplies from work. However, her
superego counteracts this urge by focusing on the fact that such behaviors are
wrong.
• A man realizes that the cashier at the store forgot to charge him for one of the
items he had in his cart. He returns to the store to pay for the item because his
internalized sense of right and wrong urge him to do so.
• A student forgot to study for a history test and feels an urge to cheat off of a
student sitting nearby. Even though he feels like the chances of getting caught
are low, he knows that cheating is wrong, so he suppresses the urge.
The Interaction of the Id, Ego, and Superego
When talking about the id, the ego, and the superego, it is important to remember
that these are not three separate entities with clearly defined boundaries. These
aspects are dynamic and always interacting to influence an individual's overall
personality and behavior.

With many competing forces, it is easy to see how conflict might arise between the
id, ego, and superego. Freud used the term ego strength to refer to the ego's ability
to function despite these dueling forces.6
A person who has good ego strength can effectively manage these pressures, while
a person with too much or too little ego strength can be unyielding or disruptive.
What Happens If There Is an Imbalance?
According to Freud, the key to a healthy personality is a balance between the id, the
ego, and the superego.7
If the ego is able to adequately moderate between the demands of reality, the id, and
the superego, a healthy and well-adjusted personality emerges. Freud believed that
an imbalance between these elements would lead to a maladaptive personality.
For example, an individual with an overly dominant id might become impulsive,
uncontrollable, or even criminal. Such an individual acts upon their most basic urges
with no concern for whether their behavior is appropriate, acceptable, or legal.
On the other hand, an overly dominant superego might lead to a personality that is
extremely moralistic and judgmental. A person ruled by the superego might not be
able to accept anything or anyone that they perceive to be "bad" or "immoral."
Defense mechanisms are psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to
protect a person from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings.
According to Freudian theory, defense mechanismss involve a distortion of relaity
in wome way so that we are better able to cope with a situation.

10 Defense Mechanisms: What Are They And How They Help Us Cope
We use defense mechanisms to protect ourselves from feelings of anxiety or guilt,
which arise because we feel threatened, or because our id or superego becomes too
demanding.
Defense mechanisms operate at an unconscious level and help ward off unpleasant
feelings (i.e., anxiety) or make good things feel better for the individual.
Ego-defense mechanisms are natural and normal. When they get out of proportion
(i.e., used with frequency), neuroses develop, such as anxiety states, phobias,
obsessions, or hysteria.
Here are a few common defense mechanisms: There are a large number of defense
mechanisms; the main ones are summarized below.

Denial
Denial is a defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud which involves a refusal to
accept reality, thus blocking external events from awareness.
If a situation is just too much to handle, the person may respond by refusing to
perceive it or by denying that it exists.
As you might imagine, this is a primitive and dangerous defense – no one disregards
reality and gets away with it for long! It can operate by itself or, more commonly,
in combination with other, more subtle mechanisms that support it.
What is an example of denial?
Many people use denial in their everyday lives to avoid dealing with painful feelings
or areas of their life they don’t wish to admit.
For example, a husband may refuse to recognize obvious signs of his wife’s
infidelity. A student may refuse to recognize their obvious lack of preparedness for
an exam!
Repression
Repression is an unconscious defense mechanism employed by the ego to keep
disturbing or threatening thoughts from becoming conscious.
Repression, which Anna Freud also called “motivated forgetting,” is just that: not
being able to recall a threatening situation, person, or event. Thoughts that are often
repressed are those that would result in feelings of guilt from the superego.
This is not a very successful defense in the long term since it involves forcing
disturbing wishes, ideas or memories into the unconscious, where, although hidden,
they will create anxiety.
Repressed memories may appear through subconscious means and in altered forms,
such as dreams or slips of the tongue (Freudian slips).

What is an example of repression?
For example, in the oedipus complex, aggressive thoughts about the same sex
parents are repressed and pushed down into the unconscious.
Projection
Projection is a psychological defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud in which
an individual attributes unwanted thoughts, feelings and motives onto another
person.
Projection, which Anna Freud also called displacement outward, is almost the
complete opposite of turning against the self. It involves the tendency to see your
own unacceptable desires in other people.
In other words, the desires are still there, but they’re not your desires anymore.
What is an example of projection?
Thoughts most commonly projected onto another are the ones that would cause guilt
such as aggressive and sexual fantasies or thoughts.
For instance, you might hate someone, but your superego tells you that such hatred
is unacceptable. You can ‘solve’ the problem by believing that they hate you.
Displacement
Displacement is the redirection of an impulse (usually aggression) onto a powerless
substitute target. The target can be a person or an object that can serve as a symbolic
substitute.
Displacement occurs when the Id wants to do something which the Superego does
not permit. The Ego thus finds some other way of releasing the psychic energy of
the Id. Thus there is a transfer of energy from a repressed object-cathexis to a more
acceptable object.

Turning against the self is a very special form of displacement, where the person
becomes their own substitute target.
It is normally used in reference to hatred, anger, and aggression, rather than more
positive impulses, and it is the Freudian explanation for many of our feelings of
inferiority, guilt, and depression.
The idea that depression is often the result of the anger we refuse to acknowledge is
accepted by many people, Freudians and non-Freudians alike.
What is an example of displacement?
Someone who feels uncomfortable with their sexual desire for a real person may
substitute a fetish.
Someone who is frustrated by his or her superiors may go home and kick the dog,
beat up a family member, or engage in cross-burnings.
Regression
Regression is a defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud whereby the the ego
reverts to an earlier stage of development usually in response to stressful situations.
Regression functions as a form of retreat, enabling a person to psychologically go
back in time to a period when the person felt safer.
What is an example of regression?
When we are troubled or frightened, our behaviors often become more childish or
primitive.
A child may begin to suck their thumb again or wet the bed when they need to spend
some time in the hospital. Teenagers may giggle uncontrollably when introduced
into a social situation involving the opposite sex.
Sublimation

Sublimation is similar to displacement, but takes place when we manage to displace
our unacceptable emotions into behaviors which are constructive and socially
acceptable, rather than destructive activities. Sublimation is one of Anna Freud’s
original defense mechanisms.
Sublimation for Freud was the cornerstone of civilized life, as arts and science are
all sublimated sexuality. (NB. this is a value-laden concept, based on the aspirations
of European society at the end of the 1800 century).
What is an example of sublimation?
Many great artists and musicians have had unhappy lives and have used the medium
of art of music to express themselves. Sport is another example of putting our
emotions (e.g., aggression) into something constructive.
For example, fixation at the oral stage of development may later lead to seeking oral
pleasure as an adult through sucking one’s thumb, pen or cigarette. Also, fixation
during the anal stage may cause a person to sublimate their desire to handle faeces
with an enjoyment of pottery.
Rationalization
Rationalization is a defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud involving a
cognitive distortion of “the facts” to make an event or an impulse less threatening.
We do it often enough on a fairly conscious level when we provide ourselves with
excuses.
But for many people, with sensitive egos, making excuses comes so easy that they
never are truly aware of it. In other words, many of us are quite prepared to believe
our lies.
What is an example of rationalization?
When a person finds a situation difficult to accept, they will make up a logical reason
why it has happened. For example, a person may explain a natural disaster as “God’s
will”.

Reaction Formation
Reaction formation, which Anna Freud called “believing the opposite,” is a
psychological defense mechanism in which a person goes beyond denial and
behaves in the opposite way to which he or she thinks or feels.
Conscious behaviors are adopted to overcompensate for the anxiety a person feels
regarding their socially unacceptable unconscious thoughts or emotions.
Usually, a reaction formation is marked by exaggerated behavior, such as showiness
and compulsiveness.
By using the reaction formation, the id is satisfied while keeping the ego in ignorance
of the true motives.
Therapists often observe reaction formation in patients who claim to strongly believe
in something and become angry at everyone who disagrees.
What is an example of reaction formation?
Freud claimed that men who are prejudiced against homosexuals are making a
defense against their own homosexual feelings by adopting a harsh anti-homosexual
attitude which helps convince them of their heterosexuality.
Another example of reaction formation includes the dutiful daughter who loves her
mother is reacting to her Oedipus hatred of her mother.
Introjection
Introjection, sometimes called identification, involves taking into your own
personality characteristics of someone else, because doing so solves some emotional
difficulty.
Introjection is very important to Freudian theory as the mechanism by which we
develop our superegos.
What is an example of introjection?

A child who is left alone frequently, may in some way try to become “mom” in order
to lessen his or her fears. You can sometimes catch them telling their dolls or animals
not to be afraid. And we find the older child or teenager imitating his or her favorite
star, musician, or sports hero in an effort to establish an identity.
Identification With The Aggressor
Identification with the aggressor is a defense mechanism proposed by Sandor
Ferenczi and later developed by Anna Freud.
It involves the victim adopting the behavior of a person who is more powerful and
hostile towards them.
By internalizing the behavior of the aggressor the “victim” hopes to avoid abuse, as
the aggressor may begin to feel an emotional connection with the victim which leads
to feelings of empathy.
What is an example of identification with the aggressor?
Identification with the aggressor is a version of introjection that focuses on the
adoption, not of general or positive traits, but of negative or feared traits. If you are
afraid of someone, you can partially conquer that fear by becoming more like them.
An extreme example is Stockholm Syndrome, where hostages establish an
emotional bond with their captor(s) and take on their behaviors.
Patty Hearst was abused by her captors, yet she joined their Symbionese Liberation
Army and even took part in one of their bank robberies. At her trial, she was
acquitted because she was a victim suffering from Stockholm Syndrome.

Psychosocial Stages
of Development
Christopher L. Bishop
Trinity Washington University, USA
Erik Erikson’s psychosocial development model
has been a leading theory on the stages of
human development since 1963. Erikson was a
student of Anna Freud, studying to become a
psychoanalyst. However, his view of
psychosocial development diverged from psy-
choanalysis and he concluded that development
is influenced not only by inner conflicts, but
also by the social world (Psikolojisi, 2007). He
challenged the field to examine how identity is
formed and the extent of social and environ-
mental influences in shaping individual
development (Erikson, 1950, 1963). Erikson’s
theory revolutionized the field of development
and identity, leading to pioneering work such as
James Marcia’s identity status model, which
focused on adolescent development (Schwartz,
Zamboianga, Wang, & Olthuis, 2009).
Overview
Erikson developed eight stages of development,
each represented by an approximate age range.
However, there is controversy concerning age
ranges because of culture, social change, and
various forms of development. In each stage,
according to Erikson, there are psychosocial crises
(trust vs. mistrust; autonomy vs. shame and
doubt; initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority,
identity vs. role confusion; intimacy vs.
isolation; generativity vs. stagnation; integ-rity
vs. despair) and the individual is chal-lenged to
achieve a psychosocial task. A psychosocial crisis
is an innate conflict, with internal and external
struggles prompted by physical and sexual growth
and social changes. These struggles become a
catalyst for shaping an individual’s personality and
determine how
1
the individual navigates the world, manages
interpersonal interactions, and develops self-
esteem over a lifetime. Erikson proposed that
the experience of psychosocial crises and
their resolution may lead to a healthy person-
ality or to a fragmented and damaged
personality.
Developmental psychologists and other social
scientists have examined Erikson’s theory from
a cross-cultural perspective. Although Erikson’s
theory was not based on a cross-cultural
perspective, the model repre-sents aspects of the
universal commonality of human development
and personality style, and he made attempts to
apply his model to other cultures, such as Native
Americans (Schachter, 2005). Despite these
attempts, the universality of Eriksonian
developmental theory is not without challenges.
For example, lifespans over various cultures are
diverse and may limit the applicability of
Erikson’s stages; Afghanistan, for instance, has
a shortened lifespan due to generations of war,
lack of infrastructure, and poor healthcare,
which may affect age-related challenges and
expectations throughout life. Additionally,
Wheeler, Ampadu, and Wangari (2002) argued
that Erikson’s theory is in conflict with African
ideology as it relates to development. Erikson
suggested that during development,
psychologically healthy individ-uals will
accomplish developmental milestones by
becoming more independent and autono-mous
throughout their journey, whereas African
philosophy emphasizes community, family, and
spirituality, which are shared in a collective
succession in order to accomplish
developmental milestones. These aspects of
African philosophy may also resemble those of
other collective societies, such as Asian, Latin,
and Middle Eastern cultures. The research base
examining Erikson’s theory from a cross-
cultural perspective is not extensive, yet there
appear to be variations in the experience of these
stages across and within cultural,
The Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural Psychology, First Edition. Edited by Kenneth D. Keith.
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

2
subcultural, and ethnic groups. Erikson him-
self noted during his own aging process that
as life expectancy increases, developmental
theory should be reassessed.
In contrast, Schachter (2005) argued that
Erikson’s theory incorporates social, cultural
and environmental factors as they relate to
forming personality, and Schwartz (2001)
posited that Erikson incorporated cognitive,
moral, social, and cultural realms as a way to
understand identity. Onchwari, Ariri-Onchwari,
and Keengwe (2008) discussed the relevance of
Erikson’s model in the development of
immigrant children, who successfully transition
through stages with the support of their culture
and parents. However, factors such as prejudice
and racism may impair developing children’s
personalities even if they are naturally
progressing with the encouragement of their
culture. Furthermore, Sneed, Whitbourne, and
Culang (2008) argued that Erikson’s theory
allows flexibility in accounting for individual
differences and the interactions between person
and environment. This notion implies that
culture is also a variable that influences
personality and development.
The Stages
Stage 1
Erikson’s first stage is trust vs. mistrust, which
occurs during infancy (birth to 18 months). The
psychosocial task for the infant is to seek a level
of trust from the primary caregiver(s), as well as
to depend on the caregiver(s) to pro-vide a sense
of security (Psikolojisi, 2007 ). Suedfeld et al.
(2005) suggested that a favorable outcome is for
the infant to establish a sense of security and a
positive approach to the world, which is seen as
a healthy attachment. In addition, this stage
leads to the foundation of a healthy personality.
In contrast, failure to cre-ate these bonds leads
the infant to an inability to trust, and to
isolation, withdrawal, and a negative attitude
about life. This initial stage appears likely to
transcend a majority of cul-tures and also
provides a foundation for the child’s
development and how the child develops
intimate relationships, which are a continua-
tion of how individuals interpret and reinter-
pret the environment throughout their
lifetime.
Birth is one of the first traumas that a
human experiences, and infants use the
caregiver as their barometer regarding the
environment. In general, infants are provided
with a caregiver(s), even if it is not the birth
parents, to meet their basic needs. This stage
of development is also more likely to be
nurtured collectively (e.g., by family, friends)
than by one individual. The reactions of the
caregiver(s) to the infant’s needs determine
the successful development of the child
mastering this crisis in a positive manner.
However, research has highlighted cross-
cultural variations in the perception of infancy.
Feldman and Masalha (2010, p. 456) found that
mothers from an individualistic culture were
likely to engage in social behaviors such as “fre-
quent gaze, provide more objects frequently, and
more direct face-to-face interaction”. In contrast,
mothers from a collectivistic culture approached
interactions with their children by “placing the
infant in physical proximity, keep-ing arousal at
neutral levels, and maintaining continuous
contact, but focusing less on active social
behaviors in the vocal, gaze, or facial-affective
modalities” (p.456). There are non-
industrialized cultures which do not focus on the
nurturing aspects of parent-child relation-ships,
but rather on keeping evil spirits from
possessing the child and attacking the family
(Montgomery, 2009). This suggests that the
infant is not the main objective, but the family
as a unit is the most important entity.
Stage 2
Erikson’s second stage is autonomy vs. shame
and doubt, which occurs during toddlerhood (18
months to three years). Successful completion of
this stage leads the toddler to feel confident and
secure to explore the environment without
permission of the caregiver. In addition, toddlers
have a more independent stance and attempt to
control the environment and their own bodily
responses, such as toilet training. This stage

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