“An excuse for not overcoming” A comparative reading of institutional inferiority and social marginality of Maoris in Alan Duff’s Once Were Warriors and What Becomes of the Broken Hearted?

1. 1
“An excuse for not overcoming” A comparative reading of institutional inferiority and
social marginality of Maoris in Alan Duff’s Once Were Warriors and What Becomes of the
Broken Hearted?
The novels Once Were Warriors and What Becomes of the Broken Hearted? both written by
Alan Duff can be read as social critiques of contemporary Maori society. Essentially, “in
postcolonial writing, the historical record never gets wiped clean. Instead, historical and
contemporary conditions in all their necessary messiness become premises for change.”1
The novels therefore portray contemporary Maori society as one of atrocious social
marginalisation, rampant inferiority based neuroses and a vicious self replicating cycle of
destitution based on several issues of the past and the present. Furthermore, Alan Duff has been
quoted as saying that Maoris use their “institutionalized inferiority complex … as an excuse for
not overcoming”2
While this statement may seem excessively harsh it cannot be dismissed. This
marginalisation takes the forms of several social problems, namely; alcoholism, violence,
domestic abuse and juvenile delinquency. What Duff suggests is that the Maoris are to be held
responsible for their society and not defer the blame for their collective condition on the
inherited postcolonial condition and subsequently the Pakehas. Therein lies the primary dilemma
of this paper; who is to be blamed or held responsible for the plight of the postcolonial Maoris?
There is little doubt that the internalisation of European doctrine has contributed significantly to
the inferiorty complex of the Maoris, however is this enough to justify continued Maoris social
1
Wilson, Sage '98 English 27, 1997, “Postcolonial Premises:Refusing to Wipe the Slate Clean”
http://www.postcolonialweb.org/nz/duff/sage0.html 3/12/09
2
Thompson, Christina. "Alan Duff: The book, the film, the interview." Meanjin 54.1 (1995): 6, 8

2. 2
anomie or are Maoris encombering themselves by hanging onto the injustice of the past and their
own self-depreciating ways?
In order to truly understand the severity of the total transformation of the once proud
traditions of the Maori people it is essential to examine their history before the advent of
European contact. For that matter the novels illustrates the view that “the history of the Maori
functions as a source of both future salvation and present degradation.”3
It is important to note
therefore that the Maoris come from an auspicious totemic tradition of bravery, fierceness and
warriorhood. New Zealand also only became a British colony in 1840 due to the signing of the
Treaty of Waitangi between Maoris and Britain after years of fighting and as the Maoris put it
because “they knew we would never give up”4
; which tells us of the persistence and proficiency
of Maori warriors against the British Empire. History informs us that the Maoris “expected the
treaty to be the start of a new relationship with Britain – one in which they would play an equal
role.” 5
Contained in the treaty is deliberately misleading statements that gave Britain complete
control over the sovereignty of New Zealand and her citizens and allowed them to continue the
colonial settlement of that country. What resulted is that “in acceding to colonization and British
sovereignty and in placing their trust in treaty guarantees the Maori failed to reckon realistically
with the predatory designs of the colonists”6
and the fact that Britain had set out to conquer them
by any means necessary and obtain their lands by methods fair or foul. The steam roller that is
colonization ran over the Maoris and left them for the most part landless or relegated to small
villages. The Maoris also had their entire way of life destroyed and were robbed of their “cultural
3
Behrent, Megan '97 English 27, 1997, “Maori Tradition and Change in Duff's Once Were Warriors””
http://www.postcolonialweb.org/nz/duff/behrent2.html 13/12/09
4
Duff, Alan. Once Were Warriors. New York: Vintage International, 1995. 173
5
Orange, Claudia. The Story of a Treaty. Sydney: Allen & Unwin/ Port Nicholson Press, 1989. 33.
6
Ausubel, David P. "The Maori: A study in Resistive Acculturation." Social Forces, 39.3 (1961). 219.

3. 3
autonomy ... and the integrity of their social and economic institutions”7
. Is it any wonder that
“the Maori people withdrew from contact with the pakeha and surrendered to apathy,
despondency, demoralization, and economic stagnation”8
after being so deceived by the callous
duplicity of Britain.
An inferiority complex can be said to be one of the inherited neurosis of the postcolonial
people. This complex begins with the internalisation of Colonial discourse which is in actuality
European doctrine and continued with the deliberate implementation of a European biased
hegemony into the Maori society. This Colonial discourse “operated as an instrument of power ...
by which dominant groups in society constitute the field of truth by imposing specific
knowledges, disciplines and values upon dominated groups.”9
This explains the psyche of the
Maori as they endured imposition of the dominant Europeans since Captain Cook rediscovered
New Zealand in the late 17th
century. This colonial doctrine was also emphasised and ingrained
into the Maori concept of self through the effectiveness of a hegemonic process based on the
elemental binary world view that supports the concept of binary opposites between Caucasians
and Maoris. Therefore if whites are seen as hard working and tidy then the opposite must be true
of Maoris as lazy and slovenly. This then is the “institutionalized inferiority complex” of which
Duff speaks.
Alan Duff’s novels come into play by exposing direct specific examples of the real issues
that postcolonial Maoris face on a daily basis. The novels are also seen by many as social
explorations of what cultivates contemporary Maori attitudes and practices, all with the
7
Ausubel, David P. "The Maori: A study in Resistive Acculturation." Social Forces, 39.3 (1961). 219.
8
Ausubel, David P. "The Maori: A study in Resistive Acculturation." Social Forces, 39.3 (1961). 220.
9
Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin. Key Concepts in Post-Colonial Studies. London And New York:
Routledge, 1998. 41-42.

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unspoken question of what can be done to rectify their condition. Except, in order to find a
solution the root cause of Maori social anomie must be identified. Duff as a Maori himself has
already given his perspective but surely there are other factors involved. Subsequently, it
becomes necessary to take an in-depth look at the major issues or manifestations of Maori social
marginality. The validity of using the novels as social critiques of contemporary Maori society is
indisputable as the conditions outlined in these novels is supported by several social research
papers, books and the films that were made based on each book and which bear the same name.
The novel Once Were Warriors is centred on the family of Jake and Beth Heke who are
married and have six children. The Heke family lives in a typical New Zealand housing project
populated by Maoris called Pine Block that happens to be just next door to the Pakeha Trambert
family. The novel takes the Heke family through the gauntlet of Maori Social afflictions and only
allowing them to achieve a diminutive of triumph after the most devastating of tragedies.
The movie Once Were Warriors varied to some extent from the book but was overall a true
cinematic representation of the author’s vision and was an overwhelming success, becoming the
highest grossing film in New Zealand along with winning numerous awards even to the point of
being called “the single most massive frame in the landscape of the popular film-going imagination”10
This director of the film Lee Tamahori remarked in the commentary on the released DVD that
the film was also well received by the Maori themselves as the film was “a very realistic
portrayal of their lives”. 11
The other pertinent fact is that Alan Duff is a Maori himself and he
therefore writes about a reality with which he is closely familiar.
10
McDonald, Lawrence. “Adaptation and Sequel: The Limitations of What Becomes of the Broken Hearted.”
Michigan: Allegheny College, 2001.37.
11
Tamahori, Lee, dir. Once Were Warriors. Commentary. Lee Tamahori. 1994. Communicado Productions. DVD-
ROM.

5. 5
The novel Once Were Warriors is followed by a sequel entitled What Becomes of the Broken
Hearted? The sequel complements, enhance and continues the story started in the first book. It
also regresses into the momentous events of the first novel and illustrates how certain characters
were impacted by these events. Some of the secondary characters in the first novel gain primary
character status for example; Grace’s younger sister, Polly and the Tramberts who the reader
would have met in the first book, form significant parts of the stream of consciousness narrative
of the sequel. The sequel also provides the reader with a more in-depth look into certain areas of
the Maori society, for instance, the schools, the gangs and the single parent household. Perhaps
most significant in the sequel is Jake’s story. Where, Once Were Warriors is a drama of gender
conflict, What Becomes of the Broken Hearted is a study in masculine crisis ... The director has
also said that whereas Warriors was Beth's film. Broken Hearted is Jake's12
The first novel was
about Beth’s story of triumph over adversity and redemption and so is the sequel Jake’s struggle
to become a better person by accepting the pain that he has caused others and learn new ways to
define himself.
In the sequel we learn as well about the success or failure that has accured since the ending
of Once Were Warriors. Such as, Boogie’s success in university, Beth moving on with the
welfare man Charlie , Polly doing well in school and in fact all of Beth’s children doing much
better in a stable and loving family home and even Jake doing much better as he struggles with
his new reality but takes steady steps forward into a redefined sense of self. On the other hand
others have returned to their old reality, the neighbour has returned to its old ways, Mavis the
12
McDonald, Lawrence. “Adaptation and Sequel: The Limitations of What Becomes of the Broken Hearted.”
Michigan: Allegheny College, 2001.44.

6. 6
singer has stopped teaching others to sing and returned to alcoholism and the community centre
has fell into disrepair when chief Te Tupaea dies and Beth moves away.
Maori and Alcohol: A history is the actual title of a book. So pervasive is Maori Alcoholism
that an entire book has been dedicated to it. Alcoholism is perhaps the biggest opponent of Maori
progress to the point of it being a cultural epidemic. Julien Crozet, the lieutenant of Captain
Marion du Fresne who voyaged to New Zealand in 1772 said the Maoris “disliked wine, any sort
of liquor ... (and) they drank vast quantities of water”13
. How then has a nation of people moved
so collectively from one extreme of not drinking alcohol, disliking it in fact to consuming it in
vast quantities? Conceivably, this too could be blamed on an inferiority complex as what else is
excessive alcohol abuse but an attempt to find refuge from reality; the reality of their tragic
existence and inferior psychosis. It is absolutely poetic that arguably the cause of the Maoris’
problems also brought with them the substance of Maori prolonged subjugation; it certainly
could be interpreted to be another function of their treachery when “the white man and the whisky
bottle came to New Zealand together”.14
The novels in question showcase the enormity of alcoholism in daily Maori life. There is no
doubt that the Maoris exemplify the concept of the postcolonial condition. The submission to
foreign rule for a nation of warriors who prided themselves on strength and autonomy has
favoured a more severe translation of the postcolonial experience. As a result, the rootlessness,
lost of identity, poverty and similar troupes that are present in the postcolonial subject is evident
in the characterization of the Maori. For instance we see Beth drinking several bottles of beer the
morning after the night that Jake severely beats her. The alcohol becomes for her a way of
13
Salmond, Anne. Two worlds: first meetings between Maori and Europeans, 1642-1772. Honolulu: University of
Hawaii Press, 1991. 410.
14
Hutt, Martin. Maori and Alcohol: A history. 2nd ed. Wellington: The Printing Press, 1999. 3.

7. 7
nursing her injuries and easing her pain. Jake too uses alcohol as a form of distraction from the
pitiful plight of his existence. Again Once Were Warriors conveys the severity of alcohol abuse
when Heke family sets out on a family outing but never makes it to their destination because the
parents stop to have one drink and never make it out of the pub. Furthermore, alcohol is also
often the precipitator of extreme violence. The characters in the novel are also often portrayed as
having “the ole Maori shyness … that’s the Maori for you, too shy, too scared”15
. Mavis Tatana,
a Maori with a beautiful singing voice is described as having this shyness and won’t sing before
an audience until she is drunk. Accordingly, it is only through alcohol that Mavis gains her
courage.
In cases where the character does not use alcohol as either an enabler or to medicate
some other perception altering drug is used, namely the glue sniffing, marijuana, the hard drugs
used in gangs and even the hand rolled cigarettes used by Gloria. In order to gain a
comprehensive understanding of why Maoris it would be necessary to delve into the realms of
Sigmund Freud and other psychoanalytical theorists. However, even the casual reading can may
educated inferences that Maoris abuses certain substances as a cover for their unfulfilled lives
and often pointless existence. How else would a nation of welfare dependent people who sit at
home all day, aimlessly and without purpose be expected to behaviour. Surely, the government
of New Zealand should implement skill programmes and national drives geared towards
activating that Maori subset of their society. The government must accept the mandate of uplift
the entire nation of New Zealand and no longer wholesaling place a band-aid of welfare over the
unemployed Maori population. Despite this the Maori is again complete responsible for his or
hers actions as their does exist Maoris who are not alcoholics or other substance abusers. Beth is
15
Duff, Alan. 1995. 57.

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one character who exemplifies this as she stops drinking after the death of her daughter. For this
reason Beth’s entire life changes and the results of her efforts are magnified in the sequel as she
is seen living a much easier life, being much more prosperous and happy.
Jake Heke the “hard-drinking, wife-beating Maori father”16
is Duff’s complete study in
inferiority neurosis and the defence mechanisms that individuals use to protect themselves from
their feelings of inadequacy. Jake Heke is characterized as an emotional handicapped man
suffering because he does not understand his feelings and does not even have the words to
identify them. Whenever Jake perceives any “wrongs done him, slights, looks, and so he feeling
hurt and then – naturally enough, as he saw it – wanting to right things by the only way he knew
how: with his fists”17
This hurt that Jake experiences relates to his hurt pride and wounded male
ego. Many psychologists believe that every man should have a healthy ego and without it the
man will begin to feel emasculated. This sense of emasculation is also an unequivocal
consequence of colonization as it is represented by the feminizing language of conquering virgin
territory and penetrating new frontiers. Accordingly, Jake can be understood in terms of the,
“missing Maori language and the ability of characters such as Jake to communicate only
physically, but not verbally. Jake says at one point in the bar, "a Man could see this. But
he couldn't put words to it." (66) Jake must rely on the physical as a means of
communication because he doesn't have a Maori language.”18
This model of toughness can be conceptualized by hyper-masculinity, of which Jake is
the epitome. Jake is representative of the new perception of warriorhood, manhood and
16
Tawake, Sandra. "Transforming the Insider-Outsider Perspective: Postcolonial Fiction from the Pacific." The
Contemporary Pacific 12.1 (2000): 164.
17
Duff, Alan. 1995. 44
18
Tung, Irene '00 English 27, 1997, “Narrative Form and English Dialect in Once Were Warriors”
http://www.postcolonialweb.org/nz/duff/tung7.html 13/12/09

9. 9
toughness in a way that illustrates that each term can be used interchangeably. He is revered
because of his physical strength and those around him treat him with fear and respect, even to the
point where he is considered “their hero”19
. As a result Jake believes that he must brutally
defend that little bit of self respect that he gains from his reputation of being “Jake the Muss …
Muss for muscles”20
. For this reason we see him reacting with savage violence when he feels
threatened by a well muscled stranger to his local bar. It is only after punching out the stranger
that Jake can relax and begins to feel ‘like a chief’. Jake’s entire raison d’être and self worth is
tied to his physical strength and fighting ability and as such violence is his primary means of
communication with those around him including his wife.
Jake surprising opens up to his family one day on a family trip and tells them about his
slave ancestry that before the Pakehas went to New Zealand his family was descendent from a
line of slaves and they were scorned, ridiculed and ostracized because of it. This one explanation
is enough to give an entirely new outlook on Jake and his actions and see them for the lashing
out that they really are.
The theme of domestic violence in the Maori society is one that Duff utilizes heavily in his
novels. Many Maori men it would seem take out their frustrations on those closest to them which
would be mean their families. The character Beth is used to summarize the entire underlining
issue of domestic abuse and the new Maori translation of warriorhood in his novel even though
Duff employs the most inauspicious of settings to accomplice this. Only in a state of inebration is
Beth able to rant at her husband about her views and the ultimate truth of their situation.
19
Duff, Alan. 1995. 17
20
Duff, Alan. 1995. 17

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“She told them the Maori of old had a culture and he had pride, and he had
warriorhood, not this bullying, man-hitting-woman shet, you call that manhood?
It’s not manhood, and it sure as hell ain’t Maori warriorhood”.21
What alludes to is the fact that postcolonial Maori cannot speak their native language, do not
practice the warrior traditions of their ancestors and yet the concept of warriorhood was still
“sort of handed down… (however) it was more toughness that got handed down from generation
to generation”22
.
Now here is a social anomie for which the Maori can blame no one else but themselves.
The novels and other texts does not give us sufficient insight into Pakeha domestic conditions to
make a totalitarian conclusion, however the notion is suggested that Pakehas do not engage in
high levels of domestic violence nor have they perpetuated its frequency in the Maori society.
For this issue the Maori must take full and complete responsibility for not only abusing their
wives and children but for creating a society that suffers in acquiescent silence.
The greatest tragedy of inferiority is juvenile delinquency and gang violence caused by
neglectful parents, hopelessness and insufficient government programmes geared towards
encouraging the Maori youth into achieving his or her’s full potential. Is it any wonder that the
Maori youth would be tempted to join gangs as their parents are often too drunk to properly care
for them. Gangs therefore offer for the Maori youth an avenue to let off their aggression and also
a place to find belongingness and love, things that they may not have received as home. Nig
Heke, the eldest child of Jake and Beth Heke, in his attempt to re-appropriate the Maori warrior
tradition decides to joins a gang to solidify his manhood and gain a sense of identity and
camaraderie. He also thinks that he is prepared for the violence that is expected in gangs as he
21
Duff, Alan. 1995. 22
22
Duff, Alan. 1995. 41

11. 11
remunerates that he is accustomed to “having to act tough and only tough”23
. The magnitude of
the concept of toughness in relation to manhood is further demonstrated by Boogie, the son who
hates fighting is treated with disdain by his father and is perceived of as having subsequently
“failed the test of pending manhood”24
. The gang has then become for Nig a place where he can
fit in. However the dream of belonging soon “turned to a nightmare”25
.
Consequently, Maori warriorhood has been so corrupted by toughness and violence that it
now means something entirely different from its history. While it could be argued that the focus
on maintaining some link to their warrior past is an effort to reclaim the Maori culture; this can
be disputed as there is no effort by the Maoris in the novel to learn the Maori language, customs
or traditions. Ultimately, the narrative of the novel illustrates that it is this notion of warriorhood
as toughness and violence that alienates Jake from his family and that will in the end cost Nig his
life.
The tradition of gang violence and is also sustained in the sequel with the added benefit
of a detailed perspective from inside the gangs, mainly through the gang member Mulla Roti and
Abe Heke who is determined to avenge his brother Nig’s death. Abe goes about his quest for
revenge by becoming a member of the fierce rivals’ gang of the gang that Nig had joined. This is
because Abe believes that the leader of Nig’s gang is solely responsible for his brother’s death.
Abe’s story plays very simply to Nig’s with the except that Abe gets away with his life. In any
society where there are unloved and neglected child juvenile delinquency will take hold as the
unsavoury forces in the society will try to corrupt the impressionable minds of the youth. This
then is the responsibility of the entire society to ensure the care and protection of the youths.
23
Duff, Alan. 1995. 135
24
Duff, Alan. 1995. 23
25
Duff, Alan. 1995. 153.

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The schools and the entire education system is mostly rejected by Maoris because it is
perceived as ‘Pakeha education’, this is evident as Beth discovers in the very first chapter of the
novel Once Were Warriors that her home is completely devoid of books and so are all the other
Maori homes that she knows. The “bookless society”26
of the Maoris as Beth terms it is surely a
crucial indicator of an unsatisfactory social condition. This booklessness can be translated to
mean a complete hopeless existence for Maoris; after all, no modern society can survive without
a modern educational system. Equally, the lack of education in any modern society means a
continued vicious cycle of poverty, desperation and a loss of ‘potential’.
The sequel What Becomes of the Broken Hearted? explores in more detail the Maori
attitude to education. We are first told that Boogie has been able to attend University and that
Polly is doing well in school. One evening on Polly’s way home from school is attacked by some
“Maori Girls just like her, doing this because she was going well at school”27
. She is beaten up
and called names because they perceive her as thinking that she is better than them simply
because she is doing her school work. It is difficult to comprehend why these girls would try
Polly like that. One of the defence mechanisms of an individual with an inferiority complex is to
accuse others of acting superior; however this is merely a projection of their own inadequate
emotions. These girls are victims of their own misguided inferior feelings and so they lash out at
others to make themselves feel better.
The Pyschologist and Maori, Donna Awatere has allegorically illustrated the Maori and
their associations of the New Zealand educational system by saying that it;
“is the major gate which keeps the Maori out. There is an invisible sign over every
kindergarten, playcentre, shool, and university. That sign reads: 'Maori Keep Out: For
26
Duff, Alan Once Were Warriors. New York: Vintage International, 1995.
27
Duff, Alan. What Becomes of the Broken Hearted? New Zealand: Vintage, 1996.71.

13. 13
White Use Only'. White people can't see this sign, you have to identify or be identified as
a Maori before you can see it.”28
She continues by saying that many feel that the education was not designed for them and does
not meet their needs. A point that Duff endorses in his novel as he writes of Chief Te Tupaea
telling stories of Maoris “acts of chivalry during the warring with the white men”29
. Acts so
brave and generous as to swell the pride of every Maori who heard the stories, yet, the general
thought was that “no one taught us (that) at school. They taught us their history: English
history.”30
Even worst than that is the opinion of some Maoris that their “children were given
instructional programmes which would cause their failure and then they were blamed for their
own failure ... (and in this way their) kids are being taught how to fail.”31
The connection is then
made that “Academics have long pointed out the relationship between failure at important tasks
(e.g. reading) and lowered self-esteem.”32
This of course is synonimous with an inferiorty
complex and all its ensuing deviant social demonstrations.
Nevertheless, can the blame for Maoris not obtaining an education really solely be the
fault of the government and specifically the overwhelming dominated white controlled
government? The education is in fact set up and Maoris like everyone else have access to said
education. Isn’t it then the responsiblity of Maoris to take advantage of the educational system,
even if not for themselves then at least for their children or is hegemony and internalised
European doctrine at fault? Certainly, if other postcolonial societies have managed to triumph
28
Awatere, Donna, Maori sovereignty, New Zealand: Auckland, 1984.21-33.
29
Duff, Alan. 1995. 172.
30
Duff, Alan. 1995. 173.
31
Awatere, Donna, Maori sovereignty, New Zealand: Auckland, 1984.21-33.
32
Awatere, Donna, Maori sovereignty, New Zealand: Auckland, 1984.21-33.

14. 14
over those same obstlaces, so can the Maoris after all with education the Maoris are effectively
excluding themselves from the benefits of modernity.
To reiterate the contemporary Maori society is one of severe social marginalisation due to
two main reasons the Maoris themselves and the effects of the Pakeha colonization of their lands.
The Maoris have to contend with the limitations of Maori tradition and their acquiescence to the
hegemonized binary world view of Britain. Hegemony is indeed the “power achieved through a
combination of coercion and consent … by creating subjects who ‘willingly’ submit to being
ruled”33
by utilizing European discourse which means formulating an ideology which is “crucial
in creating consent, it is the medium through which certain ideas are transmitted and more
important, held to be true”34
the results of which as Duff puts it the Maori “acceptance that they
were a lesser people”.35
There can be one else to blame for the Maori acceptance and the
seeming lack of even making the effort to overcome their situation by many Maoris.
Even so the societal or structural conditions that each Maori is born into also limit Maori
potential. This is as the social structure and social agency within which each individual is born
provides an advantage or a disadvantage in regards to that person’s access to opportunities. This
can be further explained by the “glass ceiling” metaphor. This is perceived to the reality for
many Maoris and in this case perception is everything as, many Maoris believe that the structural
limitations that are imposed by the society and government under which they live will not allow
them be prosperous so they will not even try. On the other hand surely the government should
take some responsibility for the standard of living of their citizens and more importantly
33
Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/ Postcolonialism. London: Routledge, 1998. 29.
34
Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/ Postcolonialism. London: Routledge, 1998. 29
35
Duff, Alan. 1995. 32.

15. 15
implement the necessary measures to develop their human resources capital. For instance why
aren’t there more skills workshops or institutions specifically geared towards Maori
empowerment? What kind of society allows several bars to be located in close proximity to the
Maori community and not book stores? And finally what is it that prevents large scale
government intervention and alcohol abuse programs?
To conclude in the words of Chief Te Tupaea who commanded the Maori to “stop feeling
sorry emselves. Ta stop blamin the Pakeha for their woes even if it was the Pakeha much to
blame ... Do I accuse the storm that destroys my crops? ... No, I don’t accuse the storm. I clean
up. THEN I PLANT AGAIN!36
The Maoris have used the past as an excuse for not overcoming
their social circumstances and even though the excuse is valid it will not correct the situation.
Chief Te Tupacea was not “into blamin people, the Pakeha, the system, the anything for the
obvious Maori problems ... he just toldem: Work! We work our way out”.37
Consequently,
everyone has a role to play in the Maoris overcoming and collectively becoming a better nation
of people, the government and most importantly the Maoris themselves as it is with them that the
ultimate responsible lies. No one is more responsible for another individual than that person
himself.
36
Duff, Alan. 1995. 176.
37
Duff, Alan. 1995. 185.

16. 16
Works Cited
Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin. Key Concepts in Post-Colonial Studies.
London And New York: Routledge, 1998.
Ausubel, David P. "The Maori: A study in Resistive Acculturation." Social Forces, 39.3 (1961).
Awatere, Donna, Maori sovereignty, New Zealand: Auckland, 1984.
Behrent, Megan '97 English 27, 1997, “Maori Tradition and Change in Duff's Once Were
Warriors”” http://www.postcolonialweb.org/nz/duff/behrent2.html 13/12/09
Duff, Alan. Once Were Warriors. New York: Vintage International, 1995.
Duff, Alan. What Becomes of the Broken Hearted? New Zealand: Vintage, 1996.
Hutt, Martin. Maori and Alcohol: A history. 2nd ed. Wellington: The Printing Press, 1999.
Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/ Postcolonialism. London: Routledge, 1998.
McDonald, Lawrence. “Adaptation and Sequel: The Limitations of What Becomes of the Broken
Hearted.” Michigan: Allegheny College, 2001.

17. 17
Works Cited continued
Orange, Claudia. The Story of a Treaty. Sydney: Allen & Unwin/ Port Nicholson Press, 1989.
Salmond, Anne. Two worlds: first meetings between Maori and Europeans, 1642-1772.
Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1991.
Tamahori, Lee, dir. Once Were Warriors. Commentary. Lee Tamahori. 1994. Communicado
Productions. DVD-ROM.
Tawake, Sandra. "Transforming the Insider-Outsider Perspective: Postcolonial Fiction from the
Pacific." The Contemporary Pacific 12.1 (2000).
Thompson, Christina. "Alan Duff: The book, the film, the interview." Meanjin 54.1 (1995).
Tung, Irene '00 English 27, 1997, “Narrative Form and English Dialect in Once Were Warriors”
http://www.postcolonialweb.org/nz/duff/tung7.html 13/12/09
Wilson, Sage '98 English 27, 1997, “Postcolonial Premises:Refusing to Wipe the Slate Clean”
http://www.postcolonialweb.org/nz/duff/sage0.html 3/12/09