This document discusses how globalization has contributed to the immiserization (increasing misery and poverty) of African countries in two key ways:
1. Accelerated economic liberalization policies imposed by international financial institutions in response to debt crises have reduced the ability of African governments to intervene in their economies and allocate resources to development programs.
2. African countries have been marginalized in the global economy, recording stagnating or declining GDP per capita in contrast to growth in wealthier nations. Poverty levels have risen substantially in Africa while falling elsewhere in the developing world.
The document argues that globalization has undermined the policy autonomy of African nations and exacerbated poverty, contradicting the promise of shared
This document summarizes opposing viewpoints on whether inequality matters for poverty reduction. It discusses the World Bank's perspective that inequality does not necessarily hinder poverty alleviation if economic growth occurs. However, Robert Wade and Simon Maxwell argue that inequality complicates anti-poverty efforts and should be reduced simultaneously with poverty. The author ultimately agrees with Wade and Maxwell, concluding that inequality and poverty are intertwined and comprehensive strategies are needed that incorporate both economic and human development factors to effectively reduce poverty and inequality.
This document summarizes a study on poverty transitions in rural Bangladesh between 1996-97 and 2006-07. It finds that while poverty declined substantially over this period, some households remained chronically poor. Initial characteristics like education levels and assets affected poverty status, as did common shocks like illness and death of earners. Life histories revealed that dowry payments combined with health expenses sometimes pushed households into chronic poverty. The study concludes there is still work to do in increasing education, building assets, and providing protection from risks like illness through mechanisms like microinsurance.
The document discusses differing views on the concept of development over time. It describes how development was initially viewed primarily as economic growth, but perspectives broadened to incorporate social, environmental, and human dimensions. Sustainable development emerged as a concept that aims for growth that meets current needs without compromising future generations by considering economic, social and environmental factors. The human development index was also introduced as a measure that goes beyond just economic indicators.
This document provides an overview of global inequality and stratification. It begins by outlining the United Nations Millennium Development Goals, which aimed to reduce extreme poverty around the world by 2015. Progress was made in some areas like poverty, education, and health, but many goals were not fully achieved. The document then discusses different frameworks for understanding global stratification, including Wallerstein's world systems approach which categorizes countries in a global economic hierarchy as core, semi-peripheral or peripheral nations. Finally, it examines how terminology has evolved over time to describe levels of development among countries.
Addressing the political economy of conditional cash transfer as a poverty re...AJHSSR Journal
This paper examines the political economy of the conditional cash transfer (CCT) Scheme in
Nigeria within the context of poverty reduction efforts over the years. The concept, dimensions and some
theoretical explanations for poverty are once again revisited. The nature and operation of condition cash transfer
is examined, with an eye on the economics and politics of this scheme. Authors observe that as a social
redistribution programme, CCT is a potent safety net that could really help to break the cycle of poverty among
the very poor in the country. However, within the Nigerian context, the paper observes that the issues of a clear
cut target, beneficiaries, lack of institution framework, including a standardized Monitoring and Evaluation
(ME) procedure, coupled with the obvious use of the CCT for political expedience all aggregate to dim the
possibility, viability and potency of the CCT‟S success in reducing poverty in Nigeria. However suggestions are
made against the background of how this programme is being operated elsewhere in the world, as to how to
improve the operation of this scheme in the overall matrix of poverty reduction in Nigeria.
The document discusses different perspectives on what constitutes development. It is defined as a multidimensional process involving transformation in structures, attitudes, and institutions to accelerate economic growth, reduce inequality, and eradicate poverty. Development aims to increase access to basic necessities and raise living standards. It also extends economic and social choices available to individuals and nations. The document outlines various scholars' views on development in economic, social, political, and institutional contexts.
(The Case of West Java Province, Indonesia)
Prepared to fulfill assignments in the Education Policy Course, GSID Nagoya Universisity, 2002
By: Tri Widodo W. Utomo
This document discusses various demographic indicators and compares statistics between first, second, and third world countries. It defines indicators like fertility rate, mortality rate, population growth rate, migration rate, and discusses metrics for countries like Canada, China, and Pakistan. Fertility rates are declining in developed nations due to economic factors influencing family size. Mortality rates are falling globally due to improved healthcare. Population growth is highest in the third world due to sustained high fertility and declining mortality. Migration is influenced by various push-pull factors. Overall life expectancy and health outcomes are better in the first world compared to other nations.
This document summarizes opposing viewpoints on whether inequality matters for poverty reduction. It discusses the World Bank's perspective that inequality does not necessarily hinder poverty alleviation if economic growth occurs. However, Robert Wade and Simon Maxwell argue that inequality complicates anti-poverty efforts and should be reduced simultaneously with poverty. The author ultimately agrees with Wade and Maxwell, concluding that inequality and poverty are intertwined and comprehensive strategies are needed that incorporate both economic and human development factors to effectively reduce poverty and inequality.
This document summarizes a study on poverty transitions in rural Bangladesh between 1996-97 and 2006-07. It finds that while poverty declined substantially over this period, some households remained chronically poor. Initial characteristics like education levels and assets affected poverty status, as did common shocks like illness and death of earners. Life histories revealed that dowry payments combined with health expenses sometimes pushed households into chronic poverty. The study concludes there is still work to do in increasing education, building assets, and providing protection from risks like illness through mechanisms like microinsurance.
The document discusses differing views on the concept of development over time. It describes how development was initially viewed primarily as economic growth, but perspectives broadened to incorporate social, environmental, and human dimensions. Sustainable development emerged as a concept that aims for growth that meets current needs without compromising future generations by considering economic, social and environmental factors. The human development index was also introduced as a measure that goes beyond just economic indicators.
This document provides an overview of global inequality and stratification. It begins by outlining the United Nations Millennium Development Goals, which aimed to reduce extreme poverty around the world by 2015. Progress was made in some areas like poverty, education, and health, but many goals were not fully achieved. The document then discusses different frameworks for understanding global stratification, including Wallerstein's world systems approach which categorizes countries in a global economic hierarchy as core, semi-peripheral or peripheral nations. Finally, it examines how terminology has evolved over time to describe levels of development among countries.
Addressing the political economy of conditional cash transfer as a poverty re...AJHSSR Journal
This paper examines the political economy of the conditional cash transfer (CCT) Scheme in
Nigeria within the context of poverty reduction efforts over the years. The concept, dimensions and some
theoretical explanations for poverty are once again revisited. The nature and operation of condition cash transfer
is examined, with an eye on the economics and politics of this scheme. Authors observe that as a social
redistribution programme, CCT is a potent safety net that could really help to break the cycle of poverty among
the very poor in the country. However, within the Nigerian context, the paper observes that the issues of a clear
cut target, beneficiaries, lack of institution framework, including a standardized Monitoring and Evaluation
(ME) procedure, coupled with the obvious use of the CCT for political expedience all aggregate to dim the
possibility, viability and potency of the CCT‟S success in reducing poverty in Nigeria. However suggestions are
made against the background of how this programme is being operated elsewhere in the world, as to how to
improve the operation of this scheme in the overall matrix of poverty reduction in Nigeria.
The document discusses different perspectives on what constitutes development. It is defined as a multidimensional process involving transformation in structures, attitudes, and institutions to accelerate economic growth, reduce inequality, and eradicate poverty. Development aims to increase access to basic necessities and raise living standards. It also extends economic and social choices available to individuals and nations. The document outlines various scholars' views on development in economic, social, political, and institutional contexts.
(The Case of West Java Province, Indonesia)
Prepared to fulfill assignments in the Education Policy Course, GSID Nagoya Universisity, 2002
By: Tri Widodo W. Utomo
This document discusses various demographic indicators and compares statistics between first, second, and third world countries. It defines indicators like fertility rate, mortality rate, population growth rate, migration rate, and discusses metrics for countries like Canada, China, and Pakistan. Fertility rates are declining in developed nations due to economic factors influencing family size. Mortality rates are falling globally due to improved healthcare. Population growth is highest in the third world due to sustained high fertility and declining mortality. Migration is influenced by various push-pull factors. Overall life expectancy and health outcomes are better in the first world compared to other nations.
Economic growth and poverty reduction in nigeria an empirical investigationAlexander Decker
This document discusses economic growth and poverty reduction in Nigeria. It begins by reviewing concepts of poverty, including income/consumption, basic needs, and capability perspectives. It then discusses the concepts of human capital and pro-poor growth. The document presents Nigeria's growth performance and poverty levels over time. It analyzes annual time series data using a vector autoregressive model to examine the effects of economic growth and other factors on human-capital poverty in both the short- and long-term. The results showed that agricultural development raised human capital poverty in the medium-to-long term, while developing other sectors reduced it. In the short-term, public capital expenditures on social services and agricultural credit/development showed potential to reduce poverty, while
Poverty is a complex, multifaceted issue with social, economic, and political elements. It can be both chronic and temporary, and is often related to inequality. Poverty deprives people of basic human needs like food, water, shelter, and healthcare. Both absolute poverty and relative poverty are defined and poverty reduction is a major goal of international organizations. Poverty impacts people's health, education outcomes, and cognitive ability.
- Global income inequality has increased substantially since the 1980s according to measures of the gap between the richest and poorest countries. While absolute poverty has declined in some Asian countries, it has increased in others.
- The "winners" of globalization have been middle-income groups in emerging Asian economies like China and India whose incomes multiplied rapidly, while the "losers" were lower-income groups in rich countries whose growth was modest.
- Liberal views argue that open markets and policies like free trade reduce poverty through growth, but critics argue they often increase inequality and unemployment in developing nations. The impacts of globalization on inequality are complex and depend on local and global factors.
The meaning of development has changed over time. Originally, development referred primarily to economic growth, measured by increases in GDP and per capita income. In the post-World War II era, development took on a broader definition as a multi-dimensional process involving social and economic reorganization. More recently, development is understood as improving living standards and access to resources while also increasing individual freedoms and promoting sustainability.
(Neo)-Colonialism, globalised modernisation and global energy and environment...AkashSharma618775
This review looks at three issues which are key to the process of globalisation, namely; colonialism,
modernization, energy and environment. The benefits of globalised colonialism, though very weak, may include a
few of the following, viz: Increasing knowledge sharing, research, and skills; providing platforms for mutual
support, and benefits to synergize at various levels; encouraging multi-cultural contributions at different levels;
fostering global citizenship for greater harmony; promoting multiculturalism and acceptance to cultural diversity;
facilitating multi ways communications and interactions; promoting self-employment, digital entrepreneurship,
and outreach; and giving voice to everyone by promoting common language. On the contrary, the notable negative
impacts of globalised colonialism include: increasing the technological gaps and digital divides; creating more
legitimate opportunities for electronic colonialism; exploiting local resources and destroying local/ indigenous
cultures; increasing inequalities, conflicts, and clashes; promoting cultural imperialism; strengthening a
symmetrical communication, facilitating haves; contributing to jobless growth and promoting outsourcing; and, it
is promoting voiceless growth and language imperialism. It important to note that energy is a driving factor in the
world economic development, World energy consumption contributes to pollution and environmental
deterioration and global house emissions which therefore calls upon world economist and politicians to set
environmental regulations. It’s also crucial to transform the current energy systems with a transition to renewable
source and their efficient use. For example, globalized modernization has today has become a major sort of debate
among academicians, policy makers and NGOs. Finally, our review notes the various merits of globalize
Deconstructing Global Movements of People: Implication for Collective Securit...AkashSharma618775
This document discusses global immigration, global security, and global borders. It begins by defining immigration and discussing its history and implications. Key challenges to immigration include language barriers, difficulties being absorbed into job markets, adapting to new weather/cultures, and security threats from terrorists. Immigration economically benefits both receiving and sending countries but can also mean loss of skilled workers for poor countries. The document then examines global emigration factors like motives, impacts, and challenges before concluding by linking immigration, security, and borders and arguing they must be analyzed together for global peace and security.
The document discusses national development and national security in the Philippines. It provides context on the Philippine Development Plan from 2011-2016 which aims to pursue rapid economic growth through initiatives like improving governance, boosting industry competitiveness, and enhancing access to social services. It also discusses laws passed in the Philippines regarding obtaining foreign loans to finance infrastructure projects that support national development goals. National security is defined as maintaining a nation's survival through economic and military power, while ensuring values like economic, energy, and environmental security.
research paper Alotaibi, Alanood %22poverty%22 pdfAlanood Alotaibi
Poverty is a lack of basic needs like food, clothing, and shelter. It is caused by unequal distribution of resources, large populations, and natural disasters. Poverty can be measured using GDP, dependency rates, and literacy rates. Growth, inequality, and poverty are related - high inequality leads to more poverty and less growth, while more growth leads to less poverty. Measures to reduce poverty include liberalizing the economy, increasing infrastructure, technology, employment, and foreign aid. This helps stimulate growth and reduce inequality.
The document defines and discusses different aspects of poverty. It defines absolute and relative poverty, with absolute poverty referring to lack of means to meet basic needs and relative poverty considering social and economic status compared to others. It discusses the poverty line as the minimum income level required to afford life's necessities, and how the World Bank adjusted the international poverty line over time. It provides statistics on global and regional poverty rates. For India, it details how the poverty line was originally calculated and varies between states, with some below 10% and others above 40%. It also discusses inequality, the Gini coefficient measure of inequality, and how India's Gini index and inequality has risen in recent decades.
Development is a complex concept that refers to positive societal change but can encompass different aspects like economic growth, rural development, and sustainable development. Historically, development was seen as synonymous with economic growth, but now a variety of indicators are used to measure development. There is no consensus on what development means and it involves tradeoffs, like large infrastructure projects that can help economic growth but displace people from their homes. Some see development as an open-ended democratic process that values free expression and critical assessment, while others view it as societies inevitably progressing along a pre-determined path.
The Case of ODA’s Role In Developing “New Indonesia”
Paper submitted as Prerequisite for “Development Assistance” Course (Prof. SATO Ikuro)
Submitted by: Tri Widodo W. Utomo (DICOS M1, 300202040)
Based on Erik Reinert, How Rich Countries Got Rich ... and Why Poor Countries Stay Poor (2007), London: Constable, Chapter 8: “Get the economic activities right”, or, the Lost Art of Creating Middle-Income Countries. Further discussion on how to make upper-middle income county out of middle-income trap. And how to synchronize different aspect on developmental policy in modern era.
Globalization and poverty are controversial issues. While globalization can lead to economic growth through increased trade and investment, it also widens inequality gaps and disproportionately impacts developing regions. Globalization promotes the interests of developed nations over poorer ones, making them more reliant on unstable foreign industries and employment. However, globalization itself is not the sole cause of poverty and, if implemented carefully and inclusively, it could still help develop nations compete internationally. The relationship between the two phenomena is complex with reasonable arguments on both sides.
This document discusses the evolution of concepts of development from the post-World War 2 era to present times. It notes that while development was initially conceived as a process for industrializing and modernizing backward countries, the reality is that poverty has increased greatly. The dominant paradigm of development focused on unlimited economic growth, exploitation of nature, and top-down large projects. However, this has led to severe environmental degradation and widening social inequalities. The document proposes alternative approaches centered around human development, sustainable development, and grassroots participation that emphasize meeting basic needs rather than unlimited growth.
This document discusses the major humanitarian food crises caused by civil wars and ethnic conflicts around the world. It focuses on Lebanon as a case study, where the large influx of over 1 million Syrian refugees, about a quarter of Lebanon's population, has severely strained the country's resources and led to widespread food insecurity. The prolonged civil conflict in Syria has displaced millions of people both within Syria and to neighboring countries like Lebanon. The economic costs of civil wars and conflicts are immense for both the countries experiencing the conflicts and those hosting large refugee populations. Addressing these humanitarian crises is crucial to achieving global food security goals.
The impact of macroeconomic policies and programs on poverty problemsAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the impact of macroeconomic policies and programs on poverty in Nigeria from 1980 to 2002. Two regression models were used to analyze the relationship between poverty and GDP. The study found that Nigeria's macroeconomic policies have not addressed the upward trend in poverty levels based on economic indicators like inflation, unemployment, and exchange rates. Some of the key causes of poverty identified included corruption, inconsistent macroeconomic policies, high population growth, and over-reliance on oil exports. The incidence of poverty in Nigeria increased from around 15% in 1960 to 28% in the 1980s.
11.the impact of macroeconomic policies and programs on poverty problemsAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that analyzed the impact of macroeconomic policies in Nigeria on poverty from 1980-2002. Two regression models were used to examine the relationship between poverty, GDP, and other economic variables. The study found that:
1. Poverty in Nigeria increased substantially from 1980-2002, with the average poverty rate being higher after structural adjustment programs were introduced compared to before.
2. Key macroeconomic indicators like GDP growth, unemployment, and exchange rates deteriorated from 1980-2002, suggesting macroeconomic policies did not effectively address rising poverty.
3. Regression analysis found a relationship between rising poverty and factors like declining GDP, high inflation, unemployment, and exchange rate depreciation over
This document summarizes a report by the UN Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights. It finds that claims of impending eradication of extreme poverty are exaggerated and rely too heavily on flawed measures like the World Bank's international poverty line. In reality, billions still live in poverty without adequate standards of living. It argues the Sustainable Development Goals are failing on key issues like poverty, inequality, and climate change. To eliminate poverty, it says we must rethink the relationship between growth and poverty reduction, tackle inequality through redistribution, implement universal social protection, and center the role of government.
Poverty reduction involves promoting economic growth that permanently lifts people above a poverty line. Poverty is defined as a lack of resources for basic needs like food, shelter, and healthcare. Historically, poverty reduction has largely resulted from overall economic growth, such as that spurred by the Industrial Revolution in developed nations. Today, continued economic development is constrained by a lack of economic freedoms and access to financial services, while aid and investments in health, education, and infrastructure can help reduce poverty.
1. The document discusses the prospects for a demographic dividend in Africa in the near future. While fertility declines that change population age structures have been slow, some factors could hasten the process, like economic development, mortality decline, and investments in family planning.
2. A demographic dividend occurs when a rising proportion of the population is working-age, lowering dependency ratios and freeing up resources for investment. This can fuel economic growth. However, complementary policies are needed to take advantage of the opportunity.
3. The economics of a demographic dividend for Africa includes potential benefits like increased income and savings. However, realizing these gains depends on labor market conditions and complementary socioeconomic factors. Problems include rising unemployment and changing social dynamics
KRI Brown Bag Seminar #1 - Islamic Finance: New Tools for Innovation with Soc...KhazanahResearchInstitute
KRI Brown Bag Seminar #1 which was held on the 15 February 2017 hosted guest speaker, Professor Saadiah Mohamad, who discussed the developments in social finance and provided a case for structuring Shariah-compliant products with social impact.
Her presentation acknowledged the claim among critics that there is an inherent weakness in the present-day Islamic banking and finance industry in terms of its underdeveloped social sector. She thus explored a framework for a socially responsible investment sukuk and social impact bonds (SIB) in the social finance space, and came up with recommendations for structuring a Shariah-compliant SIB or social sukuk.
Professor Saadiah’s arguments are based on her latest journal publication “A Case for an Islamic Social Impact Bond”, under the ACRN Oxford Journal of Finance and Risk Perspectives.
Economic growth and poverty reduction in nigeria an empirical investigationAlexander Decker
This document discusses economic growth and poverty reduction in Nigeria. It begins by reviewing concepts of poverty, including income/consumption, basic needs, and capability perspectives. It then discusses the concepts of human capital and pro-poor growth. The document presents Nigeria's growth performance and poverty levels over time. It analyzes annual time series data using a vector autoregressive model to examine the effects of economic growth and other factors on human-capital poverty in both the short- and long-term. The results showed that agricultural development raised human capital poverty in the medium-to-long term, while developing other sectors reduced it. In the short-term, public capital expenditures on social services and agricultural credit/development showed potential to reduce poverty, while
Poverty is a complex, multifaceted issue with social, economic, and political elements. It can be both chronic and temporary, and is often related to inequality. Poverty deprives people of basic human needs like food, water, shelter, and healthcare. Both absolute poverty and relative poverty are defined and poverty reduction is a major goal of international organizations. Poverty impacts people's health, education outcomes, and cognitive ability.
- Global income inequality has increased substantially since the 1980s according to measures of the gap between the richest and poorest countries. While absolute poverty has declined in some Asian countries, it has increased in others.
- The "winners" of globalization have been middle-income groups in emerging Asian economies like China and India whose incomes multiplied rapidly, while the "losers" were lower-income groups in rich countries whose growth was modest.
- Liberal views argue that open markets and policies like free trade reduce poverty through growth, but critics argue they often increase inequality and unemployment in developing nations. The impacts of globalization on inequality are complex and depend on local and global factors.
The meaning of development has changed over time. Originally, development referred primarily to economic growth, measured by increases in GDP and per capita income. In the post-World War II era, development took on a broader definition as a multi-dimensional process involving social and economic reorganization. More recently, development is understood as improving living standards and access to resources while also increasing individual freedoms and promoting sustainability.
(Neo)-Colonialism, globalised modernisation and global energy and environment...AkashSharma618775
This review looks at three issues which are key to the process of globalisation, namely; colonialism,
modernization, energy and environment. The benefits of globalised colonialism, though very weak, may include a
few of the following, viz: Increasing knowledge sharing, research, and skills; providing platforms for mutual
support, and benefits to synergize at various levels; encouraging multi-cultural contributions at different levels;
fostering global citizenship for greater harmony; promoting multiculturalism and acceptance to cultural diversity;
facilitating multi ways communications and interactions; promoting self-employment, digital entrepreneurship,
and outreach; and giving voice to everyone by promoting common language. On the contrary, the notable negative
impacts of globalised colonialism include: increasing the technological gaps and digital divides; creating more
legitimate opportunities for electronic colonialism; exploiting local resources and destroying local/ indigenous
cultures; increasing inequalities, conflicts, and clashes; promoting cultural imperialism; strengthening a
symmetrical communication, facilitating haves; contributing to jobless growth and promoting outsourcing; and, it
is promoting voiceless growth and language imperialism. It important to note that energy is a driving factor in the
world economic development, World energy consumption contributes to pollution and environmental
deterioration and global house emissions which therefore calls upon world economist and politicians to set
environmental regulations. It’s also crucial to transform the current energy systems with a transition to renewable
source and their efficient use. For example, globalized modernization has today has become a major sort of debate
among academicians, policy makers and NGOs. Finally, our review notes the various merits of globalize
Deconstructing Global Movements of People: Implication for Collective Securit...AkashSharma618775
This document discusses global immigration, global security, and global borders. It begins by defining immigration and discussing its history and implications. Key challenges to immigration include language barriers, difficulties being absorbed into job markets, adapting to new weather/cultures, and security threats from terrorists. Immigration economically benefits both receiving and sending countries but can also mean loss of skilled workers for poor countries. The document then examines global emigration factors like motives, impacts, and challenges before concluding by linking immigration, security, and borders and arguing they must be analyzed together for global peace and security.
The document discusses national development and national security in the Philippines. It provides context on the Philippine Development Plan from 2011-2016 which aims to pursue rapid economic growth through initiatives like improving governance, boosting industry competitiveness, and enhancing access to social services. It also discusses laws passed in the Philippines regarding obtaining foreign loans to finance infrastructure projects that support national development goals. National security is defined as maintaining a nation's survival through economic and military power, while ensuring values like economic, energy, and environmental security.
research paper Alotaibi, Alanood %22poverty%22 pdfAlanood Alotaibi
Poverty is a lack of basic needs like food, clothing, and shelter. It is caused by unequal distribution of resources, large populations, and natural disasters. Poverty can be measured using GDP, dependency rates, and literacy rates. Growth, inequality, and poverty are related - high inequality leads to more poverty and less growth, while more growth leads to less poverty. Measures to reduce poverty include liberalizing the economy, increasing infrastructure, technology, employment, and foreign aid. This helps stimulate growth and reduce inequality.
The document defines and discusses different aspects of poverty. It defines absolute and relative poverty, with absolute poverty referring to lack of means to meet basic needs and relative poverty considering social and economic status compared to others. It discusses the poverty line as the minimum income level required to afford life's necessities, and how the World Bank adjusted the international poverty line over time. It provides statistics on global and regional poverty rates. For India, it details how the poverty line was originally calculated and varies between states, with some below 10% and others above 40%. It also discusses inequality, the Gini coefficient measure of inequality, and how India's Gini index and inequality has risen in recent decades.
Development is a complex concept that refers to positive societal change but can encompass different aspects like economic growth, rural development, and sustainable development. Historically, development was seen as synonymous with economic growth, but now a variety of indicators are used to measure development. There is no consensus on what development means and it involves tradeoffs, like large infrastructure projects that can help economic growth but displace people from their homes. Some see development as an open-ended democratic process that values free expression and critical assessment, while others view it as societies inevitably progressing along a pre-determined path.
The Case of ODA’s Role In Developing “New Indonesia”
Paper submitted as Prerequisite for “Development Assistance” Course (Prof. SATO Ikuro)
Submitted by: Tri Widodo W. Utomo (DICOS M1, 300202040)
Based on Erik Reinert, How Rich Countries Got Rich ... and Why Poor Countries Stay Poor (2007), London: Constable, Chapter 8: “Get the economic activities right”, or, the Lost Art of Creating Middle-Income Countries. Further discussion on how to make upper-middle income county out of middle-income trap. And how to synchronize different aspect on developmental policy in modern era.
Globalization and poverty are controversial issues. While globalization can lead to economic growth through increased trade and investment, it also widens inequality gaps and disproportionately impacts developing regions. Globalization promotes the interests of developed nations over poorer ones, making them more reliant on unstable foreign industries and employment. However, globalization itself is not the sole cause of poverty and, if implemented carefully and inclusively, it could still help develop nations compete internationally. The relationship between the two phenomena is complex with reasonable arguments on both sides.
This document discusses the evolution of concepts of development from the post-World War 2 era to present times. It notes that while development was initially conceived as a process for industrializing and modernizing backward countries, the reality is that poverty has increased greatly. The dominant paradigm of development focused on unlimited economic growth, exploitation of nature, and top-down large projects. However, this has led to severe environmental degradation and widening social inequalities. The document proposes alternative approaches centered around human development, sustainable development, and grassroots participation that emphasize meeting basic needs rather than unlimited growth.
This document discusses the major humanitarian food crises caused by civil wars and ethnic conflicts around the world. It focuses on Lebanon as a case study, where the large influx of over 1 million Syrian refugees, about a quarter of Lebanon's population, has severely strained the country's resources and led to widespread food insecurity. The prolonged civil conflict in Syria has displaced millions of people both within Syria and to neighboring countries like Lebanon. The economic costs of civil wars and conflicts are immense for both the countries experiencing the conflicts and those hosting large refugee populations. Addressing these humanitarian crises is crucial to achieving global food security goals.
The impact of macroeconomic policies and programs on poverty problemsAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the impact of macroeconomic policies and programs on poverty in Nigeria from 1980 to 2002. Two regression models were used to analyze the relationship between poverty and GDP. The study found that Nigeria's macroeconomic policies have not addressed the upward trend in poverty levels based on economic indicators like inflation, unemployment, and exchange rates. Some of the key causes of poverty identified included corruption, inconsistent macroeconomic policies, high population growth, and over-reliance on oil exports. The incidence of poverty in Nigeria increased from around 15% in 1960 to 28% in the 1980s.
11.the impact of macroeconomic policies and programs on poverty problemsAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that analyzed the impact of macroeconomic policies in Nigeria on poverty from 1980-2002. Two regression models were used to examine the relationship between poverty, GDP, and other economic variables. The study found that:
1. Poverty in Nigeria increased substantially from 1980-2002, with the average poverty rate being higher after structural adjustment programs were introduced compared to before.
2. Key macroeconomic indicators like GDP growth, unemployment, and exchange rates deteriorated from 1980-2002, suggesting macroeconomic policies did not effectively address rising poverty.
3. Regression analysis found a relationship between rising poverty and factors like declining GDP, high inflation, unemployment, and exchange rate depreciation over
This document summarizes a report by the UN Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights. It finds that claims of impending eradication of extreme poverty are exaggerated and rely too heavily on flawed measures like the World Bank's international poverty line. In reality, billions still live in poverty without adequate standards of living. It argues the Sustainable Development Goals are failing on key issues like poverty, inequality, and climate change. To eliminate poverty, it says we must rethink the relationship between growth and poverty reduction, tackle inequality through redistribution, implement universal social protection, and center the role of government.
Poverty reduction involves promoting economic growth that permanently lifts people above a poverty line. Poverty is defined as a lack of resources for basic needs like food, shelter, and healthcare. Historically, poverty reduction has largely resulted from overall economic growth, such as that spurred by the Industrial Revolution in developed nations. Today, continued economic development is constrained by a lack of economic freedoms and access to financial services, while aid and investments in health, education, and infrastructure can help reduce poverty.
1. The document discusses the prospects for a demographic dividend in Africa in the near future. While fertility declines that change population age structures have been slow, some factors could hasten the process, like economic development, mortality decline, and investments in family planning.
2. A demographic dividend occurs when a rising proportion of the population is working-age, lowering dependency ratios and freeing up resources for investment. This can fuel economic growth. However, complementary policies are needed to take advantage of the opportunity.
3. The economics of a demographic dividend for Africa includes potential benefits like increased income and savings. However, realizing these gains depends on labor market conditions and complementary socioeconomic factors. Problems include rising unemployment and changing social dynamics
KRI Brown Bag Seminar #1 - Islamic Finance: New Tools for Innovation with Soc...KhazanahResearchInstitute
KRI Brown Bag Seminar #1 which was held on the 15 February 2017 hosted guest speaker, Professor Saadiah Mohamad, who discussed the developments in social finance and provided a case for structuring Shariah-compliant products with social impact.
Her presentation acknowledged the claim among critics that there is an inherent weakness in the present-day Islamic banking and finance industry in terms of its underdeveloped social sector. She thus explored a framework for a socially responsible investment sukuk and social impact bonds (SIB) in the social finance space, and came up with recommendations for structuring a Shariah-compliant SIB or social sukuk.
Professor Saadiah’s arguments are based on her latest journal publication “A Case for an Islamic Social Impact Bond”, under the ACRN Oxford Journal of Finance and Risk Perspectives.
This document discusses dimensions of development including definitions from various authors. It provides learning objectives for understanding concepts of development and community development. It examines definitions of development from Tayebwa, Todaro, Perroux, and Rogers which largely agree that development is a multi-dimensional process involving social, economic, and political changes to improve life. Community development is defined as a participatory process to address shared community concerns. National and global development challenges are also reviewed.
CENTRE FOR ADVANCED ARTS, SCIENCE, SOCIAL AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCE RESEARCHogbaji udochukwu
This document discusses poverty and hunger in Nigeria in the context of achieving the Millennium Development Goals. It notes that despite government efforts, poverty remains widespread in Nigeria, with about 70% of the population living in poverty. The introduction of the Millennium Development Goals, which aim to reduce extreme poverty and hunger globally by 2015, provides an opportunity for Nigeria to escape poverty. Specifically, the document focuses on how eradicating extreme poverty and hunger can help achieve all of the Millennium Development Goals in Nigeria. It examines concepts of poverty and suggests that education reform with proper planning and policy could be used as a tool to reduce poverty and hunger in the country if accompanied by political will and participatory reforms.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
This document discusses the development model that has been widely accepted over the past six decades of promoting economic growth through industrialization and centralized high-cost technologies. While there has been significant economic growth, the benefits have not been equally distributed, leading to large inequalities both between and within countries. International agencies now agree that development without equity is unsustainable. However, efforts to reduce inequalities through improved market rules and increased aid have had limited success. A fundamental rethinking of the development model and choice of technologies may be needed to achieve more equitable and sustainable development.
The document discusses different approaches to rural development:
1. Past anti-poverty efforts in the Philippines from the 1960s to 1990s by successive presidents met with little success, as described by one observer.
2. A theory of change approach helps identify effective solutions to address the underlying causes of problems hindering progress, considering the UN's comparative advantages.
3. Key principles for developing a theory of change include developing it consultatively to reflect stakeholders' understanding, grounding it in evidence, and supporting continuous learning.
Role of Agriculture and Rural Development in Poverty AlleviationTri Widodo W. UTOMO
The document discusses strategies for alleviating rural poverty through agricultural development and empowering local communities. It argues that poverty remains a major problem in rural areas due to lack of economic opportunities and disparities between rural and urban areas. Effective strategies should focus on improving small-scale agriculture and cooperatives to boost rural economies and empowering local people through participation in decision making, training, and access to resources and markets.
Despite global effort it is estimated that about 2.2 billion people still live in poverty, and that approximately 80 of this figure is made up of people living in rural areas. The Sustainable Development Goals SDGs of the 2030 Agenda include as its number 1 goal, the goal to end poverty. However, the report by the World Bank 2018 stated that putting an end to poverty is proving to be one of the greatest human rights challenges the modern world faces.The Sustainable Development Goals SDGs which are an extension of the Millennium Development Goals MDGs was adopted on September 2015 by the United Nations Assembly to fight against poverty and eradicate human deprivation.This paper presents a brief introduction on poverty laws, discusses possible challenges and the way forward. Paul A. Adekunte | Matthew N. O. Sadiku | Sarhan M. Musa "Poverty Laws: An Introduction" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-5 , August 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd33275.pdf Paper Url :https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/33275/poverty-laws-an-introduction/paul-a-adekunte
This document provides an overview of global inequality and stratification. It begins by introducing the United Nations Millennium Development Goals which aimed to reduce extreme poverty globally by 2015. It then discusses different frameworks for classifying global stratification such as Wallerstein's world systems approach and the World Bank's classification of economies by income. Specifically, it outlines the characteristics of high, middle, and low income nations and the challenges faced by less developed countries, including a trend toward the global feminization of poverty.
This document provides an overview of globalization and its impacts from a social work perspective. It discusses the history and waves of globalization, defining terms like globalism and neo-liberalism. It examines structural adjustment programs imposed by organizations like the IMF and their effects, like diverting funds from social services. Statistics are presented on growing global and domestic inequalities and rising poverty. The neo-liberal agenda is said to prioritize corporate profits over democratic values.
Discussion 1Rania Explain the implications of globalizati.docxcharlieppalmer35273
Discussion 1
Rania :
Explain the implications of globalization
There are several implications when it comes to globalization, some can be good, and some can be bad. I will first start off with the good implications of globalization, such a as the enormous rise in economic growth, workable trading throughout nations, technology advancement and even introducing diversity into new countries. This means introducing global citizenship since valuing diversity is one of the most important outcomes of being a global citizen. Nevertheless , here are the bad implications of globalization such as diseases that spread across borders( note which we are currently dealing with) , terrorism, and threats to global environment (Bhargava, 2006). Having the trading with other nation I feel might go wrong , because the outcomes could be very bad and tragic and can lead to the economic and sociological destruction of one nation.
Identify at least two ethical issues that go along with the global societal topic you have chosen for your final essay
The issue of unemployment and lack of economic opportunity affects lower class citizens the most. societal issue.Unemployment and the lack of economic opportunity affects trillions of people across the planet and to fix the problem there must be a change in the way that businesses go through the hiring process Countries’ economic and employment performance varies considerably; even if growth is resuming in a number of them, job creation remains subdued, and many people are experiencing deeper crisis. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO),4 global unemployment is set to rise in 2014, with more than 200 million people without work across the world. Youth unemployment in the Middle East and North Africa will remain at close to 30% until 2017. In parts of southern Europe, between 33% and 50% of young people eligible to work are unemployed. Overall unemployment in the euro area is forecast to remain at close to 12% into 2015. Unemployment, especially long-term unemployment, often leads to discouragement and loss of human capital. It is associated with
physical and mental ill-health, imposing continuing burdens on health and welfare systems and ultimately having a negative impact on growth. Persistent youth unemployment in particular has a scarring effect, increasing unemployment risks later in life and depressing lifetime earnings. In 2012 the Global Agenda Council on Employment and Social Protection5 warned that, without decisive action, the cyclical unemployment that followed the crisis could very quickly become long-term, structural unemployment. That risk is now becoming a worrying reality for many.
While job creation is essential, policy-makers must give equal attention to the quality of employment. Low quality work is rarely sustainable work.
The core message of this document is that decision- makers must give the jobs crisis the attention it deserves. Employment must be the priority for the.
Impact of microfinance and entrepreneurship on poverty alleviation does natio...Alexander Decker
This document discusses the relationship between microfinance, entrepreneurship, national culture, and poverty alleviation. It provides definitions of key concepts and reviews literature on both the positive and negative impacts of microfinance on poverty. While some studies found microfinance effectively reduces poverty, others found it mainly benefits the non-poor. The document argues entrepreneurial skills are necessary for the poor to benefit, and these skills may be influenced by national culture values.
This document discusses concepts of poverty reduction, development, and sustainable development in the Nepali context. It defines poverty as a lack of basic needs, capabilities, and freedoms. Poverty is caused by lack of assets, voice, and vulnerability. Efforts in Nepal to reduce poverty through economic growth, social services, targeted programs and good governance have faced challenges from political instability and conflict. Ending poverty requires building human, physical, financial, natural, and social capital. True development is a participatory process that meets peoples' basic needs and allows them to realize their potential with dignity. Development and poverty reduction depend on supportive cultures, policies, and empowering local participation.
The document discusses poverty and inequality. It defines absolute and relative poverty and methods of measuring poverty. Economic growth is shown to reduce poverty by increasing employment, wages and government resources. Inequality is an economic problem that affects development and stability. Strategies to reduce poverty include economic liberalization, property rights, infrastructure investment, aid, and microfinance programs like Grameen Bank. Good governance and community participation are also important for poverty alleviation.
This document summarizes a research study on the impact of microfinance banks on the standard of living of hairdressers in Oshodi-Isolo local government area of Lagos State, Nigeria. The study aims to examine how microfinance banks have impacted hairdressers' businesses and their ability to acquire assets and save. It involved surveying 120 hairdressers registered with the local government. The results found a significant relationship between microfinance efforts and the hairdressers' standard of living, indicating that microfinance has helped reduce poverty somewhat among this group. The study recommends that government ensure microfinance loans are easily obtainable with reasonable repayment schedules.
Poverty Alleviation: A Challenge for the Indian Governmentbeenishshowkat
I prepared this term paper project in my third semester of Masters in Political Science. Also, I referred to a number of other philosophers works in order to create a better project. I hope this will be of great help to anyone who views it. Thanks.
Innovation, Economic Diversification and Human DevelopmentiBoP Asia
This document discusses the relationship between innovation, economic diversification, and human development. It argues that while innovation and economic diversification are important drivers of economic growth, they do not necessarily lead to improved human welfare and well-being. The human development approach emphasizes expanding people's freedoms, opportunities, and choices in order to enhance their quality of life. Both industrial policy and human development policy are needed to promote types of economic diversification that support human capabilities and well-being. Understanding how variety, choice, and welfare co-evolve can help design better development policies.
This document summarizes poverty globally, with a focus on Africa and India. It states that in 2015, 702.1 million people lived in extreme poverty, defined as living on less than $1.90 per day, with Africa home to 383 million extremely poor people. India had the most at 218 million. While poverty rates have declined significantly in Asia due to growth, Africa still struggles with high rates and the largest number of poor. Causes discussed include colonialism, lack of development and infrastructure, and poor governance.
Similar to Africa’s immiserization and declining development interventions in a globalizing world (20)
Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...Alexander Decker
Women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) have elevated levels of hormones like luteinizing hormone and testosterone, as well as higher levels of insulin and insulin resistance compared to healthy women. They also have increased levels of inflammatory markers like C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and leptin. This study found these abnormalities in the hormones and inflammatory cytokines of women with PCOS ages 23-40, indicating that hormone imbalances associated with insulin resistance and elevated inflammatory markers may worsen infertility in women with PCOS.
A usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websitesAlexander Decker
This document presents a framework for evaluating the usability of B2C e-commerce websites. It involves user testing methods like usability testing and interviews to identify usability problems in areas like navigation, design, purchasing processes, and customer service. The framework specifies goals for the evaluation, determines which website aspects to evaluate, and identifies target users. It then describes collecting data through user testing and analyzing the results to identify usability problems and suggest improvements.
A universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksAlexander Decker
This document discusses a study that aimed to synthesize motivation theories into a universal model for managing marketing executives in Nigerian banks. The study was guided by Maslow and McGregor's theories. A sample of 303 marketing executives was used. The results showed that managers will be most effective at motivating marketing executives if they consider individual needs and create challenging but attainable goals. The emerged model suggests managers should provide job satisfaction by tailoring assignments to abilities and monitoring performance with feedback. This addresses confusion faced by Nigerian bank managers in determining effective motivation strategies.
A unique common fixed point theorems in generalized dAlexander Decker
This document presents definitions and properties related to generalized D*-metric spaces and establishes some common fixed point theorems for contractive type mappings in these spaces. It begins by introducing D*-metric spaces and generalized D*-metric spaces, defines concepts like convergence and Cauchy sequences. It presents lemmas showing the uniqueness of limits in these spaces and the equivalence of different definitions of convergence. The goal of the paper is then stated as obtaining a unique common fixed point theorem for generalized D*-metric spaces.
A trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistanceAlexander Decker
This document provides a review of trends in Salmonella and antibiotic resistance. It begins with an introduction to Salmonella as a facultative anaerobe that causes nontyphoidal salmonellosis. The emergence of antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella is then discussed. The document proceeds to cover the historical perspective and classification of Salmonella, definitions of antimicrobials and antibiotic resistance, and mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in Salmonella including modification or destruction of antimicrobial agents, efflux pumps, modification of antibiotic targets, and decreased membrane permeability. Specific resistance mechanisms are discussed for several classes of antimicrobials.
A transformational generative approach towards understanding al-istifhamAlexander Decker
This document discusses a transformational-generative approach to understanding Al-Istifham, which refers to interrogative sentences in Arabic. It begins with an introduction to the origin and development of Arabic grammar. The paper then explains the theoretical framework of transformational-generative grammar that is used. Basic linguistic concepts and terms related to Arabic grammar are defined. The document analyzes how interrogative sentences in Arabic can be derived and transformed via tools from transformational-generative grammar, categorizing Al-Istifham into linguistic and literary questions.
A time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibiaAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the determinants of savings in Namibia from 1991 to 2012. It reviews previous literature on savings determinants in developing countries. The study uses time series analysis including unit root tests, cointegration, and error correction models to analyze the relationship between savings and variables like income, inflation, population growth, deposit rates, and financial deepening in Namibia. The results found inflation and income have a positive impact on savings, while population growth negatively impacts savings. Deposit rates and financial deepening were found to have no significant impact. The study reinforces previous work and emphasizes the importance of improving income levels to achieve higher savings rates in Namibia.
A therapy for physical and mental fitness of school childrenAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the importance of exercise in maintaining physical and mental fitness for school children. It discusses how physical and mental fitness are developed through participation in regular physical exercises and cannot be achieved solely through classroom learning. The document outlines different types and components of fitness and argues that developing fitness should be a key objective of education systems. It recommends that schools ensure pupils engage in graded physical activities and exercises to support their overall development.
A theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study examining efficiency in managing marketing executives in Nigerian banks. The study was examined through the lenses of Kaizen theory (continuous improvement) and efficiency theory. A survey of 303 marketing executives from Nigerian banks found that management plays a key role in identifying and implementing efficiency improvements. The document recommends adopting a "3H grand strategy" to improve the heads, hearts, and hands of management and marketing executives by enhancing their knowledge, attitudes, and tools.
This document discusses evaluating the link budget for effective 900MHz GSM communication. It describes the basic parameters needed for a high-level link budget calculation, including transmitter power, antenna gains, path loss, and propagation models. Common propagation models for 900MHz that are described include Okumura model for urban areas and Hata model for urban, suburban, and open areas. Rain attenuation is also incorporated using the updated ITU model to improve communication during rainfall.
A synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjabAlexander Decker
This document discusses contraceptive use in Punjab, Pakistan. It begins by providing background on the benefits of family planning and contraceptive use for maternal and child health. It then analyzes contraceptive commodity data from Punjab, finding that use is still low despite efforts to improve access. The document concludes by emphasizing the need for strategies to bridge gaps and meet the unmet need for effective and affordable contraceptive methods and supplies in Punjab in order to improve health outcomes.
A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...Alexander Decker
1) The document discusses synthesizing Taylor's scientific management approach and Fayol's process management approach to identify an effective way to manage marketing executives in Nigerian banks.
2) It reviews Taylor's emphasis on efficiency and breaking tasks into small parts, and Fayol's focus on developing general management principles.
3) The study administered a survey to 303 marketing executives in Nigerian banks to test if combining elements of Taylor and Fayol's approaches would help manage their performance through clear roles, accountability, and motivation. Statistical analysis supported combining the two approaches.
A survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incrementalAlexander Decker
This document summarizes four algorithms for sequential pattern mining: GSP, ISM, FreeSpan, and PrefixSpan. GSP is an Apriori-based algorithm that incorporates time constraints. ISM extends SPADE to incrementally update patterns after database changes. FreeSpan uses frequent items to recursively project databases and grow subsequences. PrefixSpan also uses projection but claims to not require candidate generation. It recursively projects databases based on short prefix patterns. The document concludes by stating the goal was to find an efficient scheme for extracting sequential patterns from transactional datasets.
A survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniquesAlexander Decker
This document summarizes several techniques for live virtual machine migration in cloud computing. It discusses works that have proposed affinity-aware migration models to improve resource utilization, energy efficient migration approaches using storage migration and live VM migration, and a dynamic consolidation technique using migration control to avoid unnecessary migrations. The document also summarizes works that have designed methods to minimize migration downtime and network traffic, proposed a resource reservation framework for efficient migration of multiple VMs, and addressed real-time issues in live migration. Finally, it provides a table summarizing the techniques, tools used, and potential future work or gaps identified for each discussed work.
A survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo dbAlexander Decker
This document discusses data mining of big data using Hadoop and MongoDB. It provides an overview of Hadoop and MongoDB and their uses in big data analysis. Specifically, it proposes using Hadoop for distributed processing and MongoDB for data storage and input. The document reviews several related works that discuss big data analysis using these tools, as well as their capabilities for scalable data storage and mining. It aims to improve computational time and fault tolerance for big data analysis by mining data stored in Hadoop using MongoDB and MapReduce.
1. The document discusses several challenges for integrating media with cloud computing including media content convergence, scalability and expandability, finding appropriate applications, and reliability.
2. Media content convergence challenges include dealing with the heterogeneity of media types, services, networks, devices, and quality of service requirements as well as integrating technologies used by media providers and consumers.
3. Scalability and expandability challenges involve adapting to the increasing volume of media content and being able to support new media formats and outlets over time.
This document surveys trust architectures that leverage provenance in wireless sensor networks. It begins with background on provenance, which refers to the documented history or derivation of data. Provenance can be used to assess trust by providing metadata about how data was processed. The document then discusses challenges for using provenance to establish trust in wireless sensor networks, which have constraints on energy and computation. Finally, it provides background on trust, which is the subjective probability that a node will behave dependably. Trust architectures need to be lightweight to account for the constraints of wireless sensor networks.
This document discusses private equity investments in Kenya. It provides background on private equity and discusses trends in various regions. The objectives of the study discussed are to establish the extent of private equity adoption in Kenya, identify common forms of private equity utilized, and determine typical exit strategies. Private equity can involve venture capital, leveraged buyouts, or mezzanine financing. Exits allow recycling of capital into new opportunities. The document provides context on private equity globally and in developing markets like Africa to frame the goals of the study.
This document discusses a study that analyzes the financial health of the Indian logistics industry from 2005-2012 using Altman's Z-score model. The study finds that the average Z-score for selected logistics firms was in the healthy to very healthy range during the study period. The average Z-score increased from 2006 to 2010 when the Indian economy was hit by the global recession, indicating the overall performance of the Indian logistics industry was good. The document reviews previous literature on measuring financial performance and distress using ratios and Z-scores, and outlines the objectives and methodology used in the current study.
Africa’s immiserization and declining development interventions in a globalizing world
1. Developing Country Studies www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol 2, No.10, 2012
Africa’s Immiserization and Declining Development Interventions
in a Globalizing World
Matthew Eboreime* David Umoru
Department of Economics, Banking & Finance, Benson Idahosa University, PMB 1100, Benin City, Nigeria
* E-mail of the corresponding author: mattheweboreime@yahoo.com
Abstract
African countries recorded impressive growth rates in the 1960s and 1970s. However, the global economic crisis
of the 1980s dealt a severe anti-developmental blow on African countries. Eventually, African countries
embarked on widespread liberalization of their economies following intense pressures from Bretton Wood
institutions. This paper explores the notion that globalization have engendered the immiserization (a term used
by Karl Marx to indicate increasing misery or depth of poverty) of African countries on the one hand and
resulted in a sustained decline in the resources available for development interventions on the other hand. To get
out from the underdevelopment quagmire, some specific directions were proffered for the development of
African countries and these must of necessity include structural changes that encompass spiritual, economic,
social, political, institutional, attitudinal, cultural and ideological transformations.
Keywords: Africa, immiserization, development interventions, globalization
1. Introduction
Knowing that poverty anywhere is a threat to prosperity everywhere, the independent African States in the 1950s
and 1960s placed emphasis on achieving a high rate of economic growth in other to alleviate poverty and
improve the average living standard of their people. The growth strategy implicitly assumed that rising national
income will ‘trickle’ down to the masses in the form of jobs and other economic opportunities or create the
necessary conditions for the wider distribution of the economic and social gains of growth. However, the above
approach failed to achieve its target and this led to the re-conceptualization of economic development in late
1960s and 1970s as transcending mere increases in gross national product (GNP) to include changes in socio-
economic structures, reduction of unemployment, a more even distribution of income and the eradication of
absolute and mass poverty (Todaro, 1977).
However, just as the problem of severe poverty seems to be gradually abating in the ‘golden’ decade of
development – 1970s, then came the early 1980s with global economic recession and the accompanying
mounting debt problems of African countries. This situation provided the much needed opportunity for the
Bretton Wood institutions, namely, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, to use the
instruments of loan disbursement and debt re-scheduling conditionality to ‘forcefully’ get African nations to
embark on maximum liberalization of their fragile economies through the imposition of structural adjustment
programmes, and this in turn, greatly accelerated the pace of economic globalization (Khor 2000). Maximum
liberalization of the economies of African countries implied a withdrawal of government or state from the
economy and economic-policy making, which invariably led to drastic reduction in development interventions
and the exacerbation of the poverty problem.
Therefore, the basic objective of this paper is to explore the notion that accelerated economic globalization has
resulted in the immiserization (increasing misery or poverty) of African countries on the one hand and declining
financial resources for development interventions on the other hand. Thus, the above dual effects of globalization
on African economies appear to be two irreconcilable divergent positions. Suffice to mention here that the
concept of immiserization of the proletariat (see Hunt and Sherman, 1975) employed in this study is based on the
work of Karl Marx who argued in his famous “doctrine of increasing misery” that the conditions of labour (in
our sense, African countries) would worsen relative to the affluence of the capitalists (in our sense, the global
capitalists powers located mainly in Western Europe and North America) as average income increases.
The paper is organized into several parts as indicated below. Following the introduction, section two is centred
15
2. Developing Country Studies www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol 2, No.10, 2012
on the review of theoretical and conceptual issues while section three dwell on the immiserization of African
countries in a globalizing world and section four focuses on the evidence of declining development interventions
in a globalizing world. Section five attempts at providing some directions for Africa’s development and section
six provides a summary and conclusion of the paper.
2. Brief Review of Theoretical and Conceptual Literature
To place subsequent discussions in a proper perspective, the concepts of poverty, development and globalization
are briefly reviewed.
2.1 Concept of Poverty
Ajakaiye and Adeyeye (2001) pointed out that a concise and universally accepted definition of poverty is elusive
principally because it affects many aspects of the human conditions. However, Olaide and Essang (1975) averred
that the income-based definition of poverty remains the best approach. Todaro (1977) posited that absolute
poverty could be defined as the number of people living below a specified minimum level of subsistence income
necessary to secure the bare essentials of food, clothing and shelter – a kind of international poverty line.
The World Bank (1983) towed a similar line but distinguished absolute poverty from relative poverty. In the
main, the absolutely poor refer to people whose income is too low to afford an “ adequate” diet. The relatively
poor are more simply defined as those with incomes below one third of the national average. Nwosu (2000)
conceptualized severe poverty as a direct consequence of unmet basic human needs and basic human rights. He
defined basic human needs as the mainly biophysical requirements for maintaining life, namely the amount of
food, clean water, adequate shelter, access to health services, educational opportunity to which every person is
entitled by virtue of being born.
The World Bank (2002) indicates that poverty is a multi-faceted concept and the dimensions include:
- Lack of opportunity; this is related to low level and distribution of human capital as
- well as social and physical assets.
- Low capabilities; little or no improvements in health and education indicators among a particular
socio-economic group.
- Low level of security; exposure to risk and income shocks that may arise at the national, local,
household, or individual levels.
- Empowerment; the ability of the poor to participate in, negotiate with, change, and hold accountable
institutions that affect their well being.
Sen (1981) presented the entitlement approach in analyzing and understanding the issues of starvation, famine
and general poverty. Poverty is directly related to the ownership bundles possessed by individuals. A person’s
ownership bundle consists of all assets owned including labour power, and this in turn determines his exchange
entitlement, that is, the set of all the alternative bundles of commodities that he can acquire in exchange of what
he owns. Thus, a person will be exposed to starvation if, for the ownership that he actually has, the exchange
entitlement set does not contain any feasible bundle including enough food.
2.2 Views on Development
Todaro (1977), following the approach of Professor Seers in 1969, reformulated and broadened the questions
about the meaning of development as follows:
i. Have general levels of living expanded within a nation to the extent that absolute poverty (that is,
deprivation from life-sustaining goods), the degree of inequality in income distribution, the level of employment
and the nature and quality of education, health, and other social and cultural services have all improved?
16
3. Developing Country Studies www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol 2, No.10, 2012
ii. Has economic progress enhanced individual and group esteem both internally vis- a vis one another?
And externally vis- a vis other nations and regions?
iii. Finally, has economic progress expanded the range of human choice and freed people from external
dependence and internal servitude to other men and institutions, or has it merely substituted one form of
dependence (e.g. economic) for another (e.g. political or cultural) ?”
If the answer to each of the above three questions is positive, then clearly these phenomena constitute real
development.
Sundrum (1983) viewed development as transcending a rise in income to include changes in the modes of
economic behaviour of individuals in their production activities and economic relationship. Thus, if all
government interventions are removed from all spheres of economic and social life, and the full enthronement of
market forces is permitted, coupled with massive injection of capital/productive resources as neo-classical
economists would prescribe, the less developed countries would still fail to developed and produce rapid
increases in national income, primarily because they lack the requisite modernization ideals.
Nwosu (2000) averred that human development is the process whereby economic and non-economic factors
interact organically with one another to realize man’s creative potential and enhance his overall or integral
personality, as well as that of his social, cultural, political and physical environment. Embedded in the non-
economic factors or intangible elements are structural changes that promote development.
The South Commission (1990) summed up development as a process of self-reliant growth achieved through the
participation of people acting in their own interest as they see them, and under their own control. Its first
objective must be to end poverty, provide productive employment, and satisfy the basic needs of all the people,
any surplus being fairly shared. This implies that basic goods and services such as food and shelter, basic
education and health facilities, and clean water must be accessible to all.
2.3 Globalization and African Countries
Economic globalization refers to the increasing integration of economies around the world through the reduction
of barriers to trade, migration, capital flows, technology transfer and direct investment (Uwatt 2004).
Nwosu (2000), in a particularly incisive and pungent attack on the western globalization process observed that
the most important causative factors propelling globalization is the bursting production capacity of the advanced
capitalist economies attributable to their unjust control of world resources, inequitable modus operandi of
international economic relations and the intense explosion in scientific technologic knowledge and skills in the
West. With no other way out to release this immense production potential that is tied so much to their prosperity
and power, decided to psycho-politically and socio-economically annex the whole world as market, and as a
continuing source of resource inputs (raw materials) and, using their tremendous information technology and the
democratization and free market appeal, to subdue the entire world under the hysterical drum-beat of a
supposedly impending colossal economic well-being of all humanity, provided that everyone and every country
provide them with thorough fare and the license to do what they like with everyone and with every nation.
Adei (2004) avers that globalization, whether seen in terms of internationalization, liberalization,
universalization, westernization or deterritorization, is irreversible. It is a major reconfiguration of the social
geography of the world, with implications for economic advancement or marginalization; global security and
insecurity; justice and injustice, democracy or dominance.
Kolodko (2004) added his voice to the variegated views on globalization. To him, globalization implies growing
liberalization, which is followed by integration of the markets for capital, for goods, technology and labour. This
would create new trends, risks, new opportunities, and possibilities, and as such there is the need for every
nation’s leaders, intellectuals, businessmen to take advantage of the chances or to be exposed to the risks, noting
that some countries are in a better position to reap from globalization because of the legacy from the past,
because of the culture component and because of the geo-political position.
The most important route by which globalization unleashes its deleterious and immiserizing impact on African
countries is the globalization of national policies and policy-making mechanisms. National policies in economic,
social, cultural and technological spheres that until recently were under the control of sovereign African nations
have increasingly come under the influence of the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the
17
4. Developing Country Studies www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol 2, No.10, 2012
World Trade Organization (WTO) and the transnational corporations as well as other big economic/financial
players such as the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the Paris Club of
Creditors (see Koh, 2000). Indeed most developing countries have witnessed the erosion of their independent
policy-making capacity and have been ‘forced’ to implement policies made by other entities, which may on the
balance be detrimental to the countries concerned.
As Koh (2000) pointed out, transnational and financial institutions control such huge resources, more than what
most governments are able to marshal, that they are thus able to have great policy influence in many countries. In
particular, the World Bank and IMF wield tremendous authority on African countries through loan and debt
rescheduling conditionality which requires these nations to adopt structural adjustment programmes (SAPs)
mainly drawn up by the Bretton Woods institutions. SAPs cover macroeconomic policies, social policies and
structural issues which together ultimately constitutes the main driving force of African countries towards
liberalization, privatization, deregulation and a withdrawal of national governments from socio-economic
activities directed at poverty eradication. Furthermore, the WTO greatly compounds the economic problems of
developing countries by compelling them to implement unequal trade treaties that are weighted against their
interest. Non-compliance with WTO agreements can result in trade sanctions being taken against a county’s
export.
3. The Immiserization of African Countries in a Globalizing World
A global overview of the world economic performance indicates that most developing countries have been
sidelined. For instance, in 1950, the average income of the 20% of people living in the richest countries was 30
times higher than that of the 20% living in the poorest countries (mostly in Africa). By 1989, this ratio had
doubled to 60 times.
Additionally, Khor (2000) observes that the Human Development Report 1996, in reviewing the economic
performance of developing countries, noted that only 15 countries have enjoyed high growth, while 89 countries
were worse off economically than they were 10 or more years earlier. In 70 developing countries, the present
levels were less than in the 1960s and 1970s. Since 1980, economic decline for most part of the developing
world has lasted far longer and gone deeper than during the Great Depression of the 1930s. In some cases,
people are poorer than 30 years ago, with little hope of rapid improvement.
The World Bank (2005) observes that the population living on less than $1 a day in sub-Saharan Africa increased
from 227 million in 1990 to 313 million in 2001 and is projected to rise to 340 million in 2015. In all other
regions of the developing world, the population living below $1 per day is projected to fall. For instance, in East
Asia and the Pacific, the population of the poor actually fell from 472 million in 1990 to 271 million in 2001 and
is expected to fall to 19 million in 2015. South Asia achieved a real decline from 462 million to 431 million in
2001 and the expected figure for 2015 is 216 million while China’s poor population declined significantly from
375 million in 1990 to 212 million in 2001 and is projected to reached 16 million in 2015.
The World Bank (2010) employed a different international poverty line to evaluate poverty in sub-Saharan Africa.
It asserts that the number of poor people living on less than $1.25 (not $1) a day in sub-Saharan Africa actually
rose from 296 million in 1990 to 388 million in 2005 but for almost all other regions, the trend has declined.
Thus, regardless of the measuring yardstick employed, the story has remained pathetic and distressing for sub-
Saharan Africa.
Some selected comparative socio-economic indicators for African countries and developed nations are hereby
considered.
3.1 GNP Per Capita
Table 1 at the end of this paper provides illustrative data showing the change in GNP per capita between 1990
and 1999. The decade corresponds to the period of unprecedented liberalization and structural adjustment
programmes in African countries.
Among the African countries only Benin, Chad and Nigeria recorded marginal increases in income per capita,
while the others suffered an outright decline or stagnation. Cameroon was worst hit with a colossal 40% decline
in income per capita. On the contrary, all the advanced nations had a field day with income increases (as high as
41% in the case of the United Kingdom). The gap between the world’s richest nation, Japan (in term of per
18
5. Developing Country Studies www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol 2, No.10, 2012
capita income in the above table) and the poorest African nation is obvious. In 1990, Japan had almost one
hundred and thirty four (134) times the per capita income of Chad while in 1999, the gap further widened to one
hundred and sixty one (161) times.
3.2 GDP Per Capita, PPP (Constant 2007 International $)
The poverty and backwardness of African countries is further illustrated when consideration is given to the trend
of real per capita gross domestic product (GDP) adjusted for the differing purchasing power parity (PPP) of each
country’s currency to reflect the cost of living. The data for some African countries and developed nations are
shown in Table 2 for the period 1980 to 2007. In general, the GDP per capita of all the African countries declined
between 1980 and 2007, except for Nigeria, Chad, Burkina Faso and Gambia. Only Burkina Faso maintained a
sustained rise without suffering any dip in the years under consideration.
Using the PPP equivalent, Japan’s per capita income was 24 times that of Chad in 1980 but only 23 times in
2007 – a gap that is still considered too wide.
3.3 Inequality
Apart from per capita income disparities, globalization is also associated with regional and within country
inequality. A key element of the current globalization agenda is the continued implementation of structural
adjustment programmes and other related macroeconomic policies which ultimately enhance the income share of
comprador groups/elites to the detriment of the poor masses in many African countries. Table 3 shows the pattern
of income distribution among some African countries.
The top quintile enjoys the highest income share, ranging from 41.7% in Ghana to as high as 55.70% in Nigeria.
The lowest 40% of the population in both Nigeria and Niger became poorer, while the income share accruing to
the top 20% increased in Nigeria, Niger, Zambia and Cote d’Ivoire. It declined in both Ghana and Guinea. The
case of Nigeria is particularly repulsive as the richest quintile enhanced their income shares at the expense of the
remaining 80% of the population. Besides, according to O’Rourke in Uwatt (2004), the inequality gap – the ratio
of the income earned by the income quintile to the income earned by the bottom quintile – increased for African
countries from 9.6 in the 1980s to 12.9 in the 1990s. Additionally, the author’s calculation based on data from
UNDP (2009a) shows that for the fifteen African countries in Table 4 (excluding Eritrea), the inequality gap rose
to 13.1 in 2007 (when the richest 10% is compared to the poorest 10% of the population).
3.4 Social Indicators (Health)
The health variable is a key factor influencing the level of human capital. There are several indicators for
measuring the health status of nations, and this in turn provides some insight as to whether a country is poor or
not. The indicator employed in this paper is the life expectancy at birth, that is, longevity. Table 4 presents
comparative data for a number of sub-Saharan African countries and industrially advanced nations. The life
expectancy at birth declined absolutely for Zambia and Central African Republic between 1980 and 2010 while
other African countries recorded marginal to modest increases.
However, the African nation with the highest life expectancy of 55.663 years in 1980 (Cote d’Ivoire) is no match
for the developed countries’ minimum of 73.382 years (United Kingdom). Similar reasoning applies to other
time periods (see Table 4).
Moreover, according to figures presented in the UNDP (2009a), the probability of not surviving up to 40 years is
still very high for many African countries, especially for those below the Sahara. For instance, the following data
shows the percentage of the population not likely to reach 40 years in some sub-Saharan African countries:
Botswana (31.2%), Namibia (21.2%), Angola (38.5%), Cameroon (34.2%), Nigeria (37.4%), Zambia (42.9%),
Benin (19.2%), Togo (18.6%) and Ghana (25.8%). To illustrate the development gap in respect to some other
countries, some comparative statistics is given below: Singapore (1.6%), Israel (1.9%), and Poland (2.9%). The
figures for the industrially advanced countries in Western Europe and North America are all below 1.6%.
3.5 Social Indicators (Education)
Sound education, both in qualitative and quantitative terms, is another vital component required for human
19
6. Developing Country Studies www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol 2, No.10, 2012
capital development. Unfortunately, sub-Saharan Africa lags behind other regions of the world. From Table 5,
the adult population’s mean years of schooling is very low for African countries. The case of Burkina Faso, Chad
and Niger is particularly worrisome as the average years of schooling are less than two. Compared to the United
States, United Kingdom and Japan, the immiserization of African countries is obvious as the mean years of
schooling in these countries range from 9.4 to 12.4 years.
Furthermore, the bottom position of the human development index (HDI) seems permanently reserved for sub-
Saharan African countries which have consistently made up about 95% of nations with low human development
index since the United Nations commenced the computation of HDI two decades ago. All these facts points to
the increasing immiserization of African countries in a rapidly globalizing world of survival of the fittest.
4. Evidence of Declining Development Interventions in Africa
There has been a massive net outflow of resources from the South to the North by way of debt servicing with the
resulting substantial decline in the volume of resources for development interventions in the areas such as
improved health, education, food subsidy, infrastructure and other aspects of poverty reduction. Some countries
in Sub-Saharan Africa, for many years, spent up to 25% or 30% of their annual budgets servicing debts, thereby
leaving little or nothing to pursue growth and developmental aspirations.
It has been pointed out by Ajayi in Uwatt (2004) that trade remains the main vehicle or means for Africa’s
participation in, and full integration into the global economy. Unfortunately, the terms of trade of primary
commodities (where African have comparative advantage) have been falling continually against manufactured
goods, with many African countries suffering tremendous losses. This trend constrained foreign exchange
earnings required to embark on development interventions geared towards reducing widespread poverty.
According to the UN in Khor (2000), the term of trade of non-fuel commodities in comparison to manufactures
fell from 147 in 1980 to 100 in 1985, to 80 in 1990 and 71 in 1992. This sharp 52% falls in the terms of trade
between 1980 and 1992 had catastrophic effects. For Sub-Saharan Africa, a 28% fall in the term of trade between
1980 and 1989 led to an income loss of $16 billion in 1989 alone. In the four years 1986-1989, Sub-Saharan
Africa suffered a $56 billion income loss or 15 - 16% of GDP in 1987 - 1989. In the 1990s, the general level of
commodity prices fell even more in relation to manufactures than in the 1980s. The income losses from falling
terms of trade probably constitute the largest single mechanism by which real economic resources are transferred
from Africa to the developed countries. These losses adversely affect the sustainable development prospects of
Africa.
The United Nation’s Trade and Development Report (2009) avers that since 2002 there has been a boom in the
prices of primary commodities, including broad categories such as food and tropical beverages, vegetable
oilseeds and oils, agricultural raw materials, minerals, ores and metals and crude petroleum . However, this
salutary scenario for Africa and other developing countries came to an end in mid-2008 when it was truncated by
the global economic crisis. Todaro and Smith (2009) observes that sub-Saharan African countries must still
depend on non-mineral primary-product exports for a relatively large fraction of their foreign exchange earnings,
which is a serious problem that carries with it a high degree of risk and uncertainty. Despite the positive annual
percentage changes in primary-product export prices between 2002 and 2008, the long-term trend for prices of
primary goods is downward and the current real price level is below what was obtained between 1960 and 1990.
Due to the structural adjustment policies forced on African countries in 1980s and 1990s as conditionality for
loan disbursement and debt rescheduling, the proportion of government expenditure devoted to health fell in
most countries of Sub-Saharan Africa in 1980s. According to UNICEF (in the South Commission, 1990), in the
thirty-seven poorest nations of the world (mostly in Africa), spending per head on health care was cut by nearly
50%, and on education by nearly 25% in that decade. At a time when the poor were suffering an already
substantial drop in income, governments scrapped or sharply reduced, in the name of resource efficiency, food
subsidies and other selective distributional measures. The implementation of adjustment policies accentuated the
mal-distribution of income within developing countries. These inimical fiscal targets necessitated increase in
medical charges, school fees, etc. in desperately poor countries, promoting school dropout, more deaths, and
unskilled and consequently cheap labour. Furthermore, fiscal contraction was responsible for a waste of
resources in the form of increased unemployment, and under-use of productive capacity. Thus, the massive lay-
off in economies where government is the dominant player promoted social unrest, and crime, both negating new
20
7. Developing Country Studies www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol 2, No.10, 2012
investment.
As a result of pressures from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, African countries
embarked on maximum liberalization of import very quickly, leading to massive importation of consumer goods
with high profit margins as opposed to producer goods essential for the smooth running of the economy. The
usual action in this circumstance is to embark on a larger devaluation that would have been otherwise
unnecessary. Outrageous exchange rates are detrimental to development. A country like Tanzania who dutifully
implemented IMF’s SAP, has devalued its currency to the extent that by 1998, it is now 1500% less than it was
in 1985. The number of people now qualified as poor has risen to over 50% (Khor op cit). Additionally, the
reduction/elimination of tariffs punished local producer, allowed for dumping of imports, thereby promoting
massive layoffs (for instance, in the Nigerian textile industry) and social instability.
The structural adjustment package fostered on African countries by multilateral finance institutions led to the
privatization of ‘commanding heights’ in their economies (see Nwosu 2000). According to Aimiuwu (2004),
equity liberalization or privatization of government assets is insensitive to the country’s stage of development, by
promoting the off-loading of a nation’s assets, often to rogue officials, in a process of bandit capitalism. This has
further reduced the economic opportunities available to the poor.
5. Directions for African Development
Based on the issues discussed in this paper, the way forward for Africa countries includes the following:
• There is the need for African leaders and policy makers to imbibe or internalize the virtues associated
with non-economic factors of development. The absence of these intangible elements has been a principal cause
of backwardness in Africa. These non-economic factors include structural changes such as spiritual, social,
political, educational, institutional, attitudinal, cultural and ideological transformations. The copious deficiency
in this regard is the cause of widespread corruption and embezzlement of foreign loans, which in turn led to
substantial liberalization of African economies. Various countries have achieved these transformations through
different routes. Examples include the protestant ethics that helped in transforming Europe in the nineteenth
century. Tough judicial approaches are in force in countries such as China, where corruption carries the death
penalty with the law having no respect of persons. In Ghana, Jerry Rawlings employed the violent approach to
sanitize the Ghanaian society.
• A broad – based industrialization that is export-oriented is a sine qua non for winning the globalization
game. African countries must be able to progress along the industrial pathway by first of all, going through the
first stage of import substitution industrialization whereby non-durable consumer goods are produce in sufficient
quantity to meet the needs of the population and as such obviate the need for massive importation. Thereafter,
we must proceed to the second stage of import substitution industrialization, during which we turn to the
exportation of manufactured goods, and the domestic production of intermediate goods (that is, producer and
consumer durables). These industries are capital intensive. Next, we must advance further into medium and high
technology industries, which constitute the main engine of growth. This is the kind of industrial strategy that can
put unemployment perpetually on the run with increasing population.
• The agricultural sector must be modernized in order to play its vital roles of not only providing food for
people and raw materials for industries (reducing imports) but providing an important source of foreign
exchange earnings through exports.
• State interventions, planning and the market: African nations must decide what economic activities are
best undertaken by the state and what are best left to the private sector. Western nations and international
financial institutions should not be allowed to dictate domestic policies for African nations.
• Regional Cooperation: African countries should consolidate and further expand the existing levels of
cooperation among them. By joint endeavours to use to the maximum their different resources of expertise,
capital, or markets, all would be able to address their separate and differing needs more effectively, thereby
increasing the available options for development. Regional cooperation would strengthen Africa’s bargaining
position with the developed countries in a globalizing world; it will enhance autonomous development; will
21
8. Developing Country Studies www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol 2, No.10, 2012
create economies of scale for large number of industries; it will facilitate the provision of the critical minimum
of resources necessary for research and development and for strengthening their scientific and technological
capabilities.
Some further tips for winning the globalization game are provided below:
• Trade in primary commodities will continue to be important to African countries but both domestic and
cross-country producers’ cooperation must be brought to bear to curtail the continued unfavorable prices and
terms of trade.
• African countries must strive and be allowed to embark on trade liberalization on their own terms. If
conditions for success in globalization are not yet present in a country, then to proceed with liberalization and
compliance with the ‘Washington consensus’ will produce negative results and persistent recession.
• Developing countries must resolutely insist against all odds on retaining the ability, freedom and
flexibility to make autonomous and strategic choices in finance, trade and investment policies.
• Serious caution must be exercised when considering proposals for measures on further import
liberalization at the World Trade Organization (WTO). The present imbalances and inequities in the world
trading system should be addressed as a priority instead of any new proposal. The Agricultural Agreement that
forbids developing countries from providing support and subsidies to their agricultural sectors, while allowing
for massive food imports simultaneously should be reviewed immediately. It is on sound authority (World Bank,
2000/2001) that developed countries spend an estimated sum of $63 billion annually to support and provide
subsidies for their farmers.
• African countries must not succumb to the Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMS)
but rather should earnestly and urgently seek for a review. Such investment measures seek to prohibit local
content requirement and foreign exchange balancing for foreign investors. If these were prohibited, the
attainment of development goals would be difficult.
• The collective loss of developing nations was most acutely felt in the Trade –Related Aspect of
Intellectual Poverty Rights (TRIPS) after the Uruguay Round of 1994. This agreement will curb the adoption of
modern technology by domestic firms in developing countries; it will lead to increasing Technical payments to
transnational corporations; it will have a significant impact in product prices. Therefore, the TRIPS Agreement
must be quickly amended.
• There should be greater transparency and regulation of international financial market including proposal
for a global tax on short-term financial flows, to penalize speculators.
• African countries should use capital controls to protect themselves from international financial
instability.
• WTO meetings must be made transparent.
• There is need to establish a more stable system of currency exchange rates.
• It is imperative to put a stand still on new borrowings from international financial institutions for at
least a few years. Excessive debts lead to heavy burden on national resources and provide the leeway for other
nations and multilateral financial institutions to formulate domestic policies for us (these externally imposed
policies include SAP, deregulation, liberalization, privatization, etc).
• There is need to prudently manage foreign reserves by developing countries.
• Africa countries must develop the individual capacities for international negotiations in WTO, etc. A lot
of our predicament in the past is due to lack of knowledge and capacity of public officials attending these
meetings, only to sign the final documents to the advantage of developed countries.
22
9. Developing Country Studies www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol 2, No.10, 2012
(For the above section, see: Khor 2000, Sundrum 1983, World Bank 2001, Todaro 1977, Nwosu 2000, Adei
2004, Aimiuwu 2004, South Commission 1990 and Stiglitz 1996).
6. Summary and Conclusion
The independent African States in the 1950s and 1960s placed emphasis on achieving a high rate of economic
growth in order to improve the socio-economic conditions of their people. However, this strategy failed to arrest
the problems of mass poverty, unemployment and inequality as the gains from growth failed to trickle-down. In
the 1970s, a new development philosophy emerged, namely, growth-with-redistribution. The general standard of
living improved for Africans during this ‘golden decade’.
Unfortunately, the seeming prosperity of the 1970s was short-lived. In recapitulation, the phenomenon of
accelerated globalization especially with respect to African countries commenced in the 1980s following the
global economic crisis during which these nations were forced to borrow from the IMF under tough
conditionality involving the introduction of structural adjustment programmes ostensibly aimed at
macroeconomic stabilization but with real intention of integrating Africa much more rapidly into the global
economy. Thereafter, the era of increasing poverty or immiserization began for African countries coupled with
declining resources for development interventions, and thus, engendering severe cuts in social services such as
education and health. Consequently, this paper examined the notion that globalization has led to the
immiserization of African countries coupled with declining development interventions.
It is evident from the analysis in this paper that the problem of poverty aggravated after the 1980s. The per capita
income, the population below international poverty lines and income distribution statistics indicates a worsening
situation of material deprivation. Furthermore, the health and educational indicators reveal that many countries
in sub-Saharan Africa sank deeper into poverty. The above trend is a polar opposite to the increasing level of
living standard in the industrially advanced countries as well as the newly industrializing countries.
Since the globalization phenomenon is irreversible, there is the need for African countries to rise up to the
challenge, and adopt strategies and policies that would result in winning the globalization game. A multiplicity of
strategies has been enunciated in this paper and briefly put, the way forward implies that African countries must
of necessity undergo some forms of spiritual, economic, social, political, institutional, attitudinal, cultural and
ideological transformations.
References
Adei, S. (2004). Impact of Globalization on Management: The African Perspective. Management in
Nigeria- Published by Nigerian Institute of Management vol. 39/40
Aimiuwu, L. E. A. (2004). Globalization - The Human Resource Challenge. Management in Nigeria.
Nigeria Institute of Management. Vol. 39/40. October 2003-March 2004.
Ajakaiye, Olusanya, and Adeyeye, V. A. (2000). The Nature of Poverty in Nigeria. Ibadan: Nigerian
Institute of Social and Economic Research. Monograph Series. No. 13.
Hunt, E. K. and Sherman, H.J. (1975). An Introduction to Traditional and Radical Views. New York:
Harper & Row Publishers.
Khor, M. (2000). Globalization and the South: Some Critical Issues. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.
Kolodko, G. (2004). Globalization is Nigeria’s Key to World Economic Integration. This Day, July 29,
p.32 ( Nigeria ).
Nwosu, E.J. (2000). The Challenge of Poverty in Africa. Owerri: Skillmark Media Limited.
Olaide, S.O. and Esang, S.M. (1975). Aspects of Rural Poverty in Nigeria: Implication for Policy.
In NES Conference Proceedings. Poverty in Nigeria. Ibadan: Nigerian Economic Society.
Sen, A. (1981). Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
South Commission (1992). The Report of the South Commission. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
23
10. Developing Country Studies www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol 2, No.10, 2012
Stiglitz, J.E. (1996). Some Lessons from the East Asian Miracle. Research Observer. Vol. 11, No 2,
August. World Bank
Sundrum, R.M. (1983). Development Economics: A Framework for Analysis and Policy. New York: John
Wiley & Sons.
Todaro, M.P. and Smith S.C. (2009). Economic Development. London:Pearson Education Limited.
Todaro, M.P. (1979). Economics for a Developing World. London: Longman Group Limited.
UNCTAD. (2009). Trade and Development Report. Report of the Secretariat of the United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development. United Nations: New York and Geneva
UNDP. (2010). HDI Trend: 1980 – 2010. United Nations: New York and Geneva
UNDP. (2009a). Human Development Report. United Nations: New York and Geneva
UNDP. (2009b). Human Development Index Components. United Nations: New York and Geneva Wolf,
M. (2000). Why this Hatred of the Market? In Frank J. Lechner and John Boli ed., The Globalisation
Reader. Massachusetts. Blackwell Publishers Inc.
World Bank. (2010). The MDGs after the Crisis. Global Monitoring Report. World Bank: Washington,
D.C.
World Bank. (2005). Millennium Development Goals: From Consensus to Momentum. Global Monitoring
Report. World Bank: Washington, D.C.
World Bank. (2002). A Sourcebook for Poverty Reduction Strategies. Vol. 1. World Bank: Washington,
D.C.
World Bank. (2001). World Development Report. World Bank: Washington, D.C.
World Bank. (1996). World Development Report. World Bank: Washington, D.C.
World Bank. (1992). World Development Report. World Bank: Washington, D.C .
World Bank. (1983). Focus on Poverty. World Bank: Washington, D.C.
About the Authors
Dr. Matthew Eboreime received his educational training in Nigeria. He obtained his B.Sc (Hons.) degree in
Agricultural Economics from the University of Ibadan, Ibadan in 1987; M.Sc in Agricultural Economics from
the Rivers State University of Science & Technology, Port Harcourt in 1997; M.Sc in Economics (Development
Policy) from the University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt in 1999; and Ph.D in Economics from Imo State
University, Owerri in 2007.
Dr. David Umoru received his B.Sc (Hons.) degree in Economics & Statistics from the University of Benin,
Benin City in 2002. He also earned an M.Sc degree in Economics from the same University in 2006. Dr. Umoru
was given the African Economic Research Consortium (AERC) international doctoral scholarship – a
collaborative programme involving AERC in Nairobi Kenya, University of Ibadan, Ibadan and the University of
Benin, Benin City, Nigeria. He was awarded a Ph.D degree in Economics from the latter institution in 2012.
Dr. Eboreime and Dr. Umoru are currently members of academic staff in the Department of Economics, Banking
and Finance, Benson Idahosa University, Benin City, Nigeria.
24
11. Developing Country Studies www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol 2, No.10, 2012
Table 1. Per-Capita Income (U.S$)
Countries 1990 1999 Percentage change
(%)
Benin 360 380 6.0
Burkina Faso 330 240 -2.7
Cameroon 960 580 -40.0
Chad 190 200 5.0
Ghana 390 390 0
Kenya 370 360 -3.0%
Nigeria 290 310 7.0
France 19,490 23,480 20.0
Italy 16,830 19,710 17.0
Japan 25,430 32,230 27.0
United kingdom 16,100 22,640 41.0
U.S.A 21,790 30,600 40.0
Sources: (i) World Bank, 2001 (ii) World Bank, 1992.
Table 2. GDP Per Capita (PPP Equivalent)
Countries 1980 1990 2000 2007 Countries 1980 1990 2000 2007
Togo 1147 895 815 788 Guinea-Bissau 530 672 577 477
Malawi 800 654 746 761 Burundi 456 512 358 341
Cote d’Ivoire 2827 1982 1865 1690 Chad 819 1028 929 1477
Zambia 1615 1312 1090 1358 Congo (DR) 794 641 270 298
Eritrea - - 722 626 Central Afr Rep. 988 847 777 713
Gambia 1134 1128 1084 1225 Sierra Leone 823 712 403 679
Liberia 1910 520 469 362 Niger 980 717 601 627
Burkina Faso 696 757 949 1124 Japan 19,795 27,544 30,367 33632
Nigeria 1852 1550 1542 1969 United Kingdom 19256 24,588 30,394 35130
Source: UNDP (2009b)
25
13. Developing Country Studies www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol 2, No.10, 2012
Table 5. Mean Years of Schooling (adults aged 25 years and above)
Countries 1980 1990 2000 2010 Countries 1980 1990 2000 2010
Togo 1.718 3.002 4.374 5.266 Guinea-Bissau na na na 2.260
Malawi 1.754 2.507 3.034 4.261 Burundi 1.081 1.715 1.822 2.690
Cote d’Ivoire 1.312 2.091 2.744 3.307 Chad na na 1.509 1.509
Zambia 3.315 7.546 5.893 6.541 Congo (DR) 1.158 1.973 3.160 3.758
Eritrea na na na na Central Afr Rep. 1.011 2.042 2.828 3.534
Gambia 0.655 1.237 2.009 2.831 Sierra Leone 0.977 1.553 2.226 2.879
Liberia 1.483 2.425 3.236 3.934 Niger 0.459 0.678 1.084 1.439
Burkina Faso na na na 1.251 Japan 8.886 9.899 10.749 11.484
Nigeria na na na 4.960 United Kingdom 7.967 8.257 8.756 9.469
United States 10.812 12.260 13.218 12.445
Source: UNDP (2010)
27
14. This academic article was published by The International Institute for Science,
Technology and Education (IISTE). The IISTE is a pioneer in the Open Access
Publishing service based in the U.S. and Europe. The aim of the institute is
Accelerating Global Knowledge Sharing.
More information about the publisher can be found in the IISTE’s homepage:
http://www.iiste.org
CALL FOR PAPERS
The IISTE is currently hosting more than 30 peer-reviewed academic journals and
collaborating with academic institutions around the world. There’s no deadline for
submission. Prospective authors of IISTE journals can find the submission
instruction on the following page: http://www.iiste.org/Journals/
The IISTE editorial team promises to the review and publish all the qualified
submissions in a fast manner. All the journals articles are available online to the
readers all over the world without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than
those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. Printed version of the
journals is also available upon request of readers and authors.
IISTE Knowledge Sharing Partners
EBSCO, Index Copernicus, Ulrich's Periodicals Directory, JournalTOCS, PKP Open
Archives Harvester, Bielefeld Academic Search Engine, Elektronische
Zeitschriftenbibliothek EZB, Open J-Gate, OCLC WorldCat, Universe Digtial
Library , NewJour, Google Scholar