The document discusses how the Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR) has supported over 70 researchers who went on to win Nobel Prizes, making significant contributions in physics, chemistry, physiology/medicine, literature, peace, and economics. Specifically, it provides details on two physicists - Polykarp Kusch and Willis Lamb - who received the 1955 Nobel Prize in Physics for their work determining the magnetic moment of the electron and discoveries concerning the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum, respectively. Both had received AFOSR funding prior to their Nobel wins.
The document discusses the plasma membrane, including its structure, composition, and functions. It describes the plasma membrane as a selectively permeable lipid bilayer with embedded proteins that forms the outer boundary of cells. Key components include phospholipids, proteins, and cholesterol. The fluid mosaic model views the membrane as a fluid structure with lipids and integral/peripheral proteins. The membrane regulates transport via diffusion, osmosis, and carrier proteins, and helps maintain homeostasis.
WormLab is software that automatically detects and tracks worms in video sequences. It uses thresholding, geometric modeling, and multiple hypothesis tracking to detect worms despite background clutter and complex shapes. It measures metrics like length, speed, and bending and can track behaviors like reversals and omega bends. WormLab supports various video formats and export of tracking data and video overlays.
This document discusses ligand-receptor interactions, using estrogen receptor and estrogen as an example. It describes how ligands bind to specific receptors on target cells, inducing a conformational change and cellular response. It then details the domains of estrogen receptors, how estrogen binds and activates the receptors, and the role of the receptor domains in transcription. The discussion includes examples of covalent and non-covalent ligand-receptor interactions.
This document discusses methods for constructing phylogenetic trees including distance-based and character-based approaches. Distance-based methods include UPGMA, Neighbor-Joining (NJ), and Fitch-Margoliash (FM) which use genetic distances between sequences. Character-based methods include Maximum Parsimony (MP) which finds the tree requiring the fewest evolutionary changes, and Maximum Likelihood (ML) which calculates the probability of the observed sequence changes. NJ is the fastest method while ML is the slowest but uses all available sequence data. The appropriate method depends on factors like number of sequences and computational requirements.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the mid-19th century and discovered three laws of inheritance: the Law of Dominance, the Law of Segregation, and the Law of Independent Assortment. He found that when pea plants were cross-bred, dominant traits were expressed over recessive traits in the offspring (Law of Dominance). The traits separated into gametes independently (Law of Segregation) and assorted randomly (Law of Independent Assortment) when the offspring reproduced. Mendel is considered the father of modern genetics.
Introduction to Protein Families and DatabasesRohit Satyam
The presentation highlights the Protein Families concept, methods used to predict them, and some automated servers for annotation of Hypothetical Proteins
The document discusses the plasma membrane, including its structure, composition, and functions. It describes the plasma membrane as a selectively permeable lipid bilayer with embedded proteins that forms the outer boundary of cells. Key components include phospholipids, proteins, and cholesterol. The fluid mosaic model views the membrane as a fluid structure with lipids and integral/peripheral proteins. The membrane regulates transport via diffusion, osmosis, and carrier proteins, and helps maintain homeostasis.
WormLab is software that automatically detects and tracks worms in video sequences. It uses thresholding, geometric modeling, and multiple hypothesis tracking to detect worms despite background clutter and complex shapes. It measures metrics like length, speed, and bending and can track behaviors like reversals and omega bends. WormLab supports various video formats and export of tracking data and video overlays.
This document discusses ligand-receptor interactions, using estrogen receptor and estrogen as an example. It describes how ligands bind to specific receptors on target cells, inducing a conformational change and cellular response. It then details the domains of estrogen receptors, how estrogen binds and activates the receptors, and the role of the receptor domains in transcription. The discussion includes examples of covalent and non-covalent ligand-receptor interactions.
This document discusses methods for constructing phylogenetic trees including distance-based and character-based approaches. Distance-based methods include UPGMA, Neighbor-Joining (NJ), and Fitch-Margoliash (FM) which use genetic distances between sequences. Character-based methods include Maximum Parsimony (MP) which finds the tree requiring the fewest evolutionary changes, and Maximum Likelihood (ML) which calculates the probability of the observed sequence changes. NJ is the fastest method while ML is the slowest but uses all available sequence data. The appropriate method depends on factors like number of sequences and computational requirements.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the mid-19th century and discovered three laws of inheritance: the Law of Dominance, the Law of Segregation, and the Law of Independent Assortment. He found that when pea plants were cross-bred, dominant traits were expressed over recessive traits in the offspring (Law of Dominance). The traits separated into gametes independently (Law of Segregation) and assorted randomly (Law of Independent Assortment) when the offspring reproduced. Mendel is considered the father of modern genetics.
Introduction to Protein Families and DatabasesRohit Satyam
The presentation highlights the Protein Families concept, methods used to predict them, and some automated servers for annotation of Hypothetical Proteins
This lesson plan aims to teach students about leaf structure and phyllotaxy in plants. It will take 40-45 minutes and involve defining leaf parts, examining leaf specimens, and learning about the different types of phyllotaxy - alternate, opposite, and whorled. The lesson seeks to increase student awareness of typical leaf structure, the importance of leaf parts, and familiarity with how plant leaves are arranged. Students will participate in activities examining leaf samples and answering questions.
1) Secretory structures in plants include trichomes, glands, nectaries, and internal secretory cells and spaces that release substances like enzymes, hormones, nectar, oils, salts, and water.
2) Laticifers are secretory structures that form a milky latex composed of rubber, oils, resins, and other particles suspended in liquid that is released upon injury.
3) Laticifers originate from single cells or unions of cells and can be articulated, branched, or unbranched tubes that store and transport latex throughout the plant, helping to seal wounds and deter herbivores.
The document summarizes the organization and structure of DNA within chromosomes. It discusses how DNA is packaged at different levels, from winding around histones to form nucleosomes, to coiling to form the 30nm chromatin fiber and further condensing to form mitotic chromosomes. It also describes the centromeres and telomeres, which play important roles in chromosome segregation and stability. Chromosomal banding patterns allow distinguishing each chromosome.
Mechanism and factors affecting on Stomatal regulation Muhammad bilal
This document is a report submitted by 12 students to their professor in the Department of Botany at the University of Agriculture Faisalabad Sub Campus Burewala on March 15, 2019. The report discusses the mechanism and factors affecting stomatal regulation in plants, including how stomata open and close and what environmental conditions influence this process. The students thank their professor at the end of the report.
Photosynthesis (Light and Dark reaction of photosynthesis)Shekhar Tidke
Importance of photosynthesis. Light reaction of photosynthesis, Dark reaction of photosynthesis. Hill, and Blackman reaction or C3 cycle or Calvin Cycle
This document provides an overview of signal transduction mechanisms. It discusses various types of receptors including G protein-coupled receptors, receptor tyrosine kinases, integrins, toll-like receptors and ligand-gated ion channels. It describes how extracellular ligands bind to cell surface receptors and initiate intracellular signaling pathways such as the cAMP pathway and phosphatidylinositol pathway. Defects in these signaling pathways can lead to diseases. The document provides details on the mechanisms of G protein-coupled receptor signaling and downstream effects.
The document discusses different types of meristems in plants. It defines meristems as regions of actively dividing cells that form new tissue, usually found at growing tips. Meristems are classified based on development stage, origin, position in the plant body, and function. Apical meristems are located at the tips of shoots and roots. They consist of immature, dividing cells and correspond to the promeristem, the earliest stage of meristem development. Apical meristems are responsible for the primary growth of shoots and roots.
This document defines and describes various landforms including oceans, islands, valleys, mountains, caves, glaciers, streams, rivers, plains, and isthmus. It notes that oceans include the Pacific, Indian, and Southern Oceans. Islands are land surrounded by water, valleys are areas between hills, and mountains may form from volcanoes. Caves are formed from limestone and rock, and some glaciers contain caves. Streams flow like paths of water and rivers lead to the sea. Plains are very flat land, while an isthmus connects two land areas surrounded by water.
Dr. Tristan Nguyen presents an overview of his program, Sensing, Surveillance and Navigation, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
This document provides an overview of Jim Hwang's Adaptive Multimode Sensing portfolio at AFOSR. The portfolio focuses on three main areas: 1) adaptive multimode sensing with an emphasis on tunable detectors that can detect properties like polarization and phase in addition to intensity and color, 2) novel infrared sensors using quantum dots, nanowires, and other novel materials and structures with the main challenge being dark current, and 3) solar cells, thermoelectric coolers, and other areas that will be deemphasized to focus the reducing budget. Several research projects within these areas are briefly described that aim to shorten the time from sensing to action and avoid being overwhelmed by data.
Dr. Joycelyn S. Harrison presents an overview of her program, Low Density Materials, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
This document summarizes a workshop on InfoSymbiotic/DDDAS systems. It describes InfoSymbiotic/DDDAS as a paradigm that unifies computational models with real-time data acquisition and control. Recent technological advances have increased opportunities for this approach. The workshop brought together over 100 participants to discuss research opportunities in applications, algorithms, systems software, instrumentation, and cyberinfrastructure to advance the field. It calls for increased support for multidisciplinary InfoSymbiotic/DDDAS research to enable transformative impacts.
The document outlines a potential new Broad Agency Announcement (BAA) focused on "Energetic Processes in Gaseous Media". The objective is to identify, characterize, model, and exploit mechanisms of energy transfer in gases to enable innovations for the Air Force. Key areas of interest include nonequilibrium high-temperature flows, turbulence phenomena impacting jets and aerodynamics, and rate-dependent stability processes. Researchers are encouraged to submit white papers describing proposed efforts to advance the state-of-the-art for consideration to submit full proposals.
The Flow Interactions and Control portfolio funds basic research on the motion and control of laminar, transitional and turbulent shear flows and their interactions with rigid and flexible surfaces. This research seeks to advance the fundamental understanding of complex, time-dependent flow interactions through theoretical, numerical and experimental approaches. Areas of interest include aerodynamic interactions in internal and external flows across a wide range of Reynolds numbers, with applications such as fluid-structure interactions in biology and micro-air vehicles. The portfolio emphasizes characterization, modeling, prediction and control of flow instabilities, turbulent motions and fluid-structure interactions in bounded and free-shear flows. Researchers are encouraged to submit short white papers outlining proposed efforts before submitting full proposals.
Dr. Frederica Darema presents an overview of his program, Dynamic Data Driven Applications Systems (DDDAS), at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
Dr. Chiping Li presents an overview of his program, Energy Conversion and Combustion Sciences, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
This document provides an agenda for a 5-day conference hosted by the AFOSR Mathematics, Information and Life Sciences Directorate. The agenda lists daily schedules from 9am to 5pm, with topics such as complex networks, decision making, life sciences, and aerospace materials sciences presented by various AFOSR program managers. Dress codes are provided for both military and civilian attendees.
Dr. Hugh C. DeLong presents an overview of his program, Complex Materials and Devices, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
This document outlines research being conducted on aerospace materials for extreme environments. It discusses several projects focused on predictive materials science, materials far from equilibrium, and surface catalysis testing. Specific research includes modeling of bulk metallic glasses, carbides, and textile composites; experiments on micro-architectured surfaces and plasma erosion; and testing surface catalysis in materials using laser-induced fluorescence in an inductively coupled plasma torch facility. The goal is to provide fundamental knowledge to enable advances in Air Force technologies through new materials that can withstand extreme conditions.
Dr. Hugh C. DeLong presents an overview of his program, Natural Materials and Systems, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
This document summarizes B. L. Lee's portfolio as the program manager of the Mechanics of Multifunctional Materials and Microsystems program. The portfolio focuses on basic science to integrate emerging materials and micro-devices into future Air Force systems requiring multi-functional design. Key sub-areas include mechanics of materials, life prediction, sensing, multifunctional design, self-healing, thermal management, energy management, and actuation. The program supports research at universities and interacts with various Air Force research laboratories.
Dr. Harold Weinstock presents an overview of his program, Quantum Electronic Solids, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
This lesson plan aims to teach students about leaf structure and phyllotaxy in plants. It will take 40-45 minutes and involve defining leaf parts, examining leaf specimens, and learning about the different types of phyllotaxy - alternate, opposite, and whorled. The lesson seeks to increase student awareness of typical leaf structure, the importance of leaf parts, and familiarity with how plant leaves are arranged. Students will participate in activities examining leaf samples and answering questions.
1) Secretory structures in plants include trichomes, glands, nectaries, and internal secretory cells and spaces that release substances like enzymes, hormones, nectar, oils, salts, and water.
2) Laticifers are secretory structures that form a milky latex composed of rubber, oils, resins, and other particles suspended in liquid that is released upon injury.
3) Laticifers originate from single cells or unions of cells and can be articulated, branched, or unbranched tubes that store and transport latex throughout the plant, helping to seal wounds and deter herbivores.
The document summarizes the organization and structure of DNA within chromosomes. It discusses how DNA is packaged at different levels, from winding around histones to form nucleosomes, to coiling to form the 30nm chromatin fiber and further condensing to form mitotic chromosomes. It also describes the centromeres and telomeres, which play important roles in chromosome segregation and stability. Chromosomal banding patterns allow distinguishing each chromosome.
Mechanism and factors affecting on Stomatal regulation Muhammad bilal
This document is a report submitted by 12 students to their professor in the Department of Botany at the University of Agriculture Faisalabad Sub Campus Burewala on March 15, 2019. The report discusses the mechanism and factors affecting stomatal regulation in plants, including how stomata open and close and what environmental conditions influence this process. The students thank their professor at the end of the report.
Photosynthesis (Light and Dark reaction of photosynthesis)Shekhar Tidke
Importance of photosynthesis. Light reaction of photosynthesis, Dark reaction of photosynthesis. Hill, and Blackman reaction or C3 cycle or Calvin Cycle
This document provides an overview of signal transduction mechanisms. It discusses various types of receptors including G protein-coupled receptors, receptor tyrosine kinases, integrins, toll-like receptors and ligand-gated ion channels. It describes how extracellular ligands bind to cell surface receptors and initiate intracellular signaling pathways such as the cAMP pathway and phosphatidylinositol pathway. Defects in these signaling pathways can lead to diseases. The document provides details on the mechanisms of G protein-coupled receptor signaling and downstream effects.
The document discusses different types of meristems in plants. It defines meristems as regions of actively dividing cells that form new tissue, usually found at growing tips. Meristems are classified based on development stage, origin, position in the plant body, and function. Apical meristems are located at the tips of shoots and roots. They consist of immature, dividing cells and correspond to the promeristem, the earliest stage of meristem development. Apical meristems are responsible for the primary growth of shoots and roots.
This document defines and describes various landforms including oceans, islands, valleys, mountains, caves, glaciers, streams, rivers, plains, and isthmus. It notes that oceans include the Pacific, Indian, and Southern Oceans. Islands are land surrounded by water, valleys are areas between hills, and mountains may form from volcanoes. Caves are formed from limestone and rock, and some glaciers contain caves. Streams flow like paths of water and rivers lead to the sea. Plains are very flat land, while an isthmus connects two land areas surrounded by water.
Dr. Tristan Nguyen presents an overview of his program, Sensing, Surveillance and Navigation, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
This document provides an overview of Jim Hwang's Adaptive Multimode Sensing portfolio at AFOSR. The portfolio focuses on three main areas: 1) adaptive multimode sensing with an emphasis on tunable detectors that can detect properties like polarization and phase in addition to intensity and color, 2) novel infrared sensors using quantum dots, nanowires, and other novel materials and structures with the main challenge being dark current, and 3) solar cells, thermoelectric coolers, and other areas that will be deemphasized to focus the reducing budget. Several research projects within these areas are briefly described that aim to shorten the time from sensing to action and avoid being overwhelmed by data.
Dr. Joycelyn S. Harrison presents an overview of her program, Low Density Materials, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
This document summarizes a workshop on InfoSymbiotic/DDDAS systems. It describes InfoSymbiotic/DDDAS as a paradigm that unifies computational models with real-time data acquisition and control. Recent technological advances have increased opportunities for this approach. The workshop brought together over 100 participants to discuss research opportunities in applications, algorithms, systems software, instrumentation, and cyberinfrastructure to advance the field. It calls for increased support for multidisciplinary InfoSymbiotic/DDDAS research to enable transformative impacts.
The document outlines a potential new Broad Agency Announcement (BAA) focused on "Energetic Processes in Gaseous Media". The objective is to identify, characterize, model, and exploit mechanisms of energy transfer in gases to enable innovations for the Air Force. Key areas of interest include nonequilibrium high-temperature flows, turbulence phenomena impacting jets and aerodynamics, and rate-dependent stability processes. Researchers are encouraged to submit white papers describing proposed efforts to advance the state-of-the-art for consideration to submit full proposals.
The Flow Interactions and Control portfolio funds basic research on the motion and control of laminar, transitional and turbulent shear flows and their interactions with rigid and flexible surfaces. This research seeks to advance the fundamental understanding of complex, time-dependent flow interactions through theoretical, numerical and experimental approaches. Areas of interest include aerodynamic interactions in internal and external flows across a wide range of Reynolds numbers, with applications such as fluid-structure interactions in biology and micro-air vehicles. The portfolio emphasizes characterization, modeling, prediction and control of flow instabilities, turbulent motions and fluid-structure interactions in bounded and free-shear flows. Researchers are encouraged to submit short white papers outlining proposed efforts before submitting full proposals.
Dr. Frederica Darema presents an overview of his program, Dynamic Data Driven Applications Systems (DDDAS), at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
Dr. Chiping Li presents an overview of his program, Energy Conversion and Combustion Sciences, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
This document provides an agenda for a 5-day conference hosted by the AFOSR Mathematics, Information and Life Sciences Directorate. The agenda lists daily schedules from 9am to 5pm, with topics such as complex networks, decision making, life sciences, and aerospace materials sciences presented by various AFOSR program managers. Dress codes are provided for both military and civilian attendees.
Dr. Hugh C. DeLong presents an overview of his program, Complex Materials and Devices, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
This document outlines research being conducted on aerospace materials for extreme environments. It discusses several projects focused on predictive materials science, materials far from equilibrium, and surface catalysis testing. Specific research includes modeling of bulk metallic glasses, carbides, and textile composites; experiments on micro-architectured surfaces and plasma erosion; and testing surface catalysis in materials using laser-induced fluorescence in an inductively coupled plasma torch facility. The goal is to provide fundamental knowledge to enable advances in Air Force technologies through new materials that can withstand extreme conditions.
Dr. Hugh C. DeLong presents an overview of his program, Natural Materials and Systems, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
This document summarizes B. L. Lee's portfolio as the program manager of the Mechanics of Multifunctional Materials and Microsystems program. The portfolio focuses on basic science to integrate emerging materials and micro-devices into future Air Force systems requiring multi-functional design. Key sub-areas include mechanics of materials, life prediction, sensing, multifunctional design, self-healing, thermal management, energy management, and actuation. The program supports research at universities and interacts with various Air Force research laboratories.
Dr. Harold Weinstock presents an overview of his program, Quantum Electronic Solids, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
Dr. B.L. "Les" Lee presents an overview of his program, Mechanics of Multifunctional Materials and Microsystems, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
Dr. Michael Berman presents an overview of his program, Molecular Dynamics & Theoretical Chemistry, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
Dr. Jay Myung presents an overview of his program, Computational Cognition and Robust Decision Making, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
Dr. Gernot S. Pomrenke presents an overview of his program, Photonics and Optoelectronics, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
Dr. John D. Schmisseur presents an overview of his program, Energy, Power and Propulsion Sciences, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
This document provides information on numerous Nobel Prize laureates in Physiology or Medicine, Chemistry, and Peace from 1901 to 2003. It describes each laureate's prize-winning work and discovery, including their names, dates, and brief descriptions of their contributions to science. The document aims to showcase important scientific breakthroughs that have been recognized by the Nobel committee over more than a century of Nobel Prizes.
The document provides a timeline of important discoveries in physiology and medicine that were awarded the Nobel Prize, beginning with Emil von Behring receiving the first prize in 1901 for developing an antitoxin to treat diphtheria. It summarizes several seminal findings and the researchers recognized in subsequent decades for advances such as the discovery of insulin, the role of chromosomes in heredity, the structure of DNA, genetic control mechanisms, the genetic code, and monoclonal antibodies. Many pioneers in cellular and molecular biology are highlighted.
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1961 to 1970) – Part 7Edorium Journals
The presentation shows the Nobel Prize Winners in Physiology or Medicine from 1961 to 1970. This is a seventh part of series of presentation. We will publish one presentation every week showing Nobel Prize winners in Physiology or Medicine in one decade.
http://www.edoriumjournals.com/
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1941 to 1950) – Part 5Edorium Journals
The presentation shows the Nobel Prize Winners in Physiology or Medicine from 1941 to 1950. This is a fifth part of series of presentation. We will publish one presentation every week showing Noble Prize winners in Physiology or Medicine in one decade.
http://www.edoriumjournals.com/
The document lists Nobel prize winners from 2005 to 2010 across various categories like Physics, Chemistry, Medicine, Literature, Peace and Economics. Some key winners include:
- John C. Mather and George F. Smoot who won the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physics for their work on COBE which led to precise measurements of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation.
- Muhammad Yunus and Grameen Bank who won the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize for providing microcredit to help establish creditworthiness and financial self-sufficiency.
- Yoichiro Nambu, Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa who won the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics for the
The document summarizes the contributions of several pioneers of nuclear technology, including:
- Henri Becquerel discovered spontaneous radiation in 1896 and won the 1903 Nobel Prize along with the Curies. Marie Curie won two Nobel Prizes, discovering radium and polonium.
- Ernest Rutherford discovered alpha and beta rays in 1899 and the theory of radioactive decay with Soddy in 1901. He received the 1908 Nobel Prize.
- Niels Bohr published the theory combining nuclear theory with quantum theory in 1913.
- Einstein gave the theories of relativity and E=mc2, receiving the 1921 Nobel Prize for the photoelectric effect.
The document lists Nobel Prize winners from 1930 to 1939 across Physics, Chemistry, Medicine, and Literature. Some of the prizes were awarded for the discovery of quantum mechanics, the neutron, heavy hydrogen, blood groups, the organizer effect in embryonic development, and the antibacterial effects of prontosil. The document cites two websites as bibliographic sources for the information provided.
Physics began with early Greek philosophers like Aristotle and Ptolemy. Copernicus initiated the Copernican Revolution by proposing a heliocentric model of the solar system. Galileo and Newton further developed mechanics through experimentation and mathematical formulation. Later, scientists like Maxwell, Hertz and Marconi established electromagnetism as a fundamental force. Pioneers such as Planck, Einstein, Bohr and Heisenberg developed quantum theory and relativity, radically changing views of reality. Today, physicists seek a grand unified theory connecting all fundamental forces.
The document provides a history of discoveries related to radiation from 1789 to the mid-1900s. Some of the key events include the discovery of X-rays in 1895 by Wilhelm Röntgen, the discovery of radioactivity in uranium in 1896 by Henri Becquerel, and the development of the first atomic model by Niels Bohr in 1913. The document also discusses early uses of radiation in medicine as well as some of the first reported injuries from exposure to X-rays and radiation.
This document provides information on several chemists and their contributions:
1) Julian Banzon, a Filipino chemist, researched alternative fuels from sugarcane and coconut and invented a chemical process to extract residual coconut oil.
2) Francisco Santos, a Filipino agricultural chemist, studied the nutritive values and chemical composition of local Filipino foods.
3) Lourdes Cruz, a Filipino biochemist, documented the characterization of toxic peptides found in the venom of cone snails and helped develop them as probes for studying the human brain.
The document provides an overview of Western science history from the 17th to 20th centuries. It discusses key figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Newton who developed the scientific revolution and overturned the geocentric model of the universe. It then covers the development of mathematics, chemistry, and physics in the 18th-19th centuries by scientists such as Lavoisier, Faraday, Maxwell, Darwin, Mendel, and others. The document concludes with a discussion of major 20th century developments in fields like relativity, quantum mechanics, and the modern synthesis of biology, chemistry, and physics.
Physics is the study of matter, energy, forces, and their interaction, while chemistry studies the composition, structure, properties, and transformations of matter. Some notable women in physics and chemistry include Marie Curie, who was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize and the first person to win twice - for her research on radioactivity. Rosalind Franklin contributed critically to the understanding of DNA structure through her X-ray diffraction images of DNA. Jocelyn Bell Burnell discovered pulsars through her radio telescope research. Lise Meitner provided the physical explanation for nuclear fission and helped name the process.
Physics is the study of matter, energy and their interaction. It seeks to understand the fundamental mechanisms of other sciences. Chemistry studies the composition, structure and properties of matter and its transformations.
Marie Curie was a pioneering female scientist who was the first person to win two Nobel Prizes. Her research on radioactivity with her husband Pierre led to the discovery of polonium and radium. Rosalind Franklin's X-ray crystallography work provided critical evidence about the structure of DNA. Jocelyn Bell Burnell discovered pulsars while working on her PhD. Lise Meitner provided the physical explanation for nuclear fission, though she did not receive full credit.
The document summarizes the biographies and major contributions of 20 famous scientists from history. It describes scientists such as Albert Einstein, Alfred Nobel, Svante Arrhenius, Ernest Rutherford, Amedeo Avogadro, Otto Hahn, Robert Boyle, Michael Faraday, Werner Heisenberg, James Chadwick, Antoine Henri Becquerel, Linus Pauling, Henry Moseley, Joseph John Thomson, Marie Curie, Alessandro Volta, Antoine Lavoisier, Dmitri Mendeleev, Benjamin Thompson, and Erwin Schrödinger. Each entry highlights what they are known for and their impact on fields like physics, chemistry, and nuclear science
This document lists 75 scientists and their discoveries related to biology. Some of the key discoveries include:
- Carolus Linnaeus developed the system of binomial nomenclature for naming organisms and developed a two kingdom system of classification.
- Matthias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann together developed the cell theory which states that all living things are composed of cells.
- Gregor Mendel discovered the laws of inheritance and how traits are passed from parents to offspring through experiments with pea plants.
- James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the double helix structure of DNA.
- Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution by natural selection, proposing that species evolve over generations through natural selection of heritable traits
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1951 to 1960) – Part 6Edorium Journals
The presentation shows the Nobel Prize Winners in Physiology or Medicine from 1951 to 1960. This is a sixth part of series of presentation. We will publish one presentation every week showing Nobel Prize winners in Physiology or Medicine in one decade.
http://www.edoriumjournals.com/
Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine (1921 to 1930) - Part 3Edorium Journals
The presentation shows the Nobel Prize Winners in Physiology and Medicine from 1921 to 1930. This is a third part of series of presentation. We will publish one presentation every week showing Nobel Prize winners in Physiology and Medicine in one decade.
http://www.edoriumjournals.com/
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1931 to 1940) – Part 4Edorium Journals
The presentation shows the Nobel Prize Winners in Physiology or Medicine from 1931 to 1940. This is a fourth part of series of presentation. We will publish one presentation every week showing Noble Prize winners in Physiology or Medicine in one decade. http://www.edoriumjournals.com/
Nobel prize winners in physics and chemistry 2022.pptxHeyCharm
The document summarizes the 2022 Nobel Prizes in Chemistry and Physics. For Chemistry, Carolyn Bertozzi, Morten Meldal, and Barry Sharpless won for developing click chemistry and bioorthogonal reactions. For Physics, John Clauser, Alain Aspect, and Anton Zeilinger won for their experiments demonstrating quantum entanglement and violating Bell's inequalities through experiments using entangled photons. Their experiments helped establish quantum mechanics as a valid description of nature.
Similar to AFOSR-Supported Nobel Prize Laureates (20)
Dr. John D. Schmisseur presents an overview of his program, Aerothermodynamics & Turbulence, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
Dr. Mitat A. Birkan presents an overview of his program, Space Propulsion and Power, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
Dr. Patrick Bradshaw presents an overview of his program, Sensory Information Systems, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
Dr. Patrick Bradshaw presents an overview of his program, Human Performance and Biosystems, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
Dr. Charles Lee presents an overview of his program, Organic Materials Chemistry, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
Dr. Jim Hwang presents an overview of his program, GHz-THz Electronics, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
Dr. Tristen Nguyen, presents an overview of his program, Science of Information, Computation and Fusion, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
Dr. Joseph Lyons, PhD presents an overview of his program, Trust and Influence, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
Dr. Kathleen M. Kaplan presents an overview of his program, Systems and Software, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
Dr. Robert J. Bonneau presents an overview of his program, Complex Networks / Foundations of Information Systems, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
Dr. Robert Herklotz presents an overview of his program, Information Operations & Security, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
James Fillerup, PE, Director, presents an overview of his program, SOARD Research Portfolio, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
Dr. John W. Luginsland presents an overview of his program, Plasma and Electro-energetic Physics, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
Dr. Arje Nachman presents an overview of his program, Electromagnetics, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
Dr. Tatjana Curcic presents an overview of his program, Atomic and Molecular Physics Program, at the AFOSR 2013 Spring Review. At this review, Program Officers from AFOSR Technical Divisions will present briefings that highlight basic research programs beneficial to the Air Force.
This document provides an overview of the AFOSR Space Science portfolio presented by Dr. Kent Miller at the 2013 AFOSR Spring Review. The portfolio focuses on specifying and forecasting the geospace environment from the Sun to Earth's upper atmosphere for situational awareness and space control. It includes research areas of solar/heliospheric physics, magnetospheric physics, ionospheric/thermospheric physics. The Air Force has an interest in space weather due to effects on satellites from drag, radiation belts, and communications/navigation. Ongoing projects aim to improve predictions of solar activity, neutral densities, ionospheric irregularities, and the radiation belts. Challenges include developing a comprehensive "Sun to Earth"
More from The Air Force Office of Scientific Research (16)
Trusted Execution Environment for Decentralized Process MiningLucaBarbaro3
Presentation of the paper "Trusted Execution Environment for Decentralized Process Mining" given during the CAiSE 2024 Conference in Cyprus on June 7, 2024.
Skybuffer SAM4U tool for SAP license adoptionTatiana Kojar
Manage and optimize your license adoption and consumption with SAM4U, an SAP free customer software asset management tool.
SAM4U, an SAP complimentary software asset management tool for customers, delivers a detailed and well-structured overview of license inventory and usage with a user-friendly interface. We offer a hosted, cost-effective, and performance-optimized SAM4U setup in the Skybuffer Cloud environment. You retain ownership of the system and data, while we manage the ABAP 7.58 infrastructure, ensuring fixed Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) and exceptional services through the SAP Fiori interface.
Ocean lotus Threat actors project by John Sitima 2024 (1).pptxSitimaJohn
Ocean Lotus cyber threat actors represent a sophisticated, persistent, and politically motivated group that poses a significant risk to organizations and individuals in the Southeast Asian region. Their continuous evolution and adaptability underscore the need for robust cybersecurity measures and international cooperation to identify and mitigate the threats posed by such advanced persistent threat groups.
TrustArc Webinar - 2024 Global Privacy SurveyTrustArc
How does your privacy program stack up against your peers? What challenges are privacy teams tackling and prioritizing in 2024?
In the fifth annual Global Privacy Benchmarks Survey, we asked over 1,800 global privacy professionals and business executives to share their perspectives on the current state of privacy inside and outside of their organizations. This year’s report focused on emerging areas of importance for privacy and compliance professionals, including considerations and implications of Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies, building brand trust, and different approaches for achieving higher privacy competence scores.
See how organizational priorities and strategic approaches to data security and privacy are evolving around the globe.
This webinar will review:
- The top 10 privacy insights from the fifth annual Global Privacy Benchmarks Survey
- The top challenges for privacy leaders, practitioners, and organizations in 2024
- Key themes to consider in developing and maintaining your privacy program
Dive into the realm of operating systems (OS) with Pravash Chandra Das, a seasoned Digital Forensic Analyst, as your guide. 🚀 This comprehensive presentation illuminates the core concepts, types, and evolution of OS, essential for understanding modern computing landscapes.
Beginning with the foundational definition, Das clarifies the pivotal role of OS as system software orchestrating hardware resources, software applications, and user interactions. Through succinct descriptions, he delineates the diverse types of OS, from single-user, single-task environments like early MS-DOS iterations, to multi-user, multi-tasking systems exemplified by modern Linux distributions.
Crucial components like the kernel and shell are dissected, highlighting their indispensable functions in resource management and user interface interaction. Das elucidates how the kernel acts as the central nervous system, orchestrating process scheduling, memory allocation, and device management. Meanwhile, the shell serves as the gateway for user commands, bridging the gap between human input and machine execution. 💻
The narrative then shifts to a captivating exploration of prominent desktop OSs, Windows, macOS, and Linux. Windows, with its globally ubiquitous presence and user-friendly interface, emerges as a cornerstone in personal computing history. macOS, lauded for its sleek design and seamless integration with Apple's ecosystem, stands as a beacon of stability and creativity. Linux, an open-source marvel, offers unparalleled flexibility and security, revolutionizing the computing landscape. 🖥️
Moving to the realm of mobile devices, Das unravels the dominance of Android and iOS. Android's open-source ethos fosters a vibrant ecosystem of customization and innovation, while iOS boasts a seamless user experience and robust security infrastructure. Meanwhile, discontinued platforms like Symbian and Palm OS evoke nostalgia for their pioneering roles in the smartphone revolution.
The journey concludes with a reflection on the ever-evolving landscape of OS, underscored by the emergence of real-time operating systems (RTOS) and the persistent quest for innovation and efficiency. As technology continues to shape our world, understanding the foundations and evolution of operating systems remains paramount. Join Pravash Chandra Das on this illuminating journey through the heart of computing. 🌟
Skybuffer AI: Advanced Conversational and Generative AI Solution on SAP Busin...Tatiana Kojar
Skybuffer AI, built on the robust SAP Business Technology Platform (SAP BTP), is the latest and most advanced version of our AI development, reaffirming our commitment to delivering top-tier AI solutions. Skybuffer AI harnesses all the innovative capabilities of the SAP BTP in the AI domain, from Conversational AI to cutting-edge Generative AI and Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG). It also helps SAP customers safeguard their investments into SAP Conversational AI and ensure a seamless, one-click transition to SAP Business AI.
With Skybuffer AI, various AI models can be integrated into a single communication channel such as Microsoft Teams. This integration empowers business users with insights drawn from SAP backend systems, enterprise documents, and the expansive knowledge of Generative AI. And the best part of it is that it is all managed through our intuitive no-code Action Server interface, requiring no extensive coding knowledge and making the advanced AI accessible to more users.
HCL Notes und Domino Lizenzkostenreduzierung in der Welt von DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-und-domino-lizenzkostenreduzierung-in-der-welt-von-dlau/
DLAU und die Lizenzen nach dem CCB- und CCX-Modell sind für viele in der HCL-Community seit letztem Jahr ein heißes Thema. Als Notes- oder Domino-Kunde haben Sie vielleicht mit unerwartet hohen Benutzerzahlen und Lizenzgebühren zu kämpfen. Sie fragen sich vielleicht, wie diese neue Art der Lizenzierung funktioniert und welchen Nutzen sie Ihnen bringt. Vor allem wollen Sie sicherlich Ihr Budget einhalten und Kosten sparen, wo immer möglich. Das verstehen wir und wir möchten Ihnen dabei helfen!
Wir erklären Ihnen, wie Sie häufige Konfigurationsprobleme lösen können, die dazu führen können, dass mehr Benutzer gezählt werden als nötig, und wie Sie überflüssige oder ungenutzte Konten identifizieren und entfernen können, um Geld zu sparen. Es gibt auch einige Ansätze, die zu unnötigen Ausgaben führen können, z. B. wenn ein Personendokument anstelle eines Mail-Ins für geteilte Mailboxen verwendet wird. Wir zeigen Ihnen solche Fälle und deren Lösungen. Und natürlich erklären wir Ihnen das neue Lizenzmodell.
Nehmen Sie an diesem Webinar teil, bei dem HCL-Ambassador Marc Thomas und Gastredner Franz Walder Ihnen diese neue Welt näherbringen. Es vermittelt Ihnen die Tools und das Know-how, um den Überblick zu bewahren. Sie werden in der Lage sein, Ihre Kosten durch eine optimierte Domino-Konfiguration zu reduzieren und auch in Zukunft gering zu halten.
Diese Themen werden behandelt
- Reduzierung der Lizenzkosten durch Auffinden und Beheben von Fehlkonfigurationen und überflüssigen Konten
- Wie funktionieren CCB- und CCX-Lizenzen wirklich?
- Verstehen des DLAU-Tools und wie man es am besten nutzt
- Tipps für häufige Problembereiche, wie z. B. Team-Postfächer, Funktions-/Testbenutzer usw.
- Praxisbeispiele und Best Practices zum sofortigen Umsetzen
Ivanti’s Patch Tuesday breakdown goes beyond patching your applications and brings you the intelligence and guidance needed to prioritize where to focus your attention first. Catch early analysis on our Ivanti blog, then join industry expert Chris Goettl for the Patch Tuesday Webinar Event. There we’ll do a deep dive into each of the bulletins and give guidance on the risks associated with the newly-identified vulnerabilities.
Building Production Ready Search Pipelines with Spark and MilvusZilliz
Spark is the widely used ETL tool for processing, indexing and ingesting data to serving stack for search. Milvus is the production-ready open-source vector database. In this talk we will show how to use Spark to process unstructured data to extract vector representations, and push the vectors to Milvus vector database for search serving.
Digital Marketing Trends in 2024 | Guide for Staying AheadWask
https://www.wask.co/ebooks/digital-marketing-trends-in-2024
Feeling lost in the digital marketing whirlwind of 2024? Technology is changing, consumer habits are evolving, and staying ahead of the curve feels like a never-ending pursuit. This e-book is your compass. Dive into actionable insights to handle the complexities of modern marketing. From hyper-personalization to the power of user-generated content, learn how to build long-term relationships with your audience and unlock the secrets to success in the ever-shifting digital landscape.
Programming Foundation Models with DSPy - Meetup SlidesZilliz
Prompting language models is hard, while programming language models is easy. In this talk, I will discuss the state-of-the-art framework DSPy for programming foundation models with its powerful optimizers and runtime constraint system.
HCL Notes and Domino License Cost Reduction in the World of DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-and-domino-license-cost-reduction-in-the-world-of-dlau/
The introduction of DLAU and the CCB & CCX licensing model caused quite a stir in the HCL community. As a Notes and Domino customer, you may have faced challenges with unexpected user counts and license costs. You probably have questions on how this new licensing approach works and how to benefit from it. Most importantly, you likely have budget constraints and want to save money where possible. Don’t worry, we can help with all of this!
We’ll show you how to fix common misconfigurations that cause higher-than-expected user counts, and how to identify accounts which you can deactivate to save money. There are also frequent patterns that can cause unnecessary cost, like using a person document instead of a mail-in for shared mailboxes. We’ll provide examples and solutions for those as well. And naturally we’ll explain the new licensing model.
Join HCL Ambassador Marc Thomas in this webinar with a special guest appearance from Franz Walder. It will give you the tools and know-how to stay on top of what is going on with Domino licensing. You will be able lower your cost through an optimized configuration and keep it low going forward.
These topics will be covered
- Reducing license cost by finding and fixing misconfigurations and superfluous accounts
- How do CCB and CCX licenses really work?
- Understanding the DLAU tool and how to best utilize it
- Tips for common problem areas, like team mailboxes, functional/test users, etc
- Practical examples and best practices to implement right away
Nunit vs XUnit vs MSTest Differences Between These Unit Testing Frameworks.pdfflufftailshop
When it comes to unit testing in the .NET ecosystem, developers have a wide range of options available. Among the most popular choices are NUnit, XUnit, and MSTest. These unit testing frameworks provide essential tools and features to help ensure the quality and reliability of code. However, understanding the differences between these frameworks is crucial for selecting the most suitable one for your projects.
System Design Case Study: Building a Scalable E-Commerce Platform - Hiike
AFOSR-Supported Nobel Prize Laureates
1. AFOSR-Supported Nobel Prize Laureates
The Air Force Office of Scientific Research has created a strong legacy of
Nobel Prize winning research.
One of the most highly coveted and recognized awards, the Nobel Prize
recognizes those who contribute significant achievements in the areas of
physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, peace, and economic
sciences (the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of
Alfred Nobel). The Nobel Foundation was established in 1900, and in 1901 the
Nobel Prize became the first international award to be given on an annual basis.
Established as outlined in his last will and testament, Dr. Alfred Nobel stated,
“…the whole of my remaining realizable estate shall be dealt with in the following
way…annually distributed in the form of prizes to those who, during the
preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit to mankind.” For over
one hundred years, Nobel laureates in the fields of physics, chemistry,
economics and physiology or medicine have been the recognized leaders in their
respective fields, accomplishing research at the very edge of the frontiers of
science.
Since its establishment in 1951, the Air Force Office of Scientific Research
(AFOSR) has sponsored 70 researchers who went on to become Nobel
laureates. On average, these laureates received AFOSR funding 16 years prior
to winning their Nobel awards. The accomplishments of these laureates
demonstrate the astute ability of AFOSR program managers to choose world-
class researchers to address Air Force requirements and advance Air Force
programs. The following descriptions of the work performed by AFOSR-funded
Nobel recipients recognize the remarkable scientific achievements that have
contributed to the significant United States Air Force advantage on the battlefield.
AFOSR has funded 35 laureates in Physics, 24 in Chemistry, eight in Physiology
or Medicine, and three in Economics.*
________________________________________________________________
*Select quotes in the following descriptions of respective Nobel Laureate accomplishments are
from: "All Nobel Prizes". Nobelprize.org. 28 Jun 2010 http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/lists/all.
1
2. AFOSR-Supported Nobel Prize Laureates
Award AFOSR Award Name
Year Support Began Type
1. 1955 1954 Physics Polykarp Kusch
2. 1955 1954 Physics Willis E. Lamb
3. 1956 1953 Physics John Bardeen*
4. 1960 1952 Chemistry Willard Libby
5. 1961 1953 Physics Robert Hofstadter
6. 1963 1958 Physics Eugene P. Wigner
7. 1964 1953 Physics Charles H. Townes
8. 1966 1952 Chemistry Robert S. Mulliken
9. 1967 1953 Physics Hans Albrecht Bethe
10. 1967 1959 Medicine Ragnar Granit
11. 1967 1962 Chemistry George Porter
12. 1968 1966 Chemistry Lars Onsager
13. 1969 1958 Physics Murray Gell-Mann
14. 1970 1959 Medicine Ulf Von Euler
15. 1972 1953 Physics John Bardeen*
16. 1972 1959 Physics John R. Schrieffer
17. 1973 1961 Medicine Nikolaas Tinbergen
18. 1973 1968 Physics Brian D. Josephson
19. 1974 1961 Chemistry Paul J. Flory
20. 1976 1959 Chemistry William N. Lipscomb
21. 1977 1968 Physics Philip W. Anderson
22. 1977 1964 Physics John H. Van Vleck
23. 1977 1954 Chemistry Ilya Prigogine
24. 1978 1962 Economics Herbert A. Simon
25. 1979 1958 Physics Sheldon L. Glashow
26. 1979 1962 Physics Abdus Salam
27. 1979 1958 Physics Steven Weinberg
28. 1980 1959 Chemistry Walter Gilbert
29. 1981 1975 Physics Nicolaas Bloembergen
30. 1981 1956 Physics Kai M. Siegbahn
31. 1981 1981 Physics Arthur Schawlow
32. 1981 1959 Phys/Med David H. Hubel
33. 1981 1959 Phys/Med Thorsten N. Wiesel
34. 1981 1962 Chemistry Kenichi Fukui
35. 1981 1980 Chemistry Roald Hoffman
2
3. Award AFOSR Award Name
Year Support Began Type
36. 1983 1961 Physics S. Chandrasekhar
37. 1983 1961 Physics William A. Fowler
38. 1986 1981 Chemistry John C. Polanyi
39. 1986 1979 Chemistry Dudley R. Herschbach
40. 1986 1971 Chemistry Yuan T. Lee
41. 1987 1962 Chemistry Donald J. Cram
42. 1988 1970 Physics Melvin Schwartz
43. 1990 1968 Chemistry Elias J. Corey
44. 1990 1961 Physics Jerome I. Friedman
45. 1990 1961 Physics Henry W. Kendall
46. 1992 1962 Chemistry Rudolph A. Marcus
47. 1995 1995 Chemistry Mario Molina
48. 1996 1972 Chemistry Richard E. Smalley
49. 1997 1988 Physics Steven Chu
50. 1998 1985 Physics Daniel C. Tsui
51. 1999 1986 Chemistry Ahmed Zewail
52. 2000 1988 Chemistry Alan J. Heeger
53. 2000 1970 Chemistry Alan G. MacDiarmid
54. 2000 1958 Physics Jack S. Kilby
55 2000 1995 Physics Herbert Kroemer
56. 2000 1984 Medicine Paul Greengard
57. 2000 1963 Medicine Eric R. Kandel
58. 2001 1990 Physics Wolfgang Ketterle
59. 2002 1975 Chemistry John B. Fenn
60. 2002 1977 Economics Daniel Kahneman
61. 2003 1956 Medicine Paul C. Lauterbur
62. 2005 1990 Physics Theodor W. Hansch
63. 2005 1991 Physics John L. Hall
64. 2005 1962 Physics Roy J. Glauber
65. 2005 1987 Chemistry Robert H. Grubbs
66. 2005 1960 Economics Thomas C. Schelling
67. 2006 1985 Physics George F. Smoot
68. 2008 1965 Physics Yoichiro Nambu
69. 2010 2008 Physics Andre Geim
70. 2010 2008` Physics Konstantin Novoselov
71. 2011 1999 Chemistry Daniel Shechtman
*Note: John Bardeen awarded Physics Nobel in 1956 and 1972. (Current: August 2011)
3
4. Polykarp Kusch (Columbia University, New York, NY)
Willis Lamb (Stanford University, Stanford, CA)
PHYSICS: 1955
In the area of Physics, many breakthroughs have occurred with the aid of
AFOSR funding. In 1955, Kusch and Lamb shared the prize for "precision
determination of the magnetic moment of the electron" and "discoveries
concerning the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum," respectively.
Prior to his laureate, Kusch studied the effects of magnetic fields on
beams of atoms with Nobel Laureate Dr. Isidor Rabi, who had a profound
influence on Kusch's research. Through diligence and effort, Kusch
demonstrated that magnetic properties of electrons were not consistent with
existing theories. He accurately measured the magnetic moment of the electron
and its behavior in hydrogen and numerous atomic, molecular, and nuclear
properties by radio-frequency beam techniques.
Lamb joined the faculty of Colombia University in 1938, and worked in the
radiation laboratory alongside Kusch. In 1947, Lamb applied new techniques to
measuring the hyperfine structure of lines appearing in the spectrum of light and
found their positions to be slightly different from theoretical predictions. He later
devised microwave techniques for examining the spectral lines of helium. The
varied scope of Lamb's research ranged from such diverse areas as the
fluctuation in cosmic ray showers and order-disorder problems, to the ejection of
electrons by metastable atoms.
The research by these two winners resulted in the development of
techniques for microwave interaction with atoms and atomic beams, now used in
many technological applications.
One important application to the Air Force and within the civilian economy
is the cesium beam atomic clock, an essential part of the Global Positioning
System (GPS). Without the incredibly accurate time-keeping capabilities of
atomic clocks, the GPS would not be possible.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1954
4
5. John Bardeen (University of Illinois, Urbana, IL)
PHYSICS: 1956
Dr. John Bardeen was the first scientist to win two Nobel prizes in the
same category. He won his first Nobel physics prize in 1956 for "co-invention of
the transistor," a tiny electronic device capable of performing most of the
functions of a vacuum tube. In 1972, he shared the prize with two others for their
"theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory," an
abbreviation formed by the first letter of each of the winner's surnames.
While Bardeen developed the transistor at Bell Labs in the late 1940s, it
was in 1953 that AFOSR funded Bardeen and others in the refinement of
integrated circuit technology for Air Force applications Air Force systems in use
today would be far more bulky, heavier and antiquated if not for Bardeen's
discovery.
Dr. Bardeen's second award was for the "development of a theory to
explain superconductivity," the disappearance of electrical resistance in certain
metals and alloys at temperatures near absolute zero. His work has benefited
the medical field with applications to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and the
electronic field with the development of sensors, transducers, magnets and
particle accelerators.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1953
5
6. Willard Libby (University of California, Los Angeles)
CHEMISTRY: 1960
Willard F. Libby won the 1960 Nobel Chemistry Prize for his "method to
use carbon-14 for age determination in archaeology, genealogy,
geophysics, and other branches of science."
Libby studied radioactive isotope carbon-14 since its discovery in 1941and
is best known for his radiocarbon dating techniques. He first showed that C-14 is
present in small amounts of C02 in our atmosphere and is absorbed by all life
forms in regular amounts up to a point, after which no more is taken in. Using this
knowledge, Libby postulated, together with the known half-life rate of 5730 years
and the calculated amount of the isotope present in the object, one could
calculate an approximate age for ancient materials. In 1947, Libby and his
students at the Institute for Nuclear Studies developed the method of C14 dating
using a highly sensitive Geiger counter. Since C14 decays at a measurable rate
upon the death of an organism, Libby was able to determine the age of organic
artifacts by measuring the amount of remaining C14. The tests proved reliable for
objects up to 70,000 years.
Mr. Libby's dating technique is extremely valuable to earth scientists,
anthropologists and especially archaeologists, virtually eliminating the educated
guesses about the ages of various artifacts based on evidence found at the site.
Now that samples from around the world can be tested, a new chronology has
emerged that knits together archaeological findings from around the world. His
Nobel Prize citation read: "Seldom has such a single discovery in chemistry had
such an impact on the thinking of so many fields of human endeavor. Seldom
has a single discovery generated such wide public interest."
AFOSR funding for Libby covered a wide range of requirements:
radioactive isotopes, optical transparency, high-pressure chemistry, electron
tunneling, pollution control catalysts, and industrial chemistry in space were but a
few of Libby's research efforts.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1954
6
7. Robert Hofstadter (Stanford University, Stanford, CA)
PHYSICS: 1961
Robert Hofstadter won the 1961 Physics Nobel for his "pioneering
studies of electron scattering in atomic nuclei and for his thereby achieved
discoveries concerning the structure of the nucleons."
Hofstadter used a linear electron accelerator to measure and explore the
constituents of atomic nuclei. At the time, protons, neutrons, and electrons were
all thought to be particles without structure; but Hofstadter discovered that
protons and neutrons have a definite size and form. He was able to determine
the precise size of the proton and neutron and provide the first reasonably
consistent picture of the structure of the atomic nucleus. He also made
substantial contributions to gamma ray spectroscopy, leading to the use of
radioactive tracers to locate tumors and other disorders. During World War II he
worked as a physicist at the National Bureau of Standards, where he helped
develop the proximity fuse, an antiaircraft weapon.
His work on X-Ray detection in semiconductors and scintillators
contributed to US strategic systems in two ways. Semiconductor and scintillation
detectors are used in flash x-ray machine work that is part of nuclear hardening
of strategic systems including Peacekeeper Missile and Minuteman. They are
also used in circuitry that protects on-board computer systems in such missiles
from disruption by nuclear radiation.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1953
7
8. Eugene Wigner (Princeton University, Princeton, NJ)
PHYSICS: 1963
Noble Laureate in 1963 for Physics, Dr. Eugene Wigner received his prize
for his "contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the
elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of
fundamental symmetry principles."
Wigner's work helped to disclose the structure of the atomic nucleus and
extended quantum mechanics theory relations to the nature of the proton and
neutron.
In 1939, Wigner was one of five scientists who informed President
Franklin D. Roosevelt about the possible military use of atomic energy.
Known as the "Father of Nuclear Engineering," Wigner's work contributed
to the development of the atomic bomb and the design of commercial nuclear
reactors. He designed the first fast neutron breeder reactor.
Under AFOSR contract, Wigner explored a wide range of topics. He
discussed the usefulness of mathematics as a tool for the formation of the laws
of physics; explored various aspects of the future of nuclear energy; and also
reviewed the standard theory of measurements in quantum mechanics.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1958
8
9. Charles Townes (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA)
PHYSICS: 1964
Beginning in 1953, AFOSR helped to sponsor the research of Dr. Charles
Townes, who went on to win the 1964 prize in Physics for his "fundamental
work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction
of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle."
Townes is credited for inventing the maser, a device that amplifies
electromagnetic waves. This technology provided the means for sensitive
reception of communications and for precise navigation. The maser also
provided the basis for its successor, the laser. AFOSR helped to fund the early
maser and follow-on laser work of Dr. Townes. The result of this revolutionary
research transformed communications, navigation, astronomy, radar, atomic
clocks, surgery and many industrial applications. His discoveries have had wide-
ranging impact not only on the Air Force, but our entire society.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1953
9
10. Robert Mulliken (University of Chicago, Chicago, IL)
CHEMISTRY: 1966
Winning the Noble prize in Chemistry in 1966, Dr. Robert Mulliken's
research was recognized for "fundamental work concerning chemical bonds
and the electronic structure of molecules by the molecular orbital method."
His early work concentrated on isotopes and on diatomic band spectra,
followed by theoretical work to systematize the electronic state of molecules.
Later work by Dr. Mulliken involved extensive research of the structure and
spectra of molecular complexes and also extending and progressing the
structure and spectra of hydrogen, helium, nitrogen and other small molecules.
A pioneer, Mulliken significantly contributed to the development of
methods now used in computational chemistry. His work led to the advancement
of computer codes with real predictive capabilities that are now used widely
throughout the Department of Defense.
Mulliken's relationship with AFOSR dates back to 1952 and ensuing years,
when Mulliken's research group obtained computationally practicable
expressions for two-center integrals and went on to simplify the time consuming
effort of programming the formulas for molecular integrals.
The methods developed by Mulliken enable calculations of many
molecular properties to guide the process of synthesizing new compounds, such
as fuels and propellants, and are also used to develop sensors that can help with
the defense against chemical and biological attacks.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1952
10
11. Hans Bethe (Cornell University, Ithaca, NY)
PHYSICS: 1967
Hans Bethe received the Nobel prize in Physics in 1967 for his
"contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions, especially his discoveries
concerning the energy production in stars."
Bethe suggested that the production of energy by the sun and other stars
occurs through thermonuclear fusion, a series of nuclear reactions by which
hydrogen is converted into helium.
Bethe provided great insight into the fundamentals of heavy ions and their
interaction with matter. His work led directly to a capability to accurately predict
energy deposition of heavy ions in any kind of material.
With the advent of Air Force space satellites and the discovery of the
intense radiation belts surrounding the earth, radiation vulnerability of these
satellites became a serious problem for the Air Force. Dr Bethe's work applies
directly to the interactions of these radiations and his prize-winning work is used
to assess survivability from radiation for every Air Force satellite in orbit today.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1953
11
12. Ragnar Granit (The Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden)
PHYSIOLOGY/MEDICINE: 1967
Ragnar Granit was co-winner of the Nobel prize for Physiology and
Medicine in 1967 for his "discoveries concerning the primary physiological
and chemical visual processes in the eye."
As a neurophysiologist, Dr. Granit studied nerve impulses to understand
how the eye works with the brain to create vision. Granit worked on a method to
use microscopic electrodes to measure the stimuli of the optic nerves of the
retina, the part of the eye that sends the image gathered by the lens to the brain.
He realized that when light is received by the retina the light has both an
excitatory and inhibitory effect on the optic nerves and that this combination of
effects creates contrast in the image received by the brain. In 1933 he helped to
develop the electroretinogram (ERG), a device used to measure the activity of
the retina. He used it for vision research in general, but especially for color vision
research.
In the mid-1940s, Granit turned his attention to the study of the length and
tension meters in the muscles known as muscle spindles and tendon organs.
Granit's work in this area did much to explain the physiology of muscle control
and excitation. Granit co-authored two reports in this field under AFOSR
auspices.
Dr. Granit's research on the electrical properties of neurons led to
discoveries relating to the electrical signals of brain nerve cells. Those findings
were used to assess cognitive workloads under a variety of conditions that affect
an individual's performance. In addition, engineers are using his methods for
determining functional properties for networks of nerve cells to develop more
effective designs for analog computers and non-linear dynamic control systems.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1958
12
13. George Porter (Royal Institution of Great Britain, London, England)
CHEMISTRY: 1967
George Porter shared the 1967 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for studies of
extremely fast chemical reactions, effected by disturbing the equilibrium by
means of very short pulses of energy."
As Porter observed, one of the principal activities of a scientist was
extending the very limited senses of man, enabling him to observe phenomena
beyond his normal experience. Microscopes and microbalances allow the
observation of things which man cannot perceive through his own senses. In the
dimension of time, man's perception is limited to about one-twentieth of a
second, the response time of the eye. However, most fundamental chemical
reactions occur in the range of milliseconds or less, making it necessary to
observe reactions in microtime. It was in the field of making these observations
and interpreting the resulting data that Porter made lasting contributions to
science by the method of flash photolysis. Employing this process, Porter was
able to yield information concerning the mechanism and kinetics of the
photochemical reactions that occurred.
Porter's early relationship with the U.S. Air Force concerned research on
low-level excitation and energy transfer of gases. His later work with AFOSR
dealt with energy storage and transfer on the molecular level to provide
understanding of processes related to Air Force needs in solar energy
conversion devices, photographic imaging, flash blindness protection, and
radiation damage control in biological systems.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1962
13
14. Lars Onsager (Yale University, New haven, CT)
CHEMISTRY: 1968
Lars Onsager won the 1968 Nobel Chemistry prize "for the discovery of
the reciprocal relations bearing his name, which are fundamental for the
thermodynamics of irreversible processes."
One could have expected that the importance of his "reciprocal relations in
irreversible processes" would have been immediately obvious to the scientific
community. Instead it turned out that Onsager was far ahead of his time. After
publication it attracted almost no attention for more than a third of a century. It
was only after WWII that the concept became more widely known and eventually
played a dominant role in the rapid development of irreversible thermodynamics,
with numerous applications not only in physics and chemistry but also in biology
and technology. The great importance of irreversible thermodynamics becomes
apparent if we realize that almost all common processes are irreversible and
cannot by themselves go backwards. Examples are conduction of heat from a
hot to a cold body and mixing or diffusion. When a cold lump of sugar is
dissolved in a cup of hot tea these processes take place simultaneously.
Onsager's great contribution was that he could prove that if the equations
governing the flows are written in an appropriate form, then there exist certain
simple connections between the coefficients in these equations. These
connections - the reciprocal relations - make possible a complete theoretical
description of irreversible processes. Earlier attempts to treat such processes by
means of classical thermodynamics gave little success.
Onsager's research for AFOSR dealt with low-temperature physics.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1966
14
15. Murray Gell-Mann (California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA)
PHYSICS: 1969
Murray Gell-Mann won the Nobel prize in 1969 for his "contributions
and discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and
their interactions."
As a theoretical physicist Gell-Mann is known for his classification of
subatomic particles and his proposal for the existence of quarks. His research in
particle physics concerned the interactions between protons and neutrons. On
the basis of a proposed property called "strangeness," conserved by particles
involved in strong and electromagnetic interactions, Gell-Mann grouped related
particles into multiplets, or families. In 1963 he and a colleague George Zweig
advanced the "quark" theory. They hypothesized that quarks, particles carrying
fractional electric charges, are the smallest particles of matter. Dr Gell-Mann's
"eightfold way" theory brought order to the chaos created by the discovery of
some 100 particles in the atom's nucleus. He found that all of these particles,
including the neutron and proton, are composed of fundamental building blocks-
quarks-that are permanently confined by forces coming from the exchange of
"gluons." He called the quantum field theory of quarks and gluons, "quantum
chromodynamics," which seems to account for all the nuclear particles and their
strong interactions.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1958
15
16. Ulf von Euler (The Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden)
PHYSIOLOGY/MEDICINE: 1970
Armed, in part, with funding from AFOSR, Dr. Ulf von Euler made
important discoveries in the areas of physiology and medicine. He shared the
Nobel Prize with two others in 1970 for "discoveries concerning the humoral
transmitters in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage,
release and inactivation."
Von Euler is credited for discovering that neural transmitters are stored
and released from nerve cell granules, which controls the body's response to
stress or exertion. His findings stimulated a tremendous amount of research
regarding the affect neurochemical influences have on the brain, heart and other
body systems. The subsequent work produced major advances in the way those
with mental illness, heart disease and other neurogenic conditions are treated.
Dr. von Euler's work is used by the Air Force to learn more about a
person's neural control as they go about their normal daily routine as well as
during periods of sleep. This research is used to help determine the effectiveness
of an individual during sustained operations.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1960
16
17. John Bardeen (University of Illinois, Urbana, IL)
John R. Schrieffer (University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA)
PHYSICS: 1972
Dr. John Bardeen was the first scientist to win two Nobel prizes in the
same category -- Physics. He won his first prize in 1956 for "co-invention of the
transistor," a tiny electronic device capable of performing most of the functions
of a vacuum tube. In 1972, he shared the prize with John R. Schrieffer and Leon
N. Cooper for their jointly developed "theory of superconductivity, usually
called the BCS-theory," an abbreviation formed by the first letter of each of the
winner's surnames.
While Bardeen developed the transistor at Bell Labs in the late 1940s, it
was in 1953 that AFOSR funded Bardeen and others in the refinement of
integrated circuit technology for Air Force applications. Air Force systems in use
today would be far more bulky, heavier and antiquated if not for Bardeen's
discovery.
Dr. Bardeen's second award was for the "development of a theory to
explain superconductivity," the disappearance of electrical resistance in certain
metals and alloys at temperatures near absolute zero. Bardeen, Cooper and
Schrieffer’s groundbreaking work has been the basis for follow on successes
regarding quantum mechanical tunnel phenomena to study superconductors, the
discovery of magnetic flux quantization and Josephson junction effects. Dr’s
Bardeen and Schrieffer first received AFOSR funding in the 1950s, resulting in
seminal research reports on superconductivity in the following years. Their BCS
theory has benefited a broad range of basic scientific research with applications
to national defense, commercial, industrial production processes, as well as the
medical field with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and most significantly in
the electronic arena with the development of sensors, transducers, magnets and
particle accelerators.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1953 (Bardeen); 1959 (Schrieffer)
17
18. Nikolass Tinbergen (University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom)
PHYSIOLOGY/MEDICINE: 1973
Dr. Nikolaas Tinbergen shared the Nobel prize for Physiology & Medicine
with two others in 1973 for their "discoveries concerning organization and
elicitation of individual and social behavior pattems." It was the first time the
Nobel Committee recognized research in sociobiology or ethology.
As a zoologist, Dr Tinbergen's experimental work demonstrated how
complex patterns of animal behavior depended on both slowly changing inherited
behavioral patterns and more rapid-paced changes due to learning. His findings
stimulated considerable scientific work in such diverse fields as animal
communication and human language learning, mate selection, evolutionary
theory and, most important to the Air Force, theories of cooperative behavior.
These theories help explain and predict ways that large numbers of simple
systems can produce very complex goal-directed behaviors with minimal
communication between them.
The path of Tinbergen's work passed through cybernetics in the 1960s,
learning automata in the 1970s, neural networks and "animats" in the 1980s, to
modern control theory. The rules that determine properties of cooperating
microsatellites, micro-air vehicles, and ground-based "nano-bots" may be found
to share much in common with the rules that determine goal-seeking behaviors
found in ant colonies.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1961
18
19. Brian Josephson (Cambridge University, Cambridge, United Kngdom)
PHYSICS: 1973
Nobel Laureate in Physics, Dr. Brian Josephson, won the 1973 prize for
his "theoretical predictions of the properties of a supercurrent through a
tunnel barrier, in particular those phenomena that are generally known as
the Josephson effects."
He invented a superconductivity device that bears his name - the
Josephson Junction - which is used in digital electronic applications. This device
provides the basis for the world's most sensitive magnetometers and the fastest,
lowest power electronic switching elements.
Josephson was responsible for developing the theory now known
universally as the Josephson effects in superconductors, which is used to make
the world's fastest, high-resolution electronic circuitry, currently used in Air Force
electronic countermeasures systems, and many other applications.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1968
19
20. Paul Flory (Stanford University, Stanford, CA)
CHEMISTRY: 1974
Dr. Paul John Flory, won the Nobel prize for Chemistry in 1974 for his
"fundamental achievements, both theoretical and experimental, in the
physical chemistry of the macromolecules."
Dr. Flory's first research focused mostly on photochemistry and
spectroscopy, which enables scientists to determine the composition of
molecules by analyzing the light they emit when heated. Later, Flory began
researching the physical chemistry of polymers. He studied their properties in
solution and in bulk and his research revealed the connections between the
chemical structures of the individual polymer molecules and their physical
properties. Considered by many to be the "founder of polymer science," Flory's
work with nylon and synthetic rubber proved to be of great commercial
importance.
Dr. Flory developed the framework to understand the physics and
viscoelasticity behavior of polymers. This framework led to the development of
advanced resins used in organic-matrix, carbon-fiber reinforced composites
currently used in the wings and fuselages of many Air Force aircraft, including
the F-16, B-2, F-22 and Joint Strike Fighter (JSF).
AFOSR Funding Began: 1961
20
21. William Lipscomb (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA)
CHEMISTRY: 1976
William N. Lipscomb put his AFOSR funding to optimal use when he
earned the Nobel prize for Chemistry in 1976 for his "studies on the structure
of boranes illuminating problems of chemical bonding."
Boranes are compounds of boron and hydrogen. By developing x-ray
techniques that later proved useful in many chemical applications, Lipscomb and
his associates were able to map the molecular structures of numerous boranes
and their derivatives. The stability of boranes could not be explained by
traditional concepts of electron bonding -- in which each pair of atoms is linked by
a pair of electrons -- because boranes lacked sufficient electrons. Lipscomb
showed how three atoms could share a pair of electrons. In 1961, the work of
Dr. Lipscomb was featured in AFOSR Chemistry Program Review to illustrate
some of his innovative crystallographic work.
Since the early 1960s his research also focused on the relationship
between three-dimensional structures of enzymes and how they catalyze
reactions. He is noted for his famous quotation: "The creative process, first of all,
requires a good nine hours of sleep a night. Second, it must not be pushed by
the need to produce practical applications. "
AFOSR Funding Began: 1959
21
22. Philip Anderson (Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill, NJ)
John Van Vleck (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA)
PHYSICS: 1977
Philip W. Anderson, John H. Van Vleck, and Nevill Mott, won the Nobel
Prize in 1977 for their contribution to the "fundamental theoretical
investigations of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered
systems."
Anderson is one of the leading theorists on superconductivity and won his
part of the prize for developments in advanced electronic circuitry. He showed
conditions under which an electron in a disordered or imperfect system can either
move through the system as a whole or stay in a specific position -- becoming a
localized electron. This development provided a better understanding of electrical
conduction in magnetic materials. His research in solid-state physics made
possible the development of inexpensive electronic switching and memory
devices in computers. Anderson also has done work on pulsar glitches with
David Pines. He is credited with developing concept of the "Higgs" boson in
1962.
Dr. Van Vleck was recognized for his contributions to the understanding of
the behavior of electrons in magnetic, noncrystalline solid materials. Early during
the 1930s, Van Vleck developed the first fully articulated quantum mechanical
theory of magnetism. Later he was a chief architect of the ligand field theory of
molecular bonding. The research performed in solid-state physics by these Nobel
laureates made possible the development of inexpensive electronic switching
and memory devices in computers, which are widely used in industry and in
military systems. Van Vleck also contributed to a variety of studies, most
notably, on the spectra of free molecules and paramagnetic relaxation.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1964 (Van Fleck); 1968 (Anderson)
22
23. Ilya Prigogine (Universite Libre de Bruxelles, Brussells, Belgium; and
University of Texas, Austin, TX)
CHEMISTRY: 1977
Dr. Ilya Prigogine won the Nobel prize for Chemistry in 1977 for his
"contributions to non- equilibrium thermodynamics, particularly the theory
of dissipative structures."
Prigogine focused most of his work on better understanding the role of
time in biology and in the physical sciences. He has contributed significantly to
the understanding of irreversible processes, particularly in systems far from
equilibrium. He initiated the application of thermodynamics to irreversible
processes in both living and inanimate systems. Prigogine's contributions have
come largely in irreversibility, or, as he calls it, "the arrow of time."
His concept of dissipative structures describes the workings of open
systems -- systems in which there is an exchange of matter and energy with the
outside environment. His theory has been widely adopted by the U.S.
Department of Transportation to predict traffic-flow patterns. In biology, the
theory has proved useful in understanding a number of phenomena, including the
glycolytic, or sugar, cycle, a metabolic process by which living cells extract
energy from food.
As a leader in the field of nonlinear statistical mechanics, his work
contributed to the ability to analyze processes in complex systems. The
contribution of his work to DoD is in understanding the atmospheric processes
that are governed by complex interrelated phenomena.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1953
23
24. Herbert A. Simon (Carnegie Mellon University)
ECONOMICS: 1978
The 1978 Alfred Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences was
awarded to Herbert A. Simon, “for his pioneering research into the decision-
making process within economic organizations.”
Herbert Simon was very much a renaissance man as his undergraduate
and graduate work deviated sharply from classical economic theory, and even
included making a “…serious study of graduate-level physics in order to
strengthen and practice….mathematical skills and to gain an intimate knowledge
of what a ‘hard’ science was like, particularly on the theoretical side.” Simon
made an early name for himself in economics with the publication of his book
Administrative Behavior in 1947, which looked at companies as adaptive systems
comprised of various components, not in search of maximum profits, but
searching to find solutions to problems. His critical work had obvious application
to large bureaucratic/government organizations dealing with expansive planning,
budgeting and control issues.
AFOSR funded numerous studies by Simon beginning in 1964 dealing
with game theory, and moving on to efficiencies in computer time-sharing in
1966. AFOSR, along with the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA),
supported Simon (and co-author Allen Newell) in a long term study that ultimately
became a classic book in the field of information processing titled Human
Problem Solving (1972). In many ways the book was the genesis for the
application of computers—both as a tool and a comparative model—to study how
humans think.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1962
24
25. Sheldon Glashow (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA)
Steven Weinberg (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA)
Abdus Salam (International Centre for Theoretical Physics, Trieste, Italy,
and Imperial College of Science and Technology, London,
United Kingdom)
PHYSICS: 1979
AFOSR funded physicists Sheldon L. Glashow, Abdus Salam, and Steven
Weinberg won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1979 for their "contributions to the
theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between
elementary particles, including inter alia the prediction of the weak neutral
current ."
Four forces were believed to drive the laws of physics: gravity,
electromagnetism, the strong force (which holds an atom's nucleus together),
and the weak force (which breaks an atom apart, as in radioactivity).
Independent works by Drs. Glashow, Salam and Weinberg resulted in the
unification of the weak and electromagnetic forces.
Glashow's research involved many aspects of particle theory, cosmology,
and classical mechanics. He received the award for his pioneering work on the
electroweak theory. This theory, completed in the 1970s, discusses the
relationship between two of the four fundamental forces of nature,
electromagnetic force and weak force. Through these forces, subatomic particles
interact with each other. The electromagnetic force holds molecules together and
keeps electrons in orbit around an atomic nucleus. The weak force causes
radioactive decay in the nucleus. Glashow also predicted the existence of the
charm quark, one of the quarks that make up elementary particles.
Dr. Salam is also famous for his contributions to the electroweak theory.
Additional electroweak theory research was conducted by Steven Weinberg,
who, around 1967, theorized that the electromagnetic and the weak forces are
the same at extremely high energy levels. The validity of the theory was
ascertained in the following years through experiments carried out at the
superprotosynchrotron facility at CERN in Geneva, which led to the discovery of
the W and Z particles. Salam's electroweak theory is still the core of the 'standard
25
26. model' of high-energy physics. Their work represented one giant step closer to
physicists' long-dreamed of goal of finding a single elegant equation to explain all
the matter and forces in nature.
The work of these three nuclear physicists on isotopic spin provides some
of the basic understanding that AFOSR is building upon in studies of spin
isomers, which have significant ability to store large amounts of energy. This
AFOSR funded work is regarded as revolutionary. If developments are
successful, weapons systems of unprecedented capability will emerge along with
numerous applications in space and industry.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1958 (Glashow); 1958 (Weinberg); 1962 (Salam)
26
27. Walter Gilbert (Harvard University, Boston, MA)
CHEMISTRY: 1980
AFOSR-funded Walter Gilbert was a co-recipient of the 1980 Chemistry
award “for contributions concerning the determination of base sequences
in nucleic acids.”
Although Gilbert’s doctorate and initial research was in theoretical physics,
it was in the summer of 1960 that he joined a colleague in an experiment to
identify messenger RNA, which is a carrier of information from the genome to the
protein producing ribosomes. After this successful endeavor, Gilbert eventually
shifted his work full time to experimental molecular biology and ultimately
reached the point where his contributions to the field made it possible to map out
the structure and function of a cell’s deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA.
The chemistry of a living cell is governed by DNA within its chromosomes,
and DNA carries out its task by determining which enzymes a cell manufactures.
The enzymes impart to the cell its characteristic chemical pattern by their ability
to facilitate various chemical reactions in a specific manner. Gilbert (who shared
the award with Paul Berg and Frederick Sanger) made significant breakthroughs
regarding the way in which DNA, as carrier of genetic traits, governs the
chemical machinery of the cell. Gilbert and Sanger independently developed
different methods to determine the exact sequence of nucleotide building blocks
in DNA. In particular, Gilbert investigated the structure of those parts of a
bacterial chromosome which control the reading of the genetic message.
The investigations of Berg, Gilbert and Sanger have given us detailed
insight into the chemical basis of the genetic machinery in living organisms.
Their work will play a decisive role in efforts to understand the nature of cancer,
as in this disease there is a malfunction in the control, by the genetic material, of
the growth and division of cells.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1959
27
28. Nicolaas Bloembergen (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA)
Arthur Schawlow (Stanford University, Stanford, CA)
Kai Siegbahn (Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden)
PHYSICS: 1981
AFOSR-funded Nicolaas Bloembergen and Arthur Schawlow were co-
recipients of the 1981 Physics Nobel for their "contribution to the development
of laser spectroscopy." AFOSR also funded Kai M. Siegbahn whose Nobel
prize was awarded "for his contribution to the development of high-
resolution electron spectroscopy."
Bloembergen's contributions to non-linear optics and spectroscopy
advanced both nonlinear theory and development of instrumentation. The
resulting impact during the last 20 years has been significant across science and
engineering disciplines. For example, his findings for "four wave mixing" are
being extended to develop advanced technology for non-contact NDE (non-
destructive evaluation) of airframes which greatly benefits the Air Force and DoD.
Recently a laser ultrasonic system was developed that is capable of detecting
damage in aging airframe structures and engine components without having
physical contact with them.
In the 1950s, Arthur Schawlow collaborated with Nobel Laureate Charles
Townes on maser and laser theory and design. They sought ways to extend the
maser principle to amplify electromagnetic waves into shorter wavelengths of
infrared and visible light. Schawlow's solution was to build a cavity consisting of
a synthetic ruby that would serve as a resonator for light waves. His work was
important toward development of techniques for "pumping" energy into materials
suc as ruby and carbon dioxide. When such materials have been pumped, they
can be induced to "lase," to emit that extra energy as a beam of coherent light.
The award to Kal Siegbahn was for his work in electron spectroscopy, or
the analysis of electrons expelled from atomic systems. Before his work,
electron spectroscopy was limited. When a substance was excited with
radiation, the energy of the electrons emitted could not be analyzed in their
28
29. entirety. In 1954, Siegbahn developed a type of spectrometer that provided a
more accurate analysis of the electron's energy and electromagnetic spectrum.
This work contributed to the development of high-tech polymer materials used in
a wide variety of applications to include the aerospace industry.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1956 (Siegbahn); 1975 (Bloembergen); 1981
(Schawlow)
29
30. Kenichi Fukui (Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan)
Roald Hoffman (Cornell University)
CHEMISTRY: 1981
Dr. Kenichi Fukui and Dr. Roald Hoffman were jointly awarded the Nobel
Prize for Chemistry in 1981 "for their theories, developed independently,
concerning the course of chemical reactions."
Dr. Fukui did experimental work in organic chemistry (the chemistry of
compounds containing carbon), including fossil fuels -- oil, gas, and coal. In
1952, he discovered that one could understand chemical reactions in terms of
the density of electron clouds around reacting atoms. It was in the mid-1960s
that Dr. Hoffman worked with 1965 Chemistry Nobel winner R. B. Woodward at
Harvard, demonstrating outstanding achievements in experimentally building up
complex organic molecules. Much earlier, in the mid-1950s, Fukui developed the
theory that during chemical reactions molecules share loosely bonded electrons,
which occupy so-called frontier orbitals. This was the key for Fukui and Hoffman,
who, working independently, found that “the symmetry properties of frontier
orbitals could explain certain reaction courses that had previously been difficult to
understand.” Their frontier orbital theory became a powerful tool for
understanding the reactivity of molecules. This theory advanced the
understanding of the mechanism of chemical reactions, especially in the
production of organic compounds; understanding of the path of chemical
reactions and on the geometric shapes of reacting molecules. This led to other
discoveries and, in particular, the development of new pharmaceuticals.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1962 (Fukui); 1980 (Hoffman)
30
31. David Hubel (Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA)
Thorsten Wiesel (Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA)
PHYSIOLOGY/MEDICINE: 1981
AFOSR-funded scientists Drs. David H. Hubel and Thorsten N. Wiesel
won a Nobel prize for Physiology and Medicine in 1981 for their "discoveries
concerning information processing in the visual system."
In 1958 Hubel and Wiesel decided to study the mechanisms of the brain's
visual system. In experiments with cats and monkeys, they used tiny conductors
inserted into the brain to record how various visual stimuli activate different cells
at different locations within the visual cortex. They also injected radioactively
labeled amino acids into the retina under specific conditions of stimulation. The
researchers were then able to trace the exact path of the amino acids, thereby
uncovering a route of transmission for nerve impulses under specific conditions.
Some years later, Wiesel and Hubel demonstrated that the brain's ability to see is
formed through use of the eyes in the first few weeks after birth. This prompted
doctors to immediately correct congenital cataracts or crossed eyes.
Their primary discoveries in vision suggested both the elementary units of
visual analysis and a logic by which the brain could conjoin these units to
represent visual scenes. Computer algorithms that incorporate similar analysis
and logic are now a mainstay of automatic systems for image recognition and
speech recognition. Many in today's military benefit from their discovery of
motion-sensitive cortical cells, which led to the study of how humans detect and
track moving targets.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1959
31
32. Subramanyan Chandrasekhar (University of Chicago, Chicago, IL)
William Fowler (California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA)
PHYSICS: 1983
Subramanyan Chandrasekhar and William A. Fowler, both funded by
AFOSR, were co-recipients of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1981.
Chandrasekhar won for his "theoretical studies of the physical processes
important to the structure and evolution of the stars." Fowler was honored
for his "theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear reactions of
importance in the formation of the chemical elements in the universe."
Chandrasekhar developed many theories that changed the way people
look at the universe. His initial research involved stellar evolution and the theory
of white dwarfs. At the time, astronomers were beginning to notice that stars vary
in size and temperature, which indicated what phase a star was in its life. The
common belief stated that stars in their final stages would become white dwarfs
because they would eventually cool. Chandrasekhar deduced that not all stars
could become white dwarfs. He discovered that only stars with a mass up to 1.44
times that of the sun could become a white dwarf. In a massive star, equilibrium
between gas pressures and gravity cannot occur. Thus, the star would not be
able to collapse on itself and become a white dwarf. This boundary for stars is
known as the Chandrasekhar limit.
His work on astrophysics and stellar dynamics was seminal in the
development of models of nucleosynthesis and thermonuclear reactions. Such
knowledge was critical in the development of the U.S. thermonuclear arsenal. In
addition, his work led to models for the solar interior, which permitted
development of a capability to perform space weather forecasting.
Fowler studied how chemical elements are formed in nuclear reactions,
especially in the formation of stars. He also studied the radio emissions of
quasars and the functioning of subatomic particles such as neutrinos. For
decades he investigated the nuclear reactions believed to occur in stellar
interiors.
32
33. Fowler was primarily concerned with studies of fusion reactions -- how the
nuclei of lighter chemical elements fuse to create the heavier ones in a process
known as nucleosynthesis. In 1957, in the seminal paper "Synthesis of the
Elements in the Stars," Fowler showed that all of the elements from carbon to
uranium could be produced by nuclear processes in stars, starting only with the
hydrogen and helium produced in the Big Bang. This work put Fowler and his
collaborators at the forefront of some of the most central issues in modern
physics and cosmology: the formation of the chemical elements inside stars; the
Big Bang origin of the universe; and the current "dark matter" debate over what
makes up most of the universe.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1960 (Chandrasekhar); 1960 (Fowler)
33
34. Dudley Herschbach (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA)
John Polanyi (University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada)
Yuan T. Lee (University of Chicago)
CHEMISTRY: 1986
AFOSR-funded Dudley R. Herschbach, John C. Polanyi, and Yuan T. Lee
were co-recipients of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1981 for their
"contributions concerning the dynamics of chemical elementary
processes.”
Their work opened a new area of research in chemistry -- reaction
dynamics -- that has provided a much more detailed understanding of how
chemical reactions take place.
Dr. Herschbach shared the prize for helping to apply the technology and
theory of physics to chemistry. He invented the "crossed molecular beam
technique," which allows for the detailed analysis of chemical reactions through
the use of supersonic molecular beams. Polanyi was cited for developing "the
method of infrared chemiluminescence, in which the extremely weak infrared
emission from a newly formed molecule is measured and analyzed. He used this
method to elucidate the detailed energy disposal during chemical reactions.
Because he understood the source of this light emission he was able to propose
vibrational and chemical lasers, the most powerful sources of infrared radiation
ever developed. Yuan T. Lee, who initially worked in cooperation with
Herschbach, developed the method of crossed molecular beams towards its use
for general reactions, most notably, using this method for the study of important
reactions for relatively large molecules.
Combined, the work of this trio provided the fundamental understanding
about the details of how reactions occur at the atomic and molecular levels. Their
pioneering work was pivotal in the development of the first chemical lasers that
would form the basis for numerous DoD laser-based research efforts. Their work
on reaction dynamics and molecular structure also contributed to the
development and validation of theoretical models of quantum chemistry. These
34
35. models are now routinely used in the DoD to guide the synthesis of new
compounds, such as energetic materials, and to predict the energy release in
reactions, which are applied for use in modeling rocket plumes and signatures.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1979 (Herschbach); 1981 (Polanyi); 1971 (Lee)
35
36. Donald Cram (University of California, Los Angeles, CA)
CHEMISTRY: 1987)
Donald J. Cram was co-recipient of the 1987 Nobel Prize for Chemistry
for "development and use of molecules with structure-specific interactions
of high selectivity."
Cram is best known for his role in developing what is now known as host-
guest chemistry. The work involves creating synthetic host molecules that mimic
some of the actions enzymes perform in cells. Over a 30-year period, Cram and
his colleagues designed and prepared more than 1,000 hosts, each with its own
chemical and physical properties that would attract and bind specific guest
molecules. He succeeded in synthesizing molecules that are able to behave like
the molecules of living things, in that they "recognize" and attach themselves to
specific atoms.
The molecules Cram produced have many practical applications. They are
used to control chemical reactions. They also are used in medicines, delivering
active ingredients in controlled dosages long after the medicine has been taken.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1962
36
37. Melvin Schwartz: (Stanford University, Stanford, CA, and
Digital Pathways International, Inc., Mountain View, CA)
PHYSICS: 1988
Melvin Schwartz, Leon Lederman, and Jack Steinberger, shared the 1988
Nobel Prize in Physics, “for the neutrino beam method and the
demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the
discovery of the muon neutrino.”
The work carried out in concert by Schwartz, Lederman, and Steinberger
during the 1960s came out of discussions at Columbia University regarding a
need to find a feasible method of studying the effect of weak forces at high
energy levels. It was Melvin Schwartz who suggested employing a beam of
neutrinos for this purpose and work commenced to design a complimentary
detector for measuring neutrino reactions. The team was successful in building a
sophisticated detector which excluded unwanted particles from the neutrino
beam. This first successful neutrino beam experiment has been used
extensively for investigating the weak force and the quark structure of matter, as
well as the neutrino itself.
In the 1970s Dr. Schwartz went on to investigate state of the art
approaches to the secure management of data communications. It was in this
area that AFOSR issued several contracts to Dr. Schwartz to explore ways to
ensure the integrity, viability, and increased capacity of Air Force
telecommunications systems.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1970
37
38. Elias J. Corey (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA)
CHEMISTRY: 1990
Elias Corey received the 1990 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, “for his
development of the theory and methodology of organic synthesis.”
Thought by many to be one of the greatest living chemists, Cory is most famous
for his seminal and overarching discoveries and development of theory in the
field of organic synthesis—the construction of organic molecules via chemical
processes. Corey’s Nobel Prize recognized his formal approach to synthesis
design, based on retrosynthetic analysis, whereby the research is planned
backwards from the product, using standardized rules and procedures. Corey’s
retrosynthetic analysis begins with the planned structure of the hoped for
molecule and an ensuing analysis of which bonds must be broken in turn—
simplifying the structure in a formalized retrograde approach. Corey has
developed several new synthetic reagents as well as numerous reactions which
have become commonplace in the field.
Corey’s frontier-breaking work has been fundamental to the direct or
inferential advancement and facilitation of numerous Air Force requirements in
flight medicine.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1968
38
39. Jerome Friedman (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA)
Henry Kendall (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA)
PHYSICS: 1990
Jerome Friedman, Henry Kendall, and Richard Taylor (Stanford
University), received the 1990 Nobel Prize in Physics, for their pioneering
investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons
and bound neutrons, which have been of essential importance for the
development of the quark model in particle physics.” This award recognized
a significant breakthrough in our understanding of the basic structure of matter.
In 1963, Friedman and Kendall joined forces with Taylor and others to
conduct experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. This MIT/SLAC
collaboration resulted in a series of measurements of inelastic electron scattering
from the proton and the neutron which provided the first direct evidence of the
internal quark sub-structure of the nucleon. The accelerator experiments proved
that quarks formed the fundamental building blocks of protons and neutrons, and
that there is a glue which binds the quarks together—gluons. These discoveries
begot a new era in the history of physics.
Among other contributions, AFOSR funding for Friedman and Kendall
resulted in enhanced nuclear instrumentation and particle accelerator advances
at the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratory.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1961 (Friedman); 1961 (Kendall)
39
40. Rudolph A. Marcus (California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA)
CHEMISTRY: 1992
Rudolph Marcus was the recipient of the 1992 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
"for his contributions to the theory of electron transfer reactions in
chemical systems."
Marcus is best known for his exceptional theoretical work on electron
transfer and the fact that his efforts in this area have resulted in basic chemical
theory of great practical consequence in the field. The Marcus Theory describes
and makes predictions concerning photochemical production of fuel,
chemiluminescence (cold light), the conductivity of electrically conducting
polymers, corrosion, and many other chemical reactions. It was in the early
1960s that AFOSR funded Dr. Marcus when he was engaged in the research
and publication of a series of papers on electron transfer reactions. His work led
directly to the solution of the problem of greatly varying reaction rates.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1962
40
41. Mario Molina (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA)
CHEMISTRY: 1995
Mario Molina, Paul Crutzen and Sherwood Rowland won the 1995
Chemistry prize for their "work in atmospheric chemistry, particularly
concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone." It was the first time
a Nobel had been awarded to a Mexican American, and also the first time the
Nobel Committee had recognized leaders in environmental science. These three
chemists have all made pioneering contributions to explaining how ozone is
formed and decomposes through chemical processes in the atmosphere.
Molina presenting the first definitive demonstration that human actions can
harm the environment on a global scale. In 1974, Molina hypothesized that
chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, then a widely used ingredient of aerosol cans, air
conditioners, and refrigerators, were depleting the ozone layer. Stratospheric
ozone protects the planet from the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays. Without it, plant
and animal life as we know it could not exist on the planet, at least on land.
Molina's initial work was greeted with skepticism, but by 1979 he had
proven his theory, and alarmed by news of an "Achilles heel" in the atmosphere,
the public demanded action. Manufacturers looked for alternatives to CFCs. This
flurry of action, including a ban on CFCs as propellants in spray cans in the US,
took place despite the fact that no one had observed any loss of stratospheric
ozone. The discovery of the hole in the ozone layer above Antarctica in 1980
increased the sense of urgency that CFCs should be widely banned.
In 1987, an international accord known as the Montreal Protocol was
signed to phase out the use of CFCs in developed and developing countries.
Molina went on to prove the connection between CFCs and the Antarctic ozone
hole by proposing a new series of chemical reactions that was confirmed in 1991.
Dr. Molina was funded by AFOSR as part of an effort to assess the impact
of Air Force space launch operations on the environment. Molina investigated
the potential catalytic activity of aluminum oxide particulates exhausted from solid
rocket motors on atmospheric processes, including ozone depletion.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1995
41
42. Richard E. Smalley (Rice University)
CHEMISTRY: 1996
Richard Smalley shared the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Robert F.
Curl, Jr. (Rice University) and Sir Harold W. Kroto (University of Sussex,
Brighton, U.K.) “…for their discovery of fullerenes.”
Basically, what Smalley, Curl, and Kroto discovered in 1985 was that the
element carbon could be made into new forms that can create enclosed shell
designs, particularly in the shape of a ball—a European soccer (foot)ball. To be
precise, this unique form was named the “buckminsterfullerene” after the
American architect R. Buckminster Fuller and his geodetic dome design. These
clusters that contained 60 carbon atoms resulted in a very stable molecular
structure of great symmetry. Other carbon clusters were produced that
contained additional carbon atoms also resulting in stable structures.
These new fullerene carbon clusters not only produced unique properties,
but opened up an entirely new branch of chemistry related to their production,
manipulation, and application in the fields of astrochemistry, superconductivity
and materials development. For example, three dimensional polymers and
nanotubes—employed on a fullerene template—may greatly impact materials
development.
AFOSR first provided funding to Dr. Smalley in 1972 when he researched
laser spectroscopy of supersonic molecular beams and its application to the
nitrogen dioxide spectrum. Additional laser spectroscopy programs continued
throughout the next decade and recent AFOSR support is dedicated to single
wall nanotube growth research.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1972
42
43. Steven Chu (Stanford University, Stanford, CA)
PHYSICS: 1997
Dr. Steven Chu shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1997 with two others
for "development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light."
Dr. Chu's method of cooling and trapping atoms with laser lights provides
the foundation for atom interferometers, atom lasers and more precise frequency
standards, such as the basis for atomic clocks. These clocks, used in space and
earth navigation to pinpoint a position, are expected to result in a 1000-fold
increase in accuracy.
Physics is not the only area the improved time standard has generated a
positive ripple effect. Other branches of science have been influenced by Dr.
Chu's discoveries. They include: a new way of understanding polymer behavior
(coatings, friction, injection molding); direct studies of biological interactions
(DNA behavior, bacterial interactions); insight into novel forms of matter (Bose-
Einstein condensation, atom interferometer); and a legacy of graduate students
to enrich the U.S. talent pool.
The Air Force benefit is significant thanks to Dr. Chu's work. Navigation
and control systems, smaller electronic circuits with greater density, and covert
and encrypted communications will witness marked improvements.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1988
43
44. Daniel Tsui (Princeton University, Princeton, NJ)
PHYSICS: 1998
Dr. Daniel Tsui shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1998 for the
"discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged
excitations."
Dr. Tsui developed his award-winning idea during a long and productive
career with Bell Labs. He then joined Princeton University where he used
AFOSR sponsorship to forward extensions of that work. Tsui's efforts led to
miniaturized, high-performance millimeter wave components that are used
extensively in surveillance and communications systems.
Tsui made refined studies of the quantum Hall effect using inversion
layers in materials of ultra-high purity. Plateaus appeared in the Hall effect not
only for magnetic fields corresponding to the filling of orbits with one, two, three,
etc, electron charges, but also for fields corresponding to fractional charges. This
could be understood only in terms of a new kind of quantum fluid, where the
motion of independent electrons of charge e is replaced by excitations in a multi-
particle system which behave (in a strong magnetic field) as if charges of
The smaller, faster components expected to be developed from Dr. Tsui's
breakthrough will play a key role in helping the Air Force to achieve its goal of
reducing the weight and volume of electronic circuits by 75 to 80 percent early
this century.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1985
44
45. Ahmed Zewail (California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA)
CHEMISTRY: 1999)
Dr. Ahmed Zewail took home the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1999 for
his "studies of the transition states of chemical reactions using
femtosecond spectrocopy."
Dr. Zewail's pioneering research showed that it is possible, with rapid laser
technique, to see how atoms in a molecule move during a chemical reaction. His
insights have helped scientists understand how certain molecules are
synthesized, how energy is released in reactions and how the outcome of
chemical reactions might be controlled.
Using these ultrafast lasers, Zewail was able to image chemical reactions
as bonds form and break in real time, or at a scale of femtoseconds - a millionth
of a billionth of a second. Dubbed "femtochemistry," it has allowed scientists to
understand how and why certain chemical reactions take place but not others.
Zewail's work also helped scientists explain why the speed and yield of reactions
depend on temperatures. As a result, scientists the world over are studying
processes with femtosecond spectrocopy in gases, in solids, in fluids, on
surfaces and in polymers.
The Air Force has benefited from Zewail's prize-winning work, focusing
their applications on better understanding and controlling the release of energy in
chemical reactions in systems, such as novel rocket propellants and the
interactions of aerospace vehicles with their environments.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1986
45
46. Alan Heeger (University of California, Santa Barbara, CA)
Alan G. MacDiarmid (University of Pennsylvania)
CHEMISTRY: 2000
Dr. Alan J. Heeger, Alan G. MacDiarmid and Hideki Shirakawa
(of the University of Tsukuba, Japan) jointly won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in
2000 for "the discovery and development of conductive polymers."
Heeger’s research in the 1970s focused on conductive polymers. He and
two associates found that a thin film of polyacetylene, when oxidized with iodine
vapor, exhibited an electrical conductivity increase of a billion times; turning an
insulator to a conductor. MacDiarmid’s 1970s research was also along the same
line of effort. A 1972 AFOSR-sponsored research report by MacDiarmid
concerned an even-electron paramagnetic silicon species which confirmed
electron transfer.
These discoveries led to a new field of carbon-based electronics that have
wide application and benefit for the Air Force. This pioneering work pushed the
field of polymer research from primarily addressing structural applications to
other potential applications typically addressed by semiconducting materials.
Scientists and engineers no longer speculate about "plastic airplanes" and
"plastic engines." Today, "plastic electronics" and "plastic lasers" are targets of
research supported by all the services and agencies within the Department of
Defense.
This Nobel winning research will also lead to an Air Force and commercial
reality in the near future, as plastic display panels -- like those found in a variety
of hand-held devices -- are developed.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1988 (Heeger); 1970 (MacDiarmid)
46
47. Jack Kilby (Texas Instruments, Dallas, TX)
PHYSICS: 2000
Jack Kilby, an AFOSR-funded scientist, received half of the 2000 Nobel
Prize for Physics for his part "in the invention of the integrated circuit,"-- the
other half was shared with AFOSR-funded Dr. Herbert Kroemer and another
physicist.
There are few living men whose insights and professional
accomplishments have changed the world. Jack Kilby is one of these men. His
invention of the monolithic integrated circuit - the microchip – almost 50 years
ago at Texas Instruments (TI), laid the conceptual and technical foundation for
the entire field of modern microelectronics. It was this breakthrough that made
possible the sophisticated high-speed computers and large-capacity
semiconductor memories of today's information age.
Kilby also was one of the first people to suggest that semiconductors
could be developed for use in Air Force weapon systems. As a result, the first
Minuteman II computer was successfully flight tested in May 1964. Early ballistic
missile tests with Kilby's integrated circuits largely assured the acceptance of
semiconductor technology for other military and commercial uses.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1958
47
48. Herbert Kroemer (University of California, Santa Barbara, CA)
PHYSICS: 2000
Dr. Herbert Kroemer, an AFOSR-funded physicist, shared half of his 2000
Nobel Prize for Physics with another physicist - the other half going to AFOSR-
funded scientist Professor Jack Kilby - for "developing semiconductor
heterostructures used in high-speed and opto-electronics."
Kroemer was the first to propose the use of thin layers of semiconducting
materials, known as heterostructures -- novel composites of two or more
materials -- to develop the heterostructure transistor. Kroemer analyzed
theoretically the mobility of electrons and holes in heterostructure junctions. His
propositions led to the build up of transistors, later called HEMTs (high electron
mobility transistors), which are very important in today's high-speed electronics.
The new transistor, relying on these composites, made significant improvements
over conventional transistors in current amplification and high-frequency
applications.
Kroemer and a colleague, working independently, went on to create the
heterostructure laser, an innovation crucial to the development of fiber optic
communications.
Dr. Kroemer's revolutionary ideas marked the beginning of the era of
modern optoelectronic devices that have affected the way the Air Force and the
populace at-large interact, such as through radio link satellites, the Internet,
mobile phones, CD players.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1995
48
49. Paul Greengard (Rockefeller University, New York, NY)
Eric R. Kandel (National Center for Scientific Research, Paris (EOARD))
PHYSIOLOGY/MEDICINE: 2000
Dr. Paul Greengard and Eric R. Kandel shared the 2000 Nobel Prize for
medicine with one other neuroscientist, Arvid Carlsson, for their discoveries
regarding "signal transduction in the nervous system."
Greengard's research, begun more than 30 years ago, demonstrated the
means by which chemicals known as neurotransmitters carry signals between
nerve cells. These findings have resulted in the understanding of how the brain
processes function and in the development of new drugs. He has also
demonstrated that many effects -- both therapeutic and toxic -- of several classes
of common antipsychotic, hallucinogenic and antidepressant drugs can be
explained in terms of distinct neurochemical actions which affect the transmission
of nerve signals in the brain. Under AFOSR sponsorship, Greengard
experimented with large nerve cells to understand the molecular activity of
synapse transmission.
Eric Kandel’s effort’s were supported early on by AFOSR through their
foreign detachment, the European Office of Aerospace Research and
Development. His 1964 paper, the Mechanism of Prolonged Heterosynaptic
Facilitation, was early foundational research for follow on efforts in signal
transduction.
Greengard, Kandel and Carlsson developed a general model which
provides a rational explanation, at the molecular and cellular levels, of the
mechanism by which stimuli -- both electrical and chemical -- produce
physiological responses in individual nerve cells. This knowledge has led to a
better understanding of the brain's function in perception, cognition and action. In
turn, this provides a solid scientific basis for designing equipment and jobs to
match human capabilities and limitations.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1963 (Kandel); 1984 (Greengard)
49
50. Wolfgang Ketterle (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
PHYSICS: 2001
The 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded jointly to Eric A. Cornell,
Wolfgang Ketterle and Carl E. Wieman "for the achievement of Bose-Einstein
condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental
studies of the properties of the condensates".
The Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) is a new form of matter. “Einstein
predicted that if a gas of such atoms were cooled to a very low temperature all
the atoms would suddenly gather in the lowest possible energy state [as when]
drops of liquid form from a gas, hence the term condensation.” Cornell and
Wieman produced such a condensate from rubidium atoms, while Ketterle,
working independently, worked with sodium atoms. The sodium atom approach
resulted in the production and manipulation of many more atoms than the
rubidium approach. It is the manipulation of such atoms which is significant in
that the process has revolutionary implications for employing such atoms in the
fields of precise measurement and material structures at the nanotechnology
level.
Beginning in 1990 and later, AFOSR supported Ketterle’s work dealing
directly with research that led to the Nobel award, for example: Atom Cooling by
Time-Dependent Potentials, Trapping and Focusing Ground State Atoms with
Static Fields and Evaporative Cooling of Sodium Atoms.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1990
50
51. Daniel Kahneman (Princeton University, Princeton, NJ)
ECONOMICS: 2002
Daniel Kahneman received half of the 2002 Bank of Sweden Prize in
Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 2002 "for having integrated
insights from psychological research into economic science, especially
concerning human judgment and decision-making under uncertainty."
In Dr. Kahneman’s case, AFOSR funding began in 1977 when the Life
Sciences Directorate supported his ground-breaking work on human perception,
attention, and decision-making. Along with psychologist Amos Twersky,
Kahneman studied the determinants of human choice in risky situations.
Kahneman and Twersky showed that a person’s decisions depend on how the
decision problem is framed or described, and this dependence results in
decisions that deviate in predictable ways from the rational choice strategy. This
research directly supported one of the long-standing goals of the directorate for
advancement in model perception and cognition for improved human
performance.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1977
51
52. John B. Fenn (Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA)
CHEMISTRY: 2002
Fenn shared one-half of the 2002 Nobel Prize in Chemistry “for the
development of methods for identification and structure analyses of
biological macromolecules” and “for the development of soft desorption
ionization methods for mass spectrometric analyses of biological
macromolecules.”
Early AFOSR support for Dr. John Fenn concerned molecules seeded in
atomic beams. AFOSR continued to support Fenn during the 1980s, while he
was at Yale University, with several contracts dealing with molecular collision
processes. These studies and other associated systems were then used to
study fundamental chemical reaction dynamics, which ultimately resulted in the
Nobel Prize for chemistry for Herschbach, Lee and Polanyi, in 1986. The 2002
Nobel Prize in chemistry for Fenn was for his work in electrospray mass
spectroscopy that grew out of Fenn’s experience and expertise from his earlier
molecular research.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1975
52
53. Paul C. Lauterbur (Johns Hopkins University)
PHYSIOLOGY/MEDICINE: 2003
The 2003 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded jointly to
Paul C. Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield, “…for their discoveries concerning
magnetic resonance imaging.”
This Nobel was awarded for advancements by Lauterbur and Mansfield
regarding key discoveries concerning the development of the technique to
visualize different structures (organs) within the human body. These findings
provided the basis for the development of magnetic resonance into a useful
imaging method.
It was Lauterbur who discovered the process to create two-dimensional
images of structures that could not be visualized by other techniques discovered
previous to this. In 1973, “…he described how addition of gradient magnets to
the main magnet made it possible to visualize a cross section of tubes with
ordinary water surrounded by heavy water. No other imaging method can
differentiate between ordinary and heavy water.” Lauterbur’s work, when
combined with Mansfield’s discoveries, led to a practical method of obtaining
magnetic resonance images.
Lauterbur received funding from AFOSR only a few short years after
AFOSR was established. His research grant at that time related to the study of
nuclear magnetic resonance exchange reactions. Today, the non-invasive and
harmless MRI procedure is a common diagnostic tool used many millions of
times per year.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1956
53
54. John L. Hall (University of Colorado, Boulder, CO)
Roy J. Glauber (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA)
Theodor W. Hansch (Max-Planck Institute of Quantum Optics, Garching,
Germany)
PHYSICS: 2005
Roy Glauber was honored with one-half of the 2005 Nobel Physics Prize
for “his contribution to the quantum theory of optical coherence.” John Hall
shared one-half of the award with Theodor W. Hansch, “for their contributions
to the development of laser precision spectroscopy, including the optical
frequency comb technique.”
Hall, Glauber and Hansch’s scientific career’s dealt with the
characteristics of light, or more specifically, the properties of light on a
macroscopic level (Hall and Hansch) and on a microscopic level (Glauber).
AFOSR funding for Glauber first began in 1962. In 1963 Glauber published a
seminal work where he created a model for photodetection and explained the
fundamental characteristics of different types of light. The work of Glauber and
others in the field of quantum optics led to the formulation that certain states of
light could not be described with classical wave theory. Glauber’s impact has
been so significant in this area that coherent states of light are known as Glauber
states. AFOSR supported Glauber’s quantum optics research throughout the
1960’s and 1970s.
John Hall first received funding from AFOSR in 1990 for research of
“Stabilized Single-Frequency Operation of Visible Diode Lasers, High-Resolution
Spectroscopy, and Microwave-to-Visible Synthesis,” which, as with Glauber’s
research, is directly related to the subsequent Nobel award. Hall’s research was
supported consistently by AFOSR through the next fifteen years as he refined the
development of laser-based precision spectroscopy which ultimately led to ever
greater accuracy in defining the quantum structure of matter. A major focus of
Hall’s career, has been getting the frequency of various kinds of lasers stabilized,
or fixed, to a very high degree. In his Nobel Lecture, Hall gratefully acknowledged
the support of AFOSR.
54
55. Hansch was supported by AFOSR beginning in 1990 through his joint
work with two American colleagues at Stanford University relating to the search
for a new laser regime of short pulse generation.
Glauber was responsible for the established of Quantum Optics, “…in
which quantum theory encompasses the field of optics….explain[ing] the
fundamental differences between hot sources of light such as light bulbs, with a
mixture of frequencies and phases, and lasers which give a specific frequency
and phase.”
Hall, Glauber and Hansch contributed significantly to scientific research on
a very broad scale as they have greatly enhanced the precision of time
measurements. They did this by making it possible to measure frequencies with
an accuracy of fifteen digits. “Lasers with extremely sharp colors can now be
constructed, and with the frequency comb technique, precise readings can be
made of light of all colors. This technique makes it possible to carry out studies
of, for example, the stability of the constants of nature over time and to develop
extremely accurate clocks and improved GPS technology.”
AFOSR Funding Began: 1962 (Glauber); 1990 (Hall); 1990 (Hansch)
55
56. Robert Grubbs (California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA)
CHEMISTRY: 2005
Robert Grubbs shared the 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Yves
Chauvin and Richard Schrock, “for the development of the metathesis
method in organic synthesis.”
The word metathesis is from the Greek words meta (meaning change),
and thesis (meaning position), or more simply, to change places. In the work
performed by Grubbs, Chauvin and Schrock, the bonds between carbon atoms of
organic molecules are broken and new pairings take place. But what makes this
possible are the catalyst molecules which were developed by the three
respective chemists. When this process is taken further, different parts of
different molecules can be combined to create new molecules with new
properties. Building on the previous research of Chauvin (who explained how
metathesis works), and Schrock (who created the first useful organic synthesis
catalysts), Grubbs achieved a breakthrough in 1992 with the first well-defined
catalysts for practical laboratory application. This practical application has found
very broad use in the chemical industry with the development of new plastics,
herbicides, drugs, and synthetic pheromones, which are produced more
efficiently, are simpler to use, and are more environmentally friendly.
AFOSR funded Grubbs through a Multi-University Research Initiative
(MURI) from 1987 through 2002 which centered on cyclohexadiene and
dihydrocatechol polymerization.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1987
56
57. Thomas C. Schelling (University of Maryland, College Park, MD)
ECONOMICS: 2005
Thomas Schelling shared the 2005 Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic
Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel with Robert Aumann, “for having
enhanced our understanding of conflict and cooperation through game-
theory analysis.”
It was during the 1950s, in the midst of the Cold War, that Thomas
Schelling began to apply game theory to the issues of global security and the
arms race. In 1964, Dr. Schelling’s began receiving AFOSR funding, several
years after the publication of his landmark book, The Strategy of Conflict. His
game-theory research proposed the theory that in a conflict a party can
strengthen its position by actually weakening or limiting its options. Dr.
Schelling’s bold idea prompted new developments in game theory and eventual
application in various methods throughout the social sciences. AFOSR funded
an effort by Schelling in 1966 which resulted in a major scholarly study entitled,
Strategic Analysis of Extra-Legal Internal Political Conflict, which was a
theoretical study of the strategy employed by groups engaged in extra-legal
conflict within states.
As described by the Nobel awards committee: “Notably, his analysis of
strategic commitments has explained a wide range of phenomena, from the
competitive strategies of firms to the delegation of political decision power,” In
concluding its award remarks, the committee praised Schelling for, “…having
enhanced our understanding of conflict and cooperation through game-theory
analysis [and] his advancements have been proved to great relevance for conflict
resolution and efforts to avoid war.”
AFOSR Funding Began: 1960
57
58. George F. Smoot (University of California, Berkeley, CA)
PHYSICS: 2006
George F. Smoot shared the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physics with John C.
Mather “for their discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the
cosmic microwave background radiation.”
This Nobel award in Physics is based on work which the two laureates did
to gain a more precise understanding of the origins of galaxies and stars. The
foundation of their work was provided by measurements derived from the COBE
(Cosmic Background Explorer) satellite launched by NASA in 1989. The goal
was to utilize the COBE measurements to investigate the cosmic microwave
background radiation of the universe, which ultimately provided increased
support for the Big Bang theory of the origins of the universe, as opposed to the
steady state theory. Additionally, the in depth study of the COBE measurements
marked the beginning of cosmology as a precise science.
Smoot had the responsibility of measuring the very slight variations in the
temperature of the cosmic microwave background radiation left over from the
initial big bang origin of the universe. The form of this radiation, and its various
temperatures across respective wavelengths, resulted in a specific shape across
the entire spectrum whose form is known as blackbody radiation. Smoot’s task
of calculating the small variations in temperature across the blackbody in various
directions is termed anisotropy. AFOSR first funded Smoot’s work in 1980 in
direct support of anisotropic techniques, which can be applied to space-based
surveillance requirements.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1980
58
59. Yoichiro Nambu (University of Chicago)
PHYSICS: 2008
Yoichiro Nambu shared the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics with two
Japanese physicists Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Masskawa. Nambu was
awarded one-half of the Physics prize “for the discovery of the mechanism of
spontaneous broken symmetry in subatomic physics.”
This Nobel award in Physics is based on work which Nambu did in the
1960s and early 1970s under grants from the Air Force Office of Scientific
Research and other funding agencies.
According to the official Nobel Museum press release, it was as early as
1960 when Dr. Nambu “formulated his mathematical description of spontaneous
broken symmetry in elementary particle physics. Spontaneous broken symmetry
conceals nature’s order under an apparently jumbled surface. It has proved to be
extremely useful, and Nambu’s theories permeate the Standard Model of
elementary particle physics. The Model unifies the smallest building blocks of all
matter and three of nature’s four forces in one single theory.”
Dr. Nambu’s groundbreaking work is of significant importance with relation
to CERN’s particle accelerator as its capabilities are fully realized. Dr. Nambu’s
work epitomizes the high risk, long term approach to AFOSR funding, as well as
highlighting the fact that AFOSR’s program managers have a proven track record
of supporting future world class talent early on in their careers.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1965
59
60. Andre Geim (University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom)
Konstantin Novoselov (University of Manchester, Manchester, United
Kingdom)
Physics: 2010
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2010 was awarded jointly to Andre Geim and
Konstantin Novoselov "for groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-
dimensional material graphene."
In 2004, Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov of the University of
Manchester, isolated graphene, a single atomic layer of carbon from graphite. It
is an ancient material, but at the same time, completely new because this
thinnest ever material has turned out to be quite amazing. Graphene has
remarkable qualities: besides being the thinnest material imaginable, it is
stronger than steel and far better than copper at conducting current; and for
being almost transparent, it is so dense that not even a helium atom can pass
through it.
This two dimensional material opens up a new world of materials and
applications: faster and more efficient graphene transistors and touch screens
will make for more robust and lightweight electronics, and new material
applications can take advantage of the thin, elastic and lightweight features of
this novel material for a wide variety of plastic/composite material applications.
In 2008 AFOSR's European Office of Aerospace Research and
Development (EOARD) initiated grants with Dr. Geim's group to explore the
electronic properties of the material. Follow-on grants have led to visits between
the Manchester team and AFRL researchers, as well as exchanges of samples
and data. DoD is showing strong and robust interest in seeing what flat carbon
can achieve, and EOARD provided the critical link to the inventors of this
revolutionary material.
AFOSR Funding Began: 2008
60
61. Dan Shechtman (Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel)
CHEMISTRY: 2011
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2011 was awarded to Dan Shechtman "for
the discovery of quasicrystals".
In 1982 Dr. Dan Shechtman observed a crystal image in his electron
microscope which, theoretically, could not exist—regular crystal patterns that
never repeat themselves. This configuration of “quasicrystals” was considered
impossible because it was accepted that atoms within crystals formed repeating
symmetrical patterns; it was accepted truth that this was simply how a crystal
was formed. As such, Dr. Shechtman had to battle against longstanding
conventional wisdom, but in the end, his efforts fundamentally altered how
chemists conceive of solid matter.
For comparative purposes, aperiodic mosaics have helped scientists
understand what quasicrystals look like at the atomic level: the patterns are
regular - they follow mathematical rules - but they never repeat themselves. The
basis for this design is the golden ratio, used extensively in mathematics and the
arts, whereby two quantities are in the golden ratio if the ratio of the sum of the
quantities to the larger quantity is equal to the ratio of the larger quantity to the
smaller one. In quasicrystals, the ratio of various distances between atoms is
related to the golden mean. This construct was ultimately identified in nature and
found to contribute exceptional strength within various materials.
It was in 1999 that AFOSR funded Dr. Shechtman to explore ways in
which his quasicrystals could be employed as protective coatings.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1999
61