Doctoral Defense Presentation: The leading thought of the research at hand was the idea that bringing together situational leadership theories with theories of adult education will result in a synergy effect. The final goal was to put up a science-based synergetic model for adult education and specifically for the teaching of statistics.

1. David Meier
Doctoral Defense Presentation
Dissertation Submitted in Partial fulfilment of the Requirements for the
Fellow Programme in Leadership
A Situational Leadership Model for
Adult Education in the Context
of Teaching Statistics
7th March 2017

2. 1. Problem Statement
2. Research Questions & Purpose of the Research
3. Original Contribution
4. Methodology
5. Theoretical Framework
6. Analysing Andragogy
7. Results
8. Interim Conclusions of the Deductive Part
9. The Staged Andragogical Model (SAM)
10. Conclusions
11. Recommendations
Presentation Outline

3. Problem Statement
• Statistics is difficult to learn and teach.
• Adults require specific methods when learning.
• Teaching adults is contingent on different elements. Therefore a
lecturer needs to react accordingly to these.
• When teaching adults a lecturer needs leadership skills. Thus
leadership skills need to be combined with adult teaching skills

4. Research Questions & Purpose of the Research
Main research questions
• What are adult specific needs when learning -> Validating the theory of
andragogy
• What are the contingent elements in statistics courses for adults?
• How can the situational or contingency theory of leadership contribute to
improve adult education (specifically in the case of statistics courses)?
Purpose of the research
Amalgamate the answers of the above questions into a model that helps
improving courses for adult learners especially in the context of statistics.

5. Original Contribution
1. Finding contingent elements within the setting of adult
education
2. Confirming the assumption that the cultural process of
growing up is lagging behind the biological coming of age.
3. Staged Andragogical Model (SAM)

6. Methodology
Overall setup consists of a combined inductive and deductive research

7. Theoretical Framework
• Fiedler’s Contingency Model
• Vroom–Yetton Decision-Making Theory
• Blake and Mouton’s Managerial (Leadership) Grid
• Situational Leadership Theory by Hersey and Blanchard
• The Staged Self-Directed Learning Model
• Jarvis’ Theory on Adult Learning
• Knud Illeris’ Model of Three-Dimensional Learning
• Self-Regulated Learning
• Knowles’ Andragogy

8. Analysing Andragogy
Setup for finding variations within the andragogical framework

9. Research Hypotheses Concerning Andragogy
(Adult Education)
1. Adult learners need to know the importance and value of the
academic subject
2. Adult learners have a mature self-concept and feel responsible
for their own
3. The foundation of adult learning is primarily based on the
learner’s own work
4. Adults learn because a subject has relevance to their lives
5. Adult learners are oriented towards problem-centred learning.
6. Adult learners are intrinsically motivated in their studies

10. Research Hypotheses Concerning Contingency
1. Contingent elements do exist in the area of interdisciplinary
skills acquisition, such as statistics courses for adults.
2. Depending on the contingency, there are different needs.
3. The two main hypotheses result in the following overall cause-
and-effect hypothesis:
– If contingent elements in adult learning can be located, then only a
differentiated teaching-learning setting along the contingency borders will
help satisfy the practical needs of the adult learner.

11. Methodology: Empirical Part
• In the empirical part a quantitative research design was adopted. Data of 120
students of statics courses at University of Zurich were collected and
analysed
• The questionnaire consisted of three parts:
– Attributes of the participants like age, sex, affiliation
– Questions about the importance of adult educational methods (andragogy)
– An instrument (SDLRSNE) Fisher, M., King, J., & Tague, G. (2001) for detecting self-
directed learning.

12. Methodology: Inductive Part
• Based on the theory and the results of the data analysis a new model was
developed inductively => Staged Andragogical Model (SAM)
Note: This is directly connected to the main cause and effect hypothesis:
If contingent elements in adult learning can be located, then only a differentiated teaching-
learning setting along the contingency borders will help satisfy the practical needs of the adult
learner

13. Results
Importance of andragogical methods (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2005,)
on a scale from 1 to 10:
1. The need to know (t = 7.33 , p < 0.001)
2. The self-concept of the learner (t = 6.62 , p < 0.001)
3. The experience of the learner (t = 13.93 , p < 0.001)
4. Readiness to learn (t = 28.00 , p < 0.001)
5. Orientation to learning (need for context oriented
learning) (t =3.44 , p < 0.001)
6. Motivation (t = 22.28 , p < 0.001)

14. Results: Contingencies - Age
Mean score
need for andragogical methods:
Group 1 (younger 27.5
years):
6.8
Group 2 (older 27.5
years):
7.4
Relation between age and
andragogy for the two groups

15. Results: Self-Directed Learning and andragogy
Higher scores of Self-Directed
Learning show higher s demand for
andragogical methods.
Exception: Doctoral Fellows
Correlation between Self-Directed
Learning and andragogy:
Students: 0.394 (p=0.020)
Employees: 0.517 (p=0.010)
Doctoral Fellows: 0.036
Consequence: adult learners with a low self-directed learning
score tend to need less andragogical methods! This can be called
maturity factor.

16. Results: Situational differences between groups
Students, employees
or doctoral fellows
have different
andragogical needs.
Thus one can assume
that according to their
situation, a specific
teaching setting is
required.

17. Results: Highest situational differences between
groups – inferential analysis
Although there can be detected a difference for all postulates, we will concentrate
on the conspicuous differences. These are need to know and self-concept. The
gap there is decisively higher than with the rest of the postulates.
Both mean differences are elevated and highly significant. For need to know it is 1.76
(t = –3.97, p < 0.001), and for self-concept we get a value of 1.35 (t = –2.95, p=0.002).

18. Interim Conclusions from the Deductive Part
• Andragogical methods were validated statistically ✔
• Contingent or situational elements could be isolated ✔
– Age-related dependency for the need of andragogy ✔
– The importance of andragogy is different for students, employees or
doctoral fellows ✔
– Self-directed learning is unequal for the different groups ✔
 Foundation for the new model called the
Staged Andragogical Model

19. Visualizing the Contingencies with a Multiple
Correspondence Analysis (MCA)
MCA plots different variables as distances in a 2-dimensional space. The closer two variables
are, the higher their relation is.

20. Towards the Staged Andragogical Model (SAM)

21. Learning Maturity Levels
Learning maturity level 1 (LML 1): These learners are dependent and act according to the
principles of pedagogy instead of andragogy. There skills are not developed; e.g., their existing
knowledge of statistics is at a low or basic level. In a statistics course, these learners want to
learn the basic knowhow.
Learning maturity level 2 (LML 2): At this stage, the learner is interested in andragogy but
still grounded in pedagogic concepts of teaching and learning. The skills are not developed, and in
courses they seek a basic knowhow. knowledge of statistics is at a low or basic level. In a
statistics course, they want to learn the basic knowhow.
Learning maturity level 3 (LML 3): Adults in this level are involved and ready for andragogy.
They clearly stepped out of pedagogy, and their need towards andragogical principle is high.
Their skills are not yet highly developed, yet they are not basic. In the course, they ask for a
deeper insight of statistics, often combined with the wish of refreshing their existing
knowledge.
Learning maturity level 4 (LML 4): The highest level denotes learners who are self-
determined and act in full compliance with andragogy. Their skills are high, and in a course, they
seek specialisation.

22. Towards the Staged Andragogical Model (SAM)

23. Learning Styles to Meet the Learning Maturity Levels
Teaching style 1 - Instructor:
• Provide task information in
digestible amounts
• Be sure not to overwhelm followers
• Reduce fear of mistakes
• Help step by step
• Focus on instruction
Teaching style 2 - Trainer:
• Fostering questions
• Developing knowledge
• Guiding
• Discussing key questions
• Emphasise how to
• Explain why
Teaching style 3 - Facilitator:
• Encourage
• Support
• Deepen existing knowledge
• Put things into a bigger context
• Build confidence
Teaching style 4 - Delegator:
• Reflecting knowledge
• Teaching complex relations
• Delegating
• Assigning
• Constructing knowledge

24. The Model Outline

25. Applying SAM to Statistic Courses for Adults
• LML 1: Students, younger than 27.5, need to know low, self-concept low, low
self-directed learning behaviour.
• LML 2: Students, younger than 27.5.
• LML 3: Learners older than 27.5, employed researchers, doctoral fellows.
• LML 4: Learners older than 27.5, employed researchers, need to know high,
self-concept low. High self-directed learning behaviour.
The lecturer needs to address/differentiate the following learning types:

26. Situational Teaching According to the Learning
Maturity Levels (LML 1-4)
According the different learning groups different stages or styles are to be applied:
Stage 1:
• Introduce and explain a statistical
program (e.g., SPSS or R)
• Introduce basic descriptive statistics
with only one variable
• Explain the different data scales
• Use charts extensively
• Use cookbook instructions
Stage 2:
• Complex descriptive statistics with
more than one variable
• Practical and applied examples
• Introducing statistical thinking
• Introduction of inferential statistics
• Associations
Stage 3:
• Delve into inferential statistics
• Introduce working in groups and
employ use cases
• Connect the dots by using
comprehensive exercises
Stage 4:
• Learners bring their own use cases
• Situational teaching in dependency
of the students’ needs
• Introducing specific statistical
procedures

27. Scheme of the Applied Model

28. Conclusions
Based on the theory of Knowles (1980, 1984, 2005), the research analysed the needs
of adult learners. For this purpose, a dedicated questionnaire was designed and tested.
Our final sample consisted of 119 adult course participants who completed in the
questions of the instrument. The collected data were analysed, and the results could
back the theory of andragogy. This helped answer the question as to what the concrete
needs of adult learners are. Though the analysis’ results helped build a foundation for
adult education in the form of Knowles’ andragogy, the analysis also evidenced that
there are essential differences among adult learners. Thus, it was reckoned that
andragogy is a valid concept, but it needs to be extended.
So the need of finding situational or contingent elements was a very practical exigency.
Various such elements could be detected, and the significant results were isolated.
The most important of these are age, self-directed learning behaviour, and self-
concept.
Based on these findings, the research tried to induce a new model called SAM (Staged
Andragogical Model) that follows the principles of the Situational Leadership
Theory (SLT) of Blanchard and Hersey (1977, 2008).

29. Recommendations
The results and the proposed SAM certainly represent an original contribution
to the research on adult education, specifically to teaching statistics. Nevertheless,
there remain open questions or non-conclusive matters. As a proposition, the following
topics need to be investigated further:
• To what extend can SAM be called a generic model? In the research at hand, SAM is
called a generic model, but it proposes solutions merely for teaching statistics. It would
be helpful to crosscheck the model with samples that come from a neutral or at least
different environment than statistics.
• Four learning maturity levels and their properties could be identified. But there is no
detailed suggestion for a self-assessment. It is certainly an interesting outlook to generate
an instrument that could assess the learning level maturity. Based on the used
questionnaire in the research, a reduced form could theoretically be created.

30. Thank You