On the basis of unequal access to justice in Cameroon characterized by an imbalance between the rich and poor, it is the aim of this paper to suggest that the main principles of the rule of law should be improved for the poor, in order to ensure equity in every society. Considering that legal representation constitutes the core of access to justice, the present paper attempts to critically analyse the contribution of the Cameroon Bar Association towards access to justice for the poor, focusing on Cameroon, with the objective of promoting good governance and reducing poverty. The challenges that emerged from this study are to enable lawyers to reconcile their professional interests and those of their clients, to replace the business aspect of the legal profession with the traditionally altruistic role of lawyers, and by so doing, provide equal justice to the poor. The paper concludes that in Cameroon, as in other places, the Bar helps more than it hinders access to justice. In order to strengthen the role of the Bar in promoting access to justice, the establishment of CARPA is recommended here, whose additional advantage, apart from that of promoting good handling of clients' money, is promoting good governance within the bar, may be to provide through bank interest, funds to finance legal aid. Akama Samuel Penda | Ngatchou Toto Carles "A Legal Analysis of the Role of Bar Associations towards Access to Justice for the Poor: A Case Study of Cameroon" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-1 , December 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd29794.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/law-and-management/29794/a-legal-analysis-of-the-role-of-bar-associations-towards-access-to-justice-for-the-poor-a-case-study-of-cameroon/akama-samuel-penda
This document discusses various perspectives on world order and non-state actors. It first examines how different theories of international relations like realism, liberalism, and positivism view non-state actors. It then discusses the role and obligations of non-state actors in promoting human rights according to international declarations. The document also analyzes the increasing recognition of businesses' responsibilities regarding human rights. Finally, it concludes that more conceptual work is needed to fully understand the role and classification of non-state actors in world order.
This document provides summaries of books related to various areas of law, including administrative law, arbitration, company law, comparative law, competition law, and constitutional law. For each book, it lists the title, publication date, format (hardcover or softcover), price in British pounds, and a brief 1-3 sentence description of what the book is about. The books appear to have been sourced from various academic publishers like Europa Law, Oxford University Press, and other university presses.
The document discusses the need for a Disability Rights Tribunal for Asia and the Pacific (DRTAP) to address the lack of enforcement of disability rights protections in the region. It outlines proposals for the DRTAP to initially operate as a commission and eventually become a court to hear cases involving violations of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). The document also describes New York Law School's efforts to establish an online Disability Rights Information Center for Asia and the Pacific (DRICAP) and offer distance learning courses on disability law to help build support for the DRTAP.
Constitutional blokkerpaul.
Politics in Iceland wordpress.com
The document summarizes grassroots constitutional politics in Iceland, where citizens have embarked on an experimental process of constitution-making from below. Key points:
1) Following Iceland's 2008 economic crisis, citizens protested and called for political and constitutional renewal, seeing the current constitution as outdated.
2) A National Assembly was organized in 2009 where 1,200 randomly selected citizens and 300 representatives identified core national values like integrity, equal rights, and justice.
3) The current constitution is seen as temporary and not fully reflecting Icelandic values, creating tensions between the legal framework and societal views.
4)
The first session of the forum discussed the tension domestic courts face between applying universal human rights standards and domestic particularities. Participants noted that a court's application of international law depends on legal professionals making persuasive arguments and judges' willingness to accept them. National legal frameworks, lack of judicial knowledge or integrity, and unwillingness to apply international standards can influence courts. Differences between monist and dualist legal traditions, issues with precedent and non-incorporation of international law into domestic law can also impact courts. When judges avoid applying international standards through techniques like jurisdictional arguments or deference to public policy, it can engage state responsibility for human rights violations. The session concluded by emphasizing the importance of educating judges on international law and facilitating international
Inclusive local decision making & the UNCRPDneilmcrowther
This document summarizes key points about nothing decisions being made about disabled people without their involvement. It discusses the social model of disability and principles of equal rights and participation. The UNCRPD emphasizes consultation and involvement of disabled people's organizations. Examples from the UK show involvement at national and local levels in policymaking, implementation, elected office, and through disabled people's organizations. Co-production is highlighted as moving beyond consultation to partnership.
Access to information: from principles to practiceRobyn Hunt
The document discusses the impact and importance of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) in promoting accessible information and human rights for disabled people. Some key points covered include:
- The CRPD takes an inclusive view of disability and acknowledges how the social and physical environment can disable people with impairments.
- It was the first UN convention developed with significant involvement from disabled people and organizations.
- The CRPD includes provisions on accessibility and access to information under Articles 9 and 21.
- Ratification of the CRPD by countries like New Zealand has led to practical changes like making sign language an official language and increasing accessible information for disabled citizens.
The International Bar Association's Human Rights Institute (IBAHRI) works to promote and protect human rights under the rule of law. In 2012, the IBAHRI undertook various activities including capacity building programs in Afghanistan and the Democratic Republic of Congo, fact-finding missions in Malawi, Hungary, Georgia, and Myanmar to investigate challenges to the rule of law, trial observations in Thailand, Turkey, and Venezuela, and training programs in Tunisia, Angola, Brazil, Mexico, Ukraine, and Uganda focused on topics such as combating torture and strengthening parliaments. The IBAHRI also conducted advocacy through letters, reports, and task forces on issues including illicit financial flows, justice reform in Brazil, and the
This document discusses various perspectives on world order and non-state actors. It first examines how different theories of international relations like realism, liberalism, and positivism view non-state actors. It then discusses the role and obligations of non-state actors in promoting human rights according to international declarations. The document also analyzes the increasing recognition of businesses' responsibilities regarding human rights. Finally, it concludes that more conceptual work is needed to fully understand the role and classification of non-state actors in world order.
This document provides summaries of books related to various areas of law, including administrative law, arbitration, company law, comparative law, competition law, and constitutional law. For each book, it lists the title, publication date, format (hardcover or softcover), price in British pounds, and a brief 1-3 sentence description of what the book is about. The books appear to have been sourced from various academic publishers like Europa Law, Oxford University Press, and other university presses.
The document discusses the need for a Disability Rights Tribunal for Asia and the Pacific (DRTAP) to address the lack of enforcement of disability rights protections in the region. It outlines proposals for the DRTAP to initially operate as a commission and eventually become a court to hear cases involving violations of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). The document also describes New York Law School's efforts to establish an online Disability Rights Information Center for Asia and the Pacific (DRICAP) and offer distance learning courses on disability law to help build support for the DRTAP.
Constitutional blokkerpaul.
Politics in Iceland wordpress.com
The document summarizes grassroots constitutional politics in Iceland, where citizens have embarked on an experimental process of constitution-making from below. Key points:
1) Following Iceland's 2008 economic crisis, citizens protested and called for political and constitutional renewal, seeing the current constitution as outdated.
2) A National Assembly was organized in 2009 where 1,200 randomly selected citizens and 300 representatives identified core national values like integrity, equal rights, and justice.
3) The current constitution is seen as temporary and not fully reflecting Icelandic values, creating tensions between the legal framework and societal views.
4)
The first session of the forum discussed the tension domestic courts face between applying universal human rights standards and domestic particularities. Participants noted that a court's application of international law depends on legal professionals making persuasive arguments and judges' willingness to accept them. National legal frameworks, lack of judicial knowledge or integrity, and unwillingness to apply international standards can influence courts. Differences between monist and dualist legal traditions, issues with precedent and non-incorporation of international law into domestic law can also impact courts. When judges avoid applying international standards through techniques like jurisdictional arguments or deference to public policy, it can engage state responsibility for human rights violations. The session concluded by emphasizing the importance of educating judges on international law and facilitating international
Inclusive local decision making & the UNCRPDneilmcrowther
This document summarizes key points about nothing decisions being made about disabled people without their involvement. It discusses the social model of disability and principles of equal rights and participation. The UNCRPD emphasizes consultation and involvement of disabled people's organizations. Examples from the UK show involvement at national and local levels in policymaking, implementation, elected office, and through disabled people's organizations. Co-production is highlighted as moving beyond consultation to partnership.
Access to information: from principles to practiceRobyn Hunt
The document discusses the impact and importance of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) in promoting accessible information and human rights for disabled people. Some key points covered include:
- The CRPD takes an inclusive view of disability and acknowledges how the social and physical environment can disable people with impairments.
- It was the first UN convention developed with significant involvement from disabled people and organizations.
- The CRPD includes provisions on accessibility and access to information under Articles 9 and 21.
- Ratification of the CRPD by countries like New Zealand has led to practical changes like making sign language an official language and increasing accessible information for disabled citizens.
The International Bar Association's Human Rights Institute (IBAHRI) works to promote and protect human rights under the rule of law. In 2012, the IBAHRI undertook various activities including capacity building programs in Afghanistan and the Democratic Republic of Congo, fact-finding missions in Malawi, Hungary, Georgia, and Myanmar to investigate challenges to the rule of law, trial observations in Thailand, Turkey, and Venezuela, and training programs in Tunisia, Angola, Brazil, Mexico, Ukraine, and Uganda focused on topics such as combating torture and strengthening parliaments. The IBAHRI also conducted advocacy through letters, reports, and task forces on issues including illicit financial flows, justice reform in Brazil, and the
Poor Law Act 1601 Essay
The United Kingdom Public Law Essay
Law School Essay
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Why Study Law Essay
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Essay on Legislation
The Rule of Law Essay
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1) The document discusses the roles and responsibilities of universities, including how they should balance market forces with serving public goods.
2) It addresses the challenges of intellectual property rights and partnerships with private industry, noting universities must protect their core values of open inquiry and sharing of knowledge.
3) The author calls on university scholars to engage with their societies and stretch out to colleagues globally to address rising inequities in the knowledge age.
The document discusses financial services and markets, and the need for financial consumer protection due to information asymmetry between consumers and financial institutions. It introduces the Financial Ombudsman Service (FOS) in the UK, which aims to provide a flexible way to resolve disputes outside of litigation. The FOS considers what is fair on a case-by-case basis rather than strict legal rules. This allows the FOS to better protect financial consumers.
The Challenges of Implementing Freedom of Information Act by the Civil Societ...Triple A Research Journal
This document summarizes a study that investigated the challenges faced by Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) in implementing the Freedom of Information Act in Lagos State, Nigeria. The study found that CSOs encountered challenges related to procedures for obtaining information, delays in information release, and conflicts with the Official Secrets Act. Most information requests made by CSOs under the FOIA took longer than the 7 day timeframe stipulated by the law. The document recommends addressing the identified challenges through engagement with relevant legal authorities and amendments to the legislation.
The Challenges of Implementing Freedom of Information Act by the Civil Societ...Triple A Research Journal
The study was carried out to determine the challenges and difficulties
encountered by the Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) in Lagos State,
while utilising the FoIA to access information. The study was
predicated on two theories - Public Sphere, and Social Responsibility
theories. The objectives, among other things, were to investigate and
evaluate the duration odd time expended in accessing information
under the FoIA and the challenges and difficulties encountered, while
utilizing the FoIA. Interview schedule was used to elicit information
from the three CSOs – SERAP, CLO, MRA purposively selected.
Analysis revealed that the CSOs in Lagos state encountered
challenges and difficulties in the areas of procedure, release of
information, and the effect of the Official Secret Act 1962, amongst
others. The study also found out, that majority of the information
accessed under the FoIA by the CSOs in Lagos state were accessed
outside the seven (7) days’ timeframe stipulated by the FoIA in
Section 4. Based on the forgoing, it was recommended, amongst
others, that the difficulties and challenges identified by this study
should be, urgently, presented or tabled before the appropriate
quarters – Attorney general, who the law imbued with the supervisory
function over the implementation of the FoIA; and to the National
Assembly for amendment.
Keywords: Civil Society Organisations, Challenges, Freedom of
Information Act, Implementation
This document provides an overview of forensic accounting and its role in combating corruption in Nigeria. It defines forensic accounting as the scientific application of accounting principles to legal problems, and notes that forensic accountants uncover and analyze fraud and present evidence for legal cases. The document then discusses concepts of corruption and defines it as the abuse of power for private gain. It notes widespread corruption in Nigeria and argues that forensic accounting techniques can help fight corruption by gathering evidence for prosecutions. Overall, the document examines the nexus between forensic accounting and combating political and financial corruption in Nigeria through litigation support and fraud detection.
The document discusses the Fair Trial Rights Club, which is an initiative aimed at improving respect for fair trial rights and strengthening the rule of law in Cambodia. The Club consists of 8 seminars that teach law students and recent graduates about fair trial rights, using examples from the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia. Participants' discussions will be included in a handbook on fair trial rights. Curricula developed for the Club will also be provided to universities. The goal is to contribute to developing a network of individuals working to promote fair trial rights in Cambodia.
This document provides an introduction and table of contents to a dissertation arguing that the Special Criminal Court is the most adequate solution for prosecuting organized crime in Ireland. The introduction discusses how organized crime has proven difficult to prosecute through ordinary courts due to issues like jury and witness intimidation. It also notes that while the Special Criminal Court eliminates some procedures like jury trials, its focus has been on successfully prosecuting organized criminals. The methodology section outlines how the dissertation will examine literature on organized crime, the Special Criminal Court, the right to a jury trial, and the presumption of innocence to argue that the Special Criminal Court effectively achieves justice in these cases. Finally, the literature review identifies key sources that discuss organized crime, the history of the
This document discusses open access in Latin America. It notes some progress that has been made with open access laws and projects in certain countries. However, it also raises two concerns: (1) new support models promoted by large publishers that may undermine open access, and (2) the increasing use of criminal copyright laws to deter sharing, even in non-commercial contexts, which goes against international standards. The document advocates that sharing for non-commercial purposes should not be considered a criminal offense.
This document discusses open access in Latin America. It notes some progress that has been made with open access laws and projects in certain countries. However, it also raises two concerns: (1) new support models promoted by large publishers that may not fully support open access, and (2) the increasing use of criminal copyright laws to deter sharing, even in non-commercial contexts, which goes against international standards. The document advocates that sharing for non-commercial purposes should not be considered a criminal offense.
Corruption and economic crime news letter issue 2 may 2012Dr Lendy Spires
1) Indonesia loses 1.6-2.8 million hectares of forest annually to illegal logging fueled by corruption. UNODC works with partners there to study the issue and raise awareness of the links between corruption and environmental destruction.
2) In April, UNODC published a report on the impact of corruption on the environment, highlighting how corruption seriously threatens the environment.
3) In March, StAR rolled out a new training tool in Tunisia to benefit practitioners working to boost anti-corruption and asset recovery efforts. The tool uses a real case study to train participants.
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The First Steps to Accessing Justice in Cameroonijtsrd
This document discusses the procedure for accessing justice in Cameroon. It begins by outlining the different legal systems that developed in Cameroon due to British and French colonial rule. It then describes the various steps involved in accessing justice through different institutions in Cameroon, including local quarter councils, the judicial police/gendarmerie, customary courts, and the Court of First Instance and High Court. For each institution, it details the complaint process, fees involved, summons procedures, and rights of complainants and defendants. The overall goal of the document is to evaluate how an individual or group can formally make a complaint and seek legal recourse or redress through Cameroon's justice system structures and processes.
Child sexual abuse is an abhorrent phenomenon which occurs globally. Of focus in this report, are the legislative and procedural responses of four common law countries (namely India, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom) in the face of these heinous crimes. The protection of child rights takes a number of different forms across these common law countries and this reports aims to provide a summary of the current laws in operation dealing with child sex offences, by comparing and contrasting the position of India with those of Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. By outlining the current legal mechanisms in operation across these nations we hope to provide our partner organization (HAQ) with a substantive understanding of areas in which law reform could be considered by India and its Parliament. In our discussion we aim not only to provide information on laws and legal procedures currently operating in the specified nations, but also deliver an analysis of these mechanisms including their strengths and weaknesses. It is through this that we hope to inform discussions on law reform in India.
HAQ: Center for Child Rights
B1/2, Ground Floor,
Malviya Nagar
New Delhi - 110017
Tel: +91-26677412,26673599
Fax: +91-26674688
Website: www.haqcrc.org
FaceBook Page: https://www.facebook.com/HaqCentreForChildRights
Effective access to justice services is a crucial determinant of inclusive growth, citizen well-being and sound public administration. When citizens' legal needs remain unmet, it can contribute to reduced income, housing loss, stress, or employment issues. The inability to resolve these problems diminishes economic opportunity, reinforces the poverty trap and undermines human potential.
Through measurement, reviews, the identification of good practices and policy dialogue, the OECD seeks to better understand, track and help to improve effective access to justice. Our work in this area is an essential component for the successful attainment of Sustainable Development Goal 16 - to promote the rule of law at the national and international levels and ensure equal access to justice for all.
For further information see: www.oecd.org/gov/access-to-justice.htm
This document summarizes a thesis examining how civil forfeiture affects due process rights in Ireland. It begins with an introduction outlining the rise of organized crime and money laundering, and how countries like Ireland, the UK, and US have used civil forfeiture laws to recover criminal profits.
The thesis is divided into two parts. Part one examines the dichotomy between civil and criminal law, and how a "middle ground" of justice has emerged where criminal objectives are pursued through civil actions. Part two will analyze civil forfeiture laws and their impact on due process in the UK, US, and Ireland specifically.
Chapter one defines civil and criminal law, noting civil law addresses private relations while criminal law prevents public harm.
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‘Six Sigma Technique’ A Journey Through its Implementationijtsrd
The manufacturing industries all over the world are facing tough challenges for growth, development and sustainability in today’s competitive environment. They have to achieve apex position by adapting with the global competitive environment by delivering goods and services at low cost, prime quality and better price to increase wealth and consumer satisfaction. Cost Management ensures profit, growth and sustainability of the business with implementation of Continuous Improvement Technique like Six Sigma. This leads to optimize Business performance. The method drives for customer satisfaction, low variation, reduction in waste and cycle time resulting into a competitive advantage over other industries which did not implement it. The main objective of this paper ‘Six Sigma Technique A Journey Through Its Implementation’ is to conceptualize the effectiveness of Six Sigma Technique through the journey of its implementation. Aditi Sunilkumar Ghosalkar "‘Six Sigma Technique’: A Journey Through its Implementation" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64546.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/64546/‘six-sigma-technique’-a-journey-through-its-implementation/aditi-sunilkumar-ghosalkar
Edge Computing in Space Enhancing Data Processing and Communication for Space...ijtsrd
Edge computing, a paradigm that involves processing data closer to its source, has gained significant attention for its potential to revolutionize data processing and communication in space missions. With the increasing complexity and data volume generated by modern space missions, traditional centralized computing approaches face challenges related to latency, bandwidth, and security. Edge computing in space, involving on board processing and analysis of data, offers promising solutions to these challenges. This paper explores the concept of edge computing in space, its benefits, applications, and future prospects in enhancing space missions. Manish Verma "Edge Computing in Space: Enhancing Data Processing and Communication for Space Missions" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64541.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/computer-science/artificial-intelligence/64541/edge-computing-in-space-enhancing-data-processing-and-communication-for-space-missions/manish-verma
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1) The document discusses the roles and responsibilities of universities, including how they should balance market forces with serving public goods.
2) It addresses the challenges of intellectual property rights and partnerships with private industry, noting universities must protect their core values of open inquiry and sharing of knowledge.
3) The author calls on university scholars to engage with their societies and stretch out to colleagues globally to address rising inequities in the knowledge age.
The document discusses financial services and markets, and the need for financial consumer protection due to information asymmetry between consumers and financial institutions. It introduces the Financial Ombudsman Service (FOS) in the UK, which aims to provide a flexible way to resolve disputes outside of litigation. The FOS considers what is fair on a case-by-case basis rather than strict legal rules. This allows the FOS to better protect financial consumers.
The Challenges of Implementing Freedom of Information Act by the Civil Societ...Triple A Research Journal
This document summarizes a study that investigated the challenges faced by Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) in implementing the Freedom of Information Act in Lagos State, Nigeria. The study found that CSOs encountered challenges related to procedures for obtaining information, delays in information release, and conflicts with the Official Secrets Act. Most information requests made by CSOs under the FOIA took longer than the 7 day timeframe stipulated by the law. The document recommends addressing the identified challenges through engagement with relevant legal authorities and amendments to the legislation.
The Challenges of Implementing Freedom of Information Act by the Civil Societ...Triple A Research Journal
The study was carried out to determine the challenges and difficulties
encountered by the Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) in Lagos State,
while utilising the FoIA to access information. The study was
predicated on two theories - Public Sphere, and Social Responsibility
theories. The objectives, among other things, were to investigate and
evaluate the duration odd time expended in accessing information
under the FoIA and the challenges and difficulties encountered, while
utilizing the FoIA. Interview schedule was used to elicit information
from the three CSOs – SERAP, CLO, MRA purposively selected.
Analysis revealed that the CSOs in Lagos state encountered
challenges and difficulties in the areas of procedure, release of
information, and the effect of the Official Secret Act 1962, amongst
others. The study also found out, that majority of the information
accessed under the FoIA by the CSOs in Lagos state were accessed
outside the seven (7) days’ timeframe stipulated by the FoIA in
Section 4. Based on the forgoing, it was recommended, amongst
others, that the difficulties and challenges identified by this study
should be, urgently, presented or tabled before the appropriate
quarters – Attorney general, who the law imbued with the supervisory
function over the implementation of the FoIA; and to the National
Assembly for amendment.
Keywords: Civil Society Organisations, Challenges, Freedom of
Information Act, Implementation
This document provides an overview of forensic accounting and its role in combating corruption in Nigeria. It defines forensic accounting as the scientific application of accounting principles to legal problems, and notes that forensic accountants uncover and analyze fraud and present evidence for legal cases. The document then discusses concepts of corruption and defines it as the abuse of power for private gain. It notes widespread corruption in Nigeria and argues that forensic accounting techniques can help fight corruption by gathering evidence for prosecutions. Overall, the document examines the nexus between forensic accounting and combating political and financial corruption in Nigeria through litigation support and fraud detection.
The document discusses the Fair Trial Rights Club, which is an initiative aimed at improving respect for fair trial rights and strengthening the rule of law in Cambodia. The Club consists of 8 seminars that teach law students and recent graduates about fair trial rights, using examples from the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia. Participants' discussions will be included in a handbook on fair trial rights. Curricula developed for the Club will also be provided to universities. The goal is to contribute to developing a network of individuals working to promote fair trial rights in Cambodia.
This document provides an introduction and table of contents to a dissertation arguing that the Special Criminal Court is the most adequate solution for prosecuting organized crime in Ireland. The introduction discusses how organized crime has proven difficult to prosecute through ordinary courts due to issues like jury and witness intimidation. It also notes that while the Special Criminal Court eliminates some procedures like jury trials, its focus has been on successfully prosecuting organized criminals. The methodology section outlines how the dissertation will examine literature on organized crime, the Special Criminal Court, the right to a jury trial, and the presumption of innocence to argue that the Special Criminal Court effectively achieves justice in these cases. Finally, the literature review identifies key sources that discuss organized crime, the history of the
This document discusses open access in Latin America. It notes some progress that has been made with open access laws and projects in certain countries. However, it also raises two concerns: (1) new support models promoted by large publishers that may undermine open access, and (2) the increasing use of criminal copyright laws to deter sharing, even in non-commercial contexts, which goes against international standards. The document advocates that sharing for non-commercial purposes should not be considered a criminal offense.
This document discusses open access in Latin America. It notes some progress that has been made with open access laws and projects in certain countries. However, it also raises two concerns: (1) new support models promoted by large publishers that may not fully support open access, and (2) the increasing use of criminal copyright laws to deter sharing, even in non-commercial contexts, which goes against international standards. The document advocates that sharing for non-commercial purposes should not be considered a criminal offense.
Corruption and economic crime news letter issue 2 may 2012Dr Lendy Spires
1) Indonesia loses 1.6-2.8 million hectares of forest annually to illegal logging fueled by corruption. UNODC works with partners there to study the issue and raise awareness of the links between corruption and environmental destruction.
2) In April, UNODC published a report on the impact of corruption on the environment, highlighting how corruption seriously threatens the environment.
3) In March, StAR rolled out a new training tool in Tunisia to benefit practitioners working to boost anti-corruption and asset recovery efforts. The tool uses a real case study to train participants.
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The First Steps to Accessing Justice in Cameroonijtsrd
This document discusses the procedure for accessing justice in Cameroon. It begins by outlining the different legal systems that developed in Cameroon due to British and French colonial rule. It then describes the various steps involved in accessing justice through different institutions in Cameroon, including local quarter councils, the judicial police/gendarmerie, customary courts, and the Court of First Instance and High Court. For each institution, it details the complaint process, fees involved, summons procedures, and rights of complainants and defendants. The overall goal of the document is to evaluate how an individual or group can formally make a complaint and seek legal recourse or redress through Cameroon's justice system structures and processes.
Child sexual abuse is an abhorrent phenomenon which occurs globally. Of focus in this report, are the legislative and procedural responses of four common law countries (namely India, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom) in the face of these heinous crimes. The protection of child rights takes a number of different forms across these common law countries and this reports aims to provide a summary of the current laws in operation dealing with child sex offences, by comparing and contrasting the position of India with those of Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. By outlining the current legal mechanisms in operation across these nations we hope to provide our partner organization (HAQ) with a substantive understanding of areas in which law reform could be considered by India and its Parliament. In our discussion we aim not only to provide information on laws and legal procedures currently operating in the specified nations, but also deliver an analysis of these mechanisms including their strengths and weaknesses. It is through this that we hope to inform discussions on law reform in India.
HAQ: Center for Child Rights
B1/2, Ground Floor,
Malviya Nagar
New Delhi - 110017
Tel: +91-26677412,26673599
Fax: +91-26674688
Website: www.haqcrc.org
FaceBook Page: https://www.facebook.com/HaqCentreForChildRights
Effective access to justice services is a crucial determinant of inclusive growth, citizen well-being and sound public administration. When citizens' legal needs remain unmet, it can contribute to reduced income, housing loss, stress, or employment issues. The inability to resolve these problems diminishes economic opportunity, reinforces the poverty trap and undermines human potential.
Through measurement, reviews, the identification of good practices and policy dialogue, the OECD seeks to better understand, track and help to improve effective access to justice. Our work in this area is an essential component for the successful attainment of Sustainable Development Goal 16 - to promote the rule of law at the national and international levels and ensure equal access to justice for all.
For further information see: www.oecd.org/gov/access-to-justice.htm
This document summarizes a thesis examining how civil forfeiture affects due process rights in Ireland. It begins with an introduction outlining the rise of organized crime and money laundering, and how countries like Ireland, the UK, and US have used civil forfeiture laws to recover criminal profits.
The thesis is divided into two parts. Part one examines the dichotomy between civil and criminal law, and how a "middle ground" of justice has emerged where criminal objectives are pursued through civil actions. Part two will analyze civil forfeiture laws and their impact on due process in the UK, US, and Ireland specifically.
Chapter one defines civil and criminal law, noting civil law addresses private relations while criminal law prevents public harm.
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‘Six Sigma Technique’ A Journey Through its Implementationijtsrd
The manufacturing industries all over the world are facing tough challenges for growth, development and sustainability in today’s competitive environment. They have to achieve apex position by adapting with the global competitive environment by delivering goods and services at low cost, prime quality and better price to increase wealth and consumer satisfaction. Cost Management ensures profit, growth and sustainability of the business with implementation of Continuous Improvement Technique like Six Sigma. This leads to optimize Business performance. The method drives for customer satisfaction, low variation, reduction in waste and cycle time resulting into a competitive advantage over other industries which did not implement it. The main objective of this paper ‘Six Sigma Technique A Journey Through Its Implementation’ is to conceptualize the effectiveness of Six Sigma Technique through the journey of its implementation. Aditi Sunilkumar Ghosalkar "‘Six Sigma Technique’: A Journey Through its Implementation" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64546.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/64546/‘six-sigma-technique’-a-journey-through-its-implementation/aditi-sunilkumar-ghosalkar
Edge Computing in Space Enhancing Data Processing and Communication for Space...ijtsrd
Edge computing, a paradigm that involves processing data closer to its source, has gained significant attention for its potential to revolutionize data processing and communication in space missions. With the increasing complexity and data volume generated by modern space missions, traditional centralized computing approaches face challenges related to latency, bandwidth, and security. Edge computing in space, involving on board processing and analysis of data, offers promising solutions to these challenges. This paper explores the concept of edge computing in space, its benefits, applications, and future prospects in enhancing space missions. Manish Verma "Edge Computing in Space: Enhancing Data Processing and Communication for Space Missions" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64541.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/computer-science/artificial-intelligence/64541/edge-computing-in-space-enhancing-data-processing-and-communication-for-space-missions/manish-verma
Dynamics of Communal Politics in 21st Century India Challenges and Prospectsijtsrd
Communal politics in India has evolved through centuries, weaving a complex tapestry shaped by historical legacies, colonial influences, and contemporary socio political transformations. This research comprehensively examines the dynamics of communal politics in 21st century India, emphasizing its historical roots, socio political dynamics, economic implications, challenges, and prospects for mitigation. The historical perspective unravels the intricate interplay of religious identities and power dynamics from ancient civilizations to the impact of colonial rule, providing insights into the evolution of communalism. The socio political dynamics section delves into the contemporary manifestations, exploring the roles of identity politics, socio economic disparities, and globalization. The economic implications section highlights how communal politics intersects with economic issues, perpetuating disparities and influencing resource allocation. Challenges posed by communal politics are scrutinized, revealing multifaceted issues ranging from social fragmentation to threats against democratic values. The prospects for mitigation present a multifaceted approach, incorporating policy interventions, community engagement, and educational initiatives. The paper conducts a comparative analysis with international examples, identifying common patterns such as identity politics and economic disparities. It also examines unique challenges, emphasizing Indias diverse religious landscape, historical legacy, and secular framework. Lessons for effective strategies are drawn from international experiences, offering insights into inclusive policies, interfaith dialogue, media regulation, and global cooperation. By scrutinizing historical epochs, contemporary dynamics, economic implications, and international comparisons, this research provides a comprehensive understanding of communal politics in India. The proposed strategies for mitigation underscore the importance of a holistic approach to foster social harmony, inclusivity, and democratic values. Rose Hossain "Dynamics of Communal Politics in 21st Century India: Challenges and Prospects" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64528.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/history/64528/dynamics-of-communal-politics-in-21st-century-india-challenges-and-prospects/rose-hossain
Assess Perspective and Knowledge of Healthcare Providers Towards Elehealth in...ijtsrd
Background and Objective Telehealth has become a well known tool for the delivery of health care in Saudi Arabia, and the perspective and knowledge of healthcare providers are influential in the implementation, adoption and advancement of the method. This systematic review was conducted to examine the current literature base regarding telehealth and the related healthcare professional perspective and knowledge in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Materials and Methods This systematic review was conducted by searching 7 databases including, MEDLINE, CINHAL, Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, PsycINFO, and ProQuest Central. Studies on healthcare practitioners telehealth knowledge and perspectives published in English in Saudi Arabia from 2000 to 2023 were included. Boland directed this comprehensive review. The researchers examined each connected study using the AXIS tool, which evaluates cross sectional systematic reviews. Narrative synthesis was used to summarise and convey the data. Results Out of 1840 search results, 10 studies were included. Positive outlook and limited knowledge among providers were seen across trials. Healthcare professionals like telehealth for its ability to improve quality, access, and delivery, save time and money, and be successful. Age, gender, occupation, and work experience also affect health workers knowledge. In Saudi Arabia, healthcare professionals face inadequate expert assistance, patient privacy, internet connection concerns, lack of training courses, lack of telehealth understanding, and high costs while performing telemedicine. Conclusions Healthcare practitioners telehealth perceptions and knowledge were examined in this systematic study. Its collection of concerned experts different personal attitudes and expertise would help enhance telehealths implementation in Saudi Arabia, develop its healthcare delivery alternative, and eliminate frequent problems. Badriah Mousa I Mulayhi | Dr. Jomin George | Judy Jenkins "Assess Perspective and Knowledge of Healthcare Providers Towards Elehealth in Saudi Arabia: A Systematic Review" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64535.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/medicine/other/64535/assess-perspective-and-knowledge-of-healthcare-providers-towards-elehealth-in-saudi-arabia-a-systematic-review/badriah-mousa-i-mulayhi
The Impact of Digital Media on the Decentralization of Power and the Erosion ...ijtsrd
The impact of digital media on the distribution of power and the weakening of traditional gatekeepers has gained considerable attention in recent years. The adoption of digital technologies and the internet has resulted in declining influence and power for traditional gatekeepers such as publishing houses and news organizations. Simultaneously, digital media has facilitated the emergence of new voices and players in the media industry. Digital medias impact on power decentralization and gatekeeper erosion is visible in several ways. One significant aspect is the democratization of information, which enables anyone with an internet connection to publish and share content globally, leading to citizen journalism and bypassing traditional gatekeepers. Another aspect is the disruption of conventional media industry business models, as traditional organizations struggle to adjust to the decrease in advertising revenue and the rise of digital platforms. Alternative business models, such as subscription models and crowdfunding, have become more prevalent, leading to the emergence of new players. Overall, the impact of digital media on the distribution of power and the weakening of traditional gatekeepers has brought about significant changes in the media landscape and the way information is shared. Further research is required to fully comprehend the implications of these changes and their impact on society. Dr. Kusum Lata "The Impact of Digital Media on the Decentralization of Power and the Erosion of Traditional Gatekeepers" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64544.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/political-science/64544/the-impact-of-digital-media-on-the-decentralization-of-power-and-the-erosion-of-traditional-gatekeepers/dr-kusum-lata
Online Voices, Offline Impact Ambedkars Ideals and Socio Political Inclusion ...ijtsrd
This research investigates the nexus between online discussions on Dr. B.R. Ambedkars ideals and their impact on social inclusion among college students in Gurugram, Haryana. Surveying 240 students from 12 government colleges, findings indicate that 65 actively engage in online discussions, with 80 demonstrating moderate to high awareness of Ambedkars ideals. Statistically significant correlations reveal that higher online engagement correlates with increased awareness p 0.05 and perceived social inclusion. Variations across colleges and a notable effect of college type on perceived social inclusion highlight the influence of contextual factors. Furthermore, the intersectional analysis underscores nuanced differences based on gender, caste, and socio economic status. Dr. Kusum Lata "Online Voices, Offline Impact: Ambedkar's Ideals and Socio-Political Inclusion - A Study of Gurugram District" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64543.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/political-science/64543/online-voices-offline-impact-ambedkars-ideals-and-sociopolitical-inclusion--a-study-of-gurugram-district/dr-kusum-lata
Problems and Challenges of Agro Entreprenurship A Studyijtsrd
Noting calls for contextualizing Agro entrepreneurs problems and challenges of the agro entrepreneurs and for greater attention to the Role of entrepreneurs in agro entrepreneurship research, we conduct a systematic literature review of extent research in agriculture entrepreneurship to overcome the study objectives of complications of agro entrepreneurs through various factors, Development of agriculture products is a key factor for the overall economic growth of agro entrepreneurs Agro Entrepreneurs produces firsthand large scale employment, utilizes the labor and natural resources, This research outlines the problems of Weather and Soil Erosions, Market price fluctuation, stimulates labor cost problems, reduces concentration of Price volatility, Dependency on Intermediaries, induces Limited Bargaining Power, and Storage and Transportation Costs. This paper mainly devoted to highlight Problems and challenges faced for the sustainable of Agro Entrepreneurs in India. Vinay Prasad B "Problems and Challenges of Agro Entreprenurship - A Study" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64540.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/64540/problems-and-challenges-of-agro-entreprenurship--a-study/vinay-prasad-b
Comparative Analysis of Total Corporate Disclosure of Selected IT Companies o...ijtsrd
Disclosure is a process through which a business enterprise communicates with external parties. A corporate disclosure is communication of financial and non financial information of the activities of a business enterprise to the interested entities. Corporate disclosure is done through publishing annual reports. So corporate disclosure through annual reports plays a vital role in the life of all the companies and provides valuable information to investors. The basic objectives of corporate disclosure is to give a true and fair view of companies to the parties related either directly or indirectly like owner, government, creditors, shareholders etc. in the companies act, provisions have been made about mandatory and voluntary disclosure. The IT sector in India is rapidly growing, the trend to invest in the IT sector is rising and employment opportunities in IT sectors are also increasing. Therefore the IT sector is expected to have fair, full and adequate disclosure of all information. Unfair and incomplete disclosure may adversely affect the entire economy. A research study on disclosure practices of IT companies could play an important role in this regard. Hence, the present research study has been done to study and review comparative analysis of total corporate disclosure of selected IT companies of India and to put forward overall findings and suggestions with a view to increase disclosure score of these companies. The researcher hopes that the present research study will be helpful to all selected Companies for improving level of corporate disclosure through annual reports as well as the government, creditors, investors, all business organizations and upcoming researcher for comparative analyses of level of corporate disclosure with special reference to selected IT companies. Dr. Vaibhavi D. Thaker "Comparative Analysis of Total Corporate Disclosure of Selected IT Companies of India" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64539.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/64539/comparative-analysis-of-total-corporate-disclosure-of-selected-it-companies-of-india/dr-vaibhavi-d-thaker
The Impact of Educational Background and Professional Training on Human Right...ijtsrd
This study investigated the impact of educational background and professional training on human rights awareness among secondary school teachers in the Marathwada region of Maharashtra, India. The key findings reveal that higher levels of education, particularly a master’s degree, and fields of study related to education, humanities, or social sciences are associated with greater human rights awareness among teachers. Additionally, both pre service teacher training and in service professional development programs focused on human rights education significantly enhance teacher’s knowledge, skills, and competencies in promoting human rights principles in their classrooms. Baig Ameer Bee Mirza Abdul Aziz | Dr. Syed Azaz Ali Amjad Ali "The Impact of Educational Background and Professional Training on Human Rights Awareness among Secondary School Teachers" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64529.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/64529/the-impact-of-educational-background-and-professional-training-on-human-rights-awareness-among-secondary-school-teachers/baig-ameer-bee-mirza-abdul-aziz
A Study on the Effective Teaching Learning Process in English Curriculum at t...ijtsrd
“One Language sets you in a corridor for life. Two languages open every door along the way” Frank Smith English as a foreign language or as a second language has been ruling in India since the period of Lord Macaulay. But the question is how much we teach or learn English properly in our culture. Is there any scope to use English as a language rather than a subject How much we learn or teach English without any interference of mother language specially in the classroom teaching learning scenario in West Bengal By considering all these issues the researcher has attempted in this article to focus on the effective teaching learning process comparing to other traditional strategies in the field of English curriculum at the secondary level to investigate whether they fulfill the present teaching learning requirements or not by examining the validity of the present curriculum of English. The purpose of this study is to focus on the effectiveness of the systematic, scientific, sequential and logical transaction of the course between the teachers and the learners in the perspective of the 5Es programme that is engage, explore, explain, extend and evaluate. Sanchali Mondal | Santinath Sarkar "A Study on the Effective Teaching Learning Process in English Curriculum at the Secondary Level of West Bengal" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd62412.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/62412/a-study-on-the-effective-teaching-learning-process-in-english-curriculum-at-the-secondary-level-of-west-bengal/sanchali-mondal
The Role of Mentoring and Its Influence on the Effectiveness of the Teaching ...ijtsrd
This paper reports on a study which was conducted to investigate the role of mentoring and its influence on the effectiveness of the teaching of Physics in secondary schools in the South West Region of Cameroon. The study adopted the convergent parallel mixed methods design, focusing on respondents in secondary schools in the South West Region of Cameroon. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected, analysed separately, and the results were compared to see if the findings confirm or disconfirm each other. The quantitative analysis found that majority of the respondents 72 of Physics teachers affirmed that they had more experienced colleagues as mentors to help build their confidence, improve their teaching, and help them improve their effectiveness and efficiency in guiding learners’ achievements. Only 28 of the respondents disagreed with these statements. With majority respondents 72 agreeing with the statements, it implies that in most secondary schools, experienced Physics teachers act as mentors to build teachers’ confidence in teaching and improving students’ learning. The interview qualitative data analysis summarized how secondary school Principals use meetings with mentors and mentees to promote mentorship in the school milieu. This has helped strengthen teachers’ classroom practices in secondary schools in the South West Region of Cameroon. With the results confirming each other, the study recommends that mentoring should focus on helping teachers employ social interactions and instructional practices feedback and clarity in teaching that have direct measurable impact on students’ learning achievements. Andrew Ngeim Sumba | Frederick Ebot Ashu | Peter Agborbechem Tambi "The Role of Mentoring and Its Influence on the Effectiveness of the Teaching of Physics in Secondary Schools in the South West Region of Cameroon" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64524.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/management-development/64524/the-role-of-mentoring-and-its-influence-on-the-effectiveness-of-the-teaching-of-physics-in-secondary-schools-in-the-south-west-region-of-cameroon/andrew-ngeim-sumba
Design Simulation and Hardware Construction of an Arduino Microcontroller Bas...ijtsrd
This study primarily focuses on the design of a high side buck converter using an Arduino microcontroller. The converter is specifically intended for use in DC DC applications, particularly in standalone solar PV systems where the PV output voltage exceeds the load or battery voltage. To evaluate the performance of the converter, simulation experiments are conducted using Proteus Software. These simulations provide insights into the input and output voltages, currents, powers, and efficiency under different state of charge SoC conditions of a 12V,70Ah rechargeable lead acid battery. Additionally, the hardware design of the converter is implemented, and practical data is collected through operation, monitoring, and recording. By comparing the simulation results with the practical results, the efficiency and performance of the designed converter are assessed. The findings indicate that while the buck converter is suitable for practical use in standalone PV systems, its efficiency is compromised due to a lower output current. Chan Myae Aung | Dr. Ei Mon "Design Simulation and Hardware Construction of an Arduino-Microcontroller Based DC-DC High-Side Buck Converter for Standalone PV System" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64518.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/64518/design-simulation-and-hardware-construction-of-an-arduinomicrocontroller-based-dcdc-highside-buck-converter-for-standalone-pv-system/chan-myae-aung
Sustainable Energy by Paul A. Adekunte | Matthew N. O. Sadiku | Janet O. Sadikuijtsrd
Energy becomes sustainable if it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Some of the definitions of sustainable energy include the considerations of environmental aspects such as greenhouse gas emissions, social, and economic aspects such as energy poverty. Generally far more sustainable than fossil fuel are renewable energy sources such as wind, hydroelectric power, solar, and geothermal energy sources. Worthy of note is that some renewable energy projects, like the clearing of forests to produce biofuels, can cause severe environmental damage. The sustainability of nuclear power which is a low carbon source is highly debated because of concerns about radioactive waste, nuclear proliferation, and accidents. The switching from coal to natural gas has environmental benefits, including a lower climate impact, but could lead to delay in switching to more sustainable options. “Carbon capture and storage” can be built into power plants to remove the carbon dioxide CO2 emissions, but this technology is expensive and has rarely been implemented. Leading non renewable energy sources around the world is fossil fuels, coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Nuclear energy is usually considered another non renewable energy source, although nuclear energy itself is a renewable energy source, but the material used in nuclear power plants is not. The paper addresses the issue of sustainable energy, its attendant benefits to the future generation, and humanity in general. Paul A. Adekunte | Matthew N. O. Sadiku | Janet O. Sadiku "Sustainable Energy" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64534.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/64534/sustainable-energy/paul-a-adekunte
Concepts for Sudan Survey Act Implementations Executive Regulations and Stand...ijtsrd
This paper aims to outline the executive regulations, survey standards, and specifications required for the implementation of the Sudan Survey Act, and for regulating and organizing all surveying work activities in Sudan. The act has been discussed for more than 5 years. The Land Survey Act was initiated by the Sudan Survey Authority and all official legislations were headed by the Sudan Ministry of Justice till it was issued in 2022. The paper presents conceptual guidelines to be used for the Survey Act implementation and to regulate the survey work practice, standardizing the field surveys, processing, quality control, procedures, and the processes related to survey work carried out by the stakeholders and relevant authorities in Sudan. The conceptual guidelines are meant to improve the quality and harmonization of geospatial data and to aid decision making processes as well as geospatial information systems. The established comprehensive executive regulations will govern and regulate the implementation of the Sudan Survey Geomatics Act in all surveying and mapping practices undertaken by the Sudan Survey Authority SSA and state local survey departments for public or private sector organizations. The targeted standards and specifications include the reference frame, projection, coordinate systems, and the guidelines and specifications that must be followed in the field of survey work, processes, and mapping products. In the last few decades, there has been a growing awareness of the importance of geomatics activities and measurements on the Earths surface in space and time, together with observing and mapping the changes. In such cases, data must be captured promptly, standardized, and obtained with more accuracy and specified in much detail. The paper will also highlight the current situation in Sudan, the degree to which survey standards are used, the problems encountered, and the errors that arise from not using the standards and survey specifications. Kamal A. A. Sami "Concepts for Sudan Survey Act Implementations - Executive Regulations and Standards" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63484.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/63484/concepts-for-sudan-survey-act-implementations--executive-regulations-and-standards/kamal-a-a-sami
Towards the Implementation of the Sudan Interpolated Geoid Model Khartoum Sta...ijtsrd
The discussions between ellipsoid and geoid have invoked many researchers during the recent decades, especially during the GNSS technology era, which had witnessed a great deal of development but still geoid undulation requires more investigations. To figure out a solution for Sudans local geoid, this research has tried to intake the possibility of determining the geoid model by following two approaches, gravimetric and geometrical geoid model determination, by making use of GNSS leveling benchmarks at Khartoum state. The Benchmarks are well distributed in the study area, in which, the horizontal coordinates and the height above the ellipsoid have been observed by GNSS while orthometric heights were carried out using precise leveling. The Global Geopotential Model GGM represented in EGM2008 has been exploited to figure out the geoid undulation at the benchmarks in the study area. This is followed by a fitting process, that has been done to suit the geoid undulation data which has been computed using GNSS leveling data and geoid undulation inspired by the EGM2008. Two geoid surfaces were created after the fitting process to ensure that they are identical and both of them could be counted for getting the same geoid undulation with an acceptable accuracy. In this respect, statistical operation played an important role in ensuring the consistency and integrity of the model by applying cross validation techniques splitting the data into training and testing datasets for building the geoid model and testing its eligibility. The geometrical solution for geoid undulation computation has been utilized by applying straightforward equations that facilitate the calculation of the geoid undulation directly through applying statistical techniques for the GNSS leveling data of the study area to get the common equation parameters values that could be utilized to calculate geoid undulation of any position in the study area within the claimed accuracy. Both systems were checked and proved eligible to be used within the study area with acceptable accuracy which may contribute to solving the geoid undulation problem in the Khartoum area, and be further generalized to determine the geoid model over the entire country, and this could be considered in the future, for regional and continental geoid model. Ahmed M. A. Mohammed. | Kamal A. A. Sami "Towards the Implementation of the Sudan Interpolated Geoid Model (Khartoum State Case Study)" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63483.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/63483/towards-the-implementation-of-the-sudan-interpolated-geoid-model-khartoum-state-case-study/ahmed-m-a-mohammed
Activating Geospatial Information for Sudans Sustainable Investment Mapijtsrd
Sudan is witnessing an acceleration in the processes of development and transformation in the performance of government institutions to raise the productivity and investment efficiency of the government sector. The development plans and investment opportunities have focused on achieving national goals in various sectors. This paper aims to illuminate the path to the future and provide geospatial data and information to develop the investment climate and environment for all sized businesses, and to bridge the development gap between the Sudan states. The Sudan Survey Authority SSA is the main advisor to the Sudan Government in conducting surveying, mappings, designing, and developing systems related to geospatial data and information. In recent years, SSA made a strategic partnership with the Ministry of Investment to activate Geospatial Information for Sudans Sustainable Investment and in particular, for the preparation and implementation of the Sudan investment map, based on the directives and objectives of the Ministry of Investment MI in Sudan. This paper comes within the framework of activating the efforts of the Ministry of Investment to develop technical investment services by applying techniques adopted by the Ministry and its strategic partners for advancing investment processes in the country. Kamal A. A. Sami "Activating Geospatial Information for Sudan's Sustainable Investment Map" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63482.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/information-technology/63482/activating-geospatial-information-for-sudans-sustainable-investment-map/kamal-a-a-sami
Educational Unity Embracing Diversity for a Stronger Societyijtsrd
In a rapidly changing global landscape, the importance of education as a unifying force cannot be overstated. This paper explores the crucial role of educational unity in fostering a stronger and more inclusive society through the embrace of diversity. By examining the benefits of diverse learning environments, the paper aims to highlight the positive impact on societal strength. The discussion encompasses various dimensions, from curriculum design to classroom dynamics, and emphasizes the need for educational institutions to become catalysts for unity in diversity. It highlights the need for a paradigm shift in educational policies, curricula, and pedagogical approaches to ensure that they are reflective of the diverse fabric of society. This paper also addresses the challenges associated with implementing inclusive educational practices and offers practical strategies for overcoming barriers. It advocates for collaborative efforts between educational institutions, policymakers, and communities to create a supportive ecosystem that promotes diversity and unity. Mr. Amit Adhikari | Madhumita Teli | Gopal Adhikari "Educational Unity: Embracing Diversity for a Stronger Society" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64525.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/64525/educational-unity-embracing-diversity-for-a-stronger-society/mr-amit-adhikari
Integration of Indian Indigenous Knowledge System in Management Prospects and...ijtsrd
The diversity of indigenous knowledge systems in India is vast and can vary significantly between different communities and regions. Preserving and respecting these knowledge systems is crucial for maintaining cultural heritage, promoting sustainable practices, and fostering cross cultural understanding. In this paper, an overview of the prospects and challenges associated with incorporating Indian indigenous knowledge into management is explored. It is found that IIKS helps in management in many areas like sustainable development, tourism, food security, natural resource management, cultural preservation and innovation, etc. However, IIKS integration with management faces some challenges in the form of a lack of documentation, cultural sensitivity, language barriers legal framework, etc. Savita Lathwal "Integration of Indian Indigenous Knowledge System in Management: Prospects and Challenges" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63500.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/accounting-and-finance/63500/integration-of-indian-indigenous-knowledge-system-in-management-prospects-and-challenges/savita-lathwal
DeepMask Transforming Face Mask Identification for Better Pandemic Control in...ijtsrd
The COVID 19 pandemic has highlighted the crucial need of preventive measures, with widespread use of face masks being a key method for slowing the viruss spread. This research investigates face mask identification using deep learning as a technological solution to be reducing the risk of coronavirus transmission. The proposed method uses state of the art convolutional neural networks CNNs and transfer learning to automatically recognize persons who are not wearing masks in a variety of circumstances. We discuss how this strategy improves public health and safety by providing an efficient manner of enforcing mask wearing standards. The report also discusses the obstacles, ethical concerns, and prospective applications of face mask detection systems in the ongoing fight against the pandemic. Dilip Kumar Sharma | Aaditya Yadav "DeepMask: Transforming Face Mask Identification for Better Pandemic Control in the COVID-19 Era" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64522.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electronics-and-communication-engineering/64522/deepmask-transforming-face-mask-identification-for-better-pandemic-control-in-the-covid19-era/dilip-kumar-sharma
Streamlining Data Collection eCRF Design and Machine Learningijtsrd
Efficient and accurate data collection is paramount in clinical trials, and the design of Electronic Case Report Forms eCRFs plays a pivotal role in streamlining this process. This paper explores the integration of machine learning techniques in the design and implementation of eCRFs to enhance data collection efficiency. We delve into the synergies between eCRF design principles and machine learning algorithms, aiming to optimize data quality, reduce errors, and expedite the overall data collection process. The application of machine learning in eCRF design brings forth innovative approaches to data validation, anomaly detection, and real time adaptability. This paper discusses the benefits, challenges, and future prospects of leveraging machine learning in eCRF design for streamlined and advanced data collection in clinical trials. Dhanalakshmi D | Vijaya Lakshmi Kannareddy "Streamlining Data Collection: eCRF Design and Machine Learning" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63515.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/biotechnology/63515/streamlining-data-collection-ecrf-design-and-machine-learning/dhanalakshmi-d
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
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Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
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A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
Andreas Schleicher presents PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Thinking - 18 Jun...EduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher, Director of Education and Skills at the OECD presents at the launch of PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Minds, Creative Schools on 18 June 2024.
2. International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD) @ www.ijtsrd.com eISSN: 2456-6470
@ IJTSRD | Unique Paper ID – IJTSRD29794 | Volume – 4 | Issue – 1 | November-December 2019 Page 1110
be addressed in view of achieving the 8 MDGs5. It is also the
aim of this paper to show that legal institutions have a
valuable role to play in that aim. Among those institutions
are Bar Associations or, in other words, lawyers.
After considering Bar Associations in developed countries,
this paper draws lessons for the Cameroon Bar, such as that
ethics in the legal profession is a condition to good
governance at the bar. In practical terms, our goal is to
highlight issues, provoke discussion and thus approach
possible solutions, rather than evaluate the profession or
reach ‘pat’ solutions6. This is in view of the greater concern
for poverty reduction and good governance, and restoration
of the classical notion of lawyer that has more to do with
altruism and dignity7 than business. However, this article
subsequently suggests that the Bar Association is an
independent expert body that is likely to efficientlypromote
access to justice and can be trusted by the state and
international agencies, as well as being given greater means
to carrying out access tojusticerelatedprojects.Additionally
it should be considered that lawyers have professional
interests and that few are found in certain developing
countries8. It is suggested that paralegals help in providing
basic legal guidance before lawyers are approached in filing
cases to Courts9.
2. Understanding the meaning of access to justice
Access to justice means different things to different people.
In its narrowest sense, it representsonlytheformal ability to
appear in court. Broadly speaking, it engages the wider
social context of our court system, and the systematic
barriers faced by different members of the community.
Unfortunately, research papers and discussions oftendo not
clearly set out what view of “access to justice” they are
taking. This not only makes it challenging to understand the
goals being sought, but it also makes it difficult to translate
these goals into practical plans and programmes10. The
following paragraphs describe various approachestoaccess
to justice from narrow to broad.
5 D. Zelmira and N. Bolivar, ‘The Wider Institutional Context’
in Reaching the Millenium Development goals in Paraguay :
How is the government of Paraguay facing up the
challenge?(Abente et al).Report of Study visit to Paraguay of
the Memmbers of the masters Programme in Governance
and Development Management.Birmingham: University of
Birmingham, 2005.
6 G. P. Richard, Positive Approaches to 21
st
Century Accessto
Justice, 1999. Accessed on the 20 July 2018 at
www.wsba.org/media/publications/barnews/archives.
7 A. Richard L, The Legal Profession in England and Wales.
Oxford: Basil Blackwell 1998 and D. Pannick,
Advocates,Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.
8 M. Anderson, Access to Justice and Legal Process: Making
Legal Institutions Responsive to Poor People in LDCs,
comment paper on access to justice and legal process, 2003.
Paper for discussion at WDR Meeting, 16-17 August
1999.Accessed on 25 July 2018 at www.penalreform.org-
download/commentonthediagramsofproblems.
9Available at :
https://www.ibanet.org/Document/Default.aspx%3FDocum
entUid%3D8F020FA1-D13A-4429-BF51-F9C08672D255 .
Accessed on 12 October 2019
10 Available at: http://www.aclrc.com/what-is-access-to-
justice. Accessed on 12 October 2019.
A. The right to appear in court
The narrowest conception of “access to justice” has its
origins in liberal 18th and 19th centurystates,andrefersto an
individual’s formal right to litigate or defend11. It
encompasses the right to “have your day in court”12. While
access to justice was considered a “natural right”,
governments did not feel a positive obligation toprotectthis
right through affirmative action programmes13 .
B. Advocacy for those who cannot afford it
Starting in the 1960s, definitionsofaccesstojusticefocussed
on “practising law for poor people”. The goal was to provide
legal representation to impoverished individuals who could
not otherwise afford legal advice. It aimed to counteract the
cost, delay and complexity of thelegal system14.Thisconcept
of access to justice forms the foundation for today’s legal aid
and poverty law clinics.
In more recent times, the legal aid movement has been
expanded to include access to legal advice for the middle-
class. This is the current position of the Canadian Bar
Association’s National Access to justice committee, which
frames access to justice as “the ability of low and middle
class families to get the legal help or information they
need”15. While the CBA acknowledges the existence of some
vectors of marginalization such as disability and
aboriginality, they are only considered as additional factors
which can complicate matters if they happen to coincide
with a low or middle-income situation16.
C. Reforming the justice system
A slightly broader definition ofaccesstojusticeencompasses
the need to advocate for people who cannot afford lawyers,
but also focusses on the inadequacies and limitations of the
legal aid system. This approach builds on the “legal aid”
model by calling for reforms of the justice system by
simplifying procedural and formal requirements and
implementing mechanisms for group and third-party
claims17. Generally, reforms in this conception of access to
justice focus on the civil justice process.
D. Equality of outcomes
With the advent of the Canadian Charter of rights and
freedoms in 1985, the idea of equality resulted in a shift
towards a broader conception of access to justice18. This
approach looks beyond equality of opportunity for
11 Availableat:https://quizlet.com/403949678/rule-of-law-
flash-cards/ . Accessed on 12 October 2019.
12 M. Cappelletti and B. Garth, eds, Access to justice Volume
1: A World Survey, Book 1 (Aphenaandenrijn: Sijthoff and
Noordhoff, 1978) [Cappelletti and Garth] at 6-7.
13 Ibid.
14 Ibid.
15 M. Dempster, “Justice for all”, Canadian Bar Association
National: Legal insights and practice trends 22:2, March
2013, available online at CBA National Magazine,
http://nationalmagazine.ca//, accessed on 20/06/2018
16Available at: http://www.aclrc.com/what-is-access-to-
justice , Accessed on 8 October 2019
17 R. A. Macdonald, “access to justice in Canada today”in Julia
Bass, WA Bogart and F. H. Zemans, eds, Access tojusticefora
new century: the way forward, Toronto: Law Society of
Upper Canada. 2005, [Macdonald] at 19.
18 Ibid.
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underprivileged or underrepresented litigants. Instead, it
aims to achieve equality of outcomes by addressing the
barriers faced by those trying to access the judicial system19.
Remedies include reforming and streamliningmanyareas of
the legal system, as well as reforming other social
institutions with the goal of creating a moreholisticmodel of
service.
This broader approaches argues that true access to justice
must be considered in light of social variables which have
historically has a negative impact on the ability of certain
individuals or groups’ ability to access justice20. Such
variables include Aboriginality, racialization, gender,
disability, class and sexual identity21. There is also an
increased focus on providing resources towards serving the
public at the early stages of a problem22.
This approach encompasses elements from other
approaches, includingtheuseofsimplifiedcourtprocedures,
alternative dispute resolution and other preventative
measures in an effort to solve legal problems before they get
to a litigation stage23. These views have also been echoed
very recently in four working group reports of the Action
Committee on Access to Justice in Civil and Family matters
published in 2012-201324.
E. The Future of Access to Justice
Where is the concept of “access to justice” headed next?
Critics of current access to justice initiatives have called for
societal change beyond the legal realm, by encouraging the
justice system to develop partnerships with communities
and governments to develop more holistic solutions to legal
problems25.
Some commentary points to the need to move away from
court-centric and lawyer-centric approaches which focuses
on solving the problems of community members in their
daily lives26. This requires access to justice research to shift
its focus away from asking how lawyers can provide more
services to the public, towards reaching a better
understanding of what the law means and does not mean in
the context of problems in everyday peoples live27.
Other critics argue that individuals should be allowed to
have a say in what kind of justice they wish to have (e.g.
restorative justice)28 and that the high cost of attending law
19 Ibid.
20 Ab Currie, “The legal Problems of Everyday Life: The
nature, extent and consequences of justiciable problems
experienced by canadians”, Ottawa: Department of justice
Canada, 2007.
21 Available at: http://www.aclrc.com/what-is-access-to-
justice , Accessed on 08 October 2019.
22 Currie, Supra
23 Dempster, Supra).
24 Alberta Civil Liberties Research Cebtre, What is access to
justice, available at www.aclrc.com, accessed on 18 June
2018.
25 Macdonald, Supra
26 Ibid
27 B. G. Garth, Comment: a revival of access to justice
research ? in Rebecca Sanderfur, ed, Sociology of crime law
and deviance, volume 12, Bradford, GBR: Emerald Group
Publishing Ltd, 2009. Pg 258.
28 Ab Currie, Ibid.
school has the effect of forcing young lawyers to avoid
opportunities to advocate for marginalized peoples because
of pressures to find high-paying jobs to pay down their
education debt29.
2.1. Barriers blocking access to justice for the poor
We have developed four key barriers blocking access to
justice,
2.1.1. Funding for Legal Aid Services
This will be examined below when we shall be discussingon
the Cameroonian legal aid system.
2.1.2. High Cost for legal action
Though the court system is often the only way to resolve
personal conflicts and obtain justice in civil circumstances,
the court fees and costs of representation that come with
legal action add up. For too many citizens, that cost is
prohibitive and justice sits on the backburner. Legal aid is
available for the poorest citizens, but is often lacking for
those who exceed the poverty line yet don’t have the budget
to accommodate these costs30.
We feel like the court fees are structured such that working
class people are discouraged from solving disputes via the
legal system. We help people with no money, and people
with a tiny amount of money, but we don’t have help for
people who make more but live pay check to pay check.
Despite this sad reality, the poorest people are often
defendants and not plaintiffs, so generally no fees are
involved. But lower income people should be able to assert
their rights by bringing cases proactively, as well; they
shouldn’t be limited.
2.1.3. Lack of automatic right to counsel in Common
legal circumstances
Anyone familiar with the name “Dick Wolf,Producer”should
know their Miranda rights by heart, andthoseincludea right
to counsel. But the civil system doesn’twork thesameway.A
surprising number of common matters, including housing,
custody, and debts proceedings, guarantee no legal counsel
at all31.
It’s a problem because the average citizen likely can’t
advocate for their case as effectively as possible without the
expertise of a legal professional to back them up. There is a
shocking data for this subject: from a studyIcarriedouthere
in Maroua, Only 1% of cases have a lawyer on both sides.
Many of these cases are debt collection, eviction – so one
theory is that there isn’t any defence anyway.
There is additional data in evection cases in which the
plaintiff is represented versus those where the defendant is
not: in 62 % of those cases, eviction happens. But if there isa
lawyer on the other side, its 36%. That’s a bigdifference.Our
court system is adversarial, it’s designed to have advocates
on both sides to ensure a fair fight.
29 O. Ha-Redeye, “access to justice starts with legal tuition”,
Slaw.ca, 5 may 2013.
30 S. Bock, Barriers blocking access to justice (and how to
break them), November 2018. Available at
www.relativity.com, accessed on 10 June 2018.
31 Ibid.
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2.1.4. Lack of Awareness of legal rights, services and
procedures
As the old saying goes, “you don’t know what you don’t
know” and that’s painfully true for citizens trying to engage
with the legal system alone. Many of us simply don’t know
what rights we have, what services are available to us, or
how to navigate an often cumbersome court system with
complex procedures and rules32.
Sadly, even when people do qualify for aid, they may not
know it. We do have relief for poor citizensinCameroon,and
it’s an awareness problem – we need to make sure people
know about that. We need to increase funding to make
people aware of the issue as well as address it directly. It’s
difficult because the court can’t fundraise, but we can use
creative partnerships to work with other funders and make
progress.
2.2. Mechanisms of access to justice
The mechanisms suggested for strengthening theruleoflaw
and the protection of human rights internationally are also
relevant for access to justice in Cameroon. Law diffusion,
access to counsel and legal aid are such mechanisms
developed in this regards33. According to Bolivar Njupouen,
Law diffusion seems a little general as it suggests a diffuse
process. However, international tools place more focus on
access to counsel and legal aid34. These mechanisms are
more accurate for the real ‘need’ofpoorpeople,andfocuson
real cases. Access to counsel and legal aidappears asa public
good, as they have been made an obligation in various
international instruments35.
Bolivar Njupouen went further to state that, Legal aid is
organized differently depending on whether it is a civil or a
criminal issue. As far as criminal justiceisconcerned,thelaw
requires states to provide lawyers for poor litigants. In this
case the judges organize legal aid that is basically
representation in courts. They appoint lawyers depending
on their qualifications and availability. The law states that
Bar Associations can provide lawyers for pro-bono where
the state does not provide lawyers that the state pays to that
effect.
Civil matters require the direct legal aid of the bar, that is,
lawyers appointed by the bar council to work on a pro-bono
basis. Bars also organize legal advice in both cases, by
lawyers in free consultations. In certain countries there are
lawyers working on their own in their chambers on a
voluntary basis, provided that it complies with the
regulations of the bar association.
Additionally, there areinsomecountriesparalegals,working
on a voluntary basis or lowly paid for legal advice36. This is a
step, before getting lawyers involved when need be. In the
UK, the Citizens Advice Bureaux fulfils this role. The public
32 Ibid.
33 B. R Njupouen, Access to Justice for the Poor What Role
For Bar Associations? The Case of Cameroon, Master of
Science In Governance And Development Management,
School Of Public Policy International Development
Department University Of Birmingham, 2005.
34 B. R Njupouen, Ibid.
35 Ibid.
36 Ibid.
aim of CABx is ‘to ensure that individuals do not suffer
through lack of knowledgeof theirrightsandresponsibilities
or of the service available to them or through an inability to
express their needs effectively and equally, to exercise a
responsible influence on the development of social policies
and services, both locally and nationally’37.
The action of Civil Society through various Non-
Governmental Organizations (NGOs)towardspromotinglaw
diffusion and legal literacy and advice, all in the aim of
improving the outcomes of justice decisions for the poor,
should not be forgotten38. Countries have different
organisations, which are all, however, basedonthe principle
of free aid and the provisions of the international legal
framework. It is the aim of the next section to assess the role
of bar associations through such mechanisms.
2.3. Ensuring Access to the Law
International standards provide that bar associations have
an obligation to ensure access to the law for all persons in a
jurisdiction39. The UN Basic Principles include four articles
on access to legal services without discrimination (based on
a non-exhaustive list of social status) and with specific
provisions for the poor40. Additionally, bar associations are
to work with governments to ensure that all persons have
equal and effective access to legal services and are assisted
by lawyers without improper interference (Arts 24-25)41.
Access to legal services not only requires the availability of
lawyers and proximity to services, but also necessitates the
affordability of legal services or the provision of low-cost or
free legal services to groups and individuals who are unable
to afford them. The UN Basic Principles call on governments
to ensure that there are sufficient resources to ensure legal
services to the poor42. They also underline, however, the
important role that bar associations play in the organization
and provision of such services, and in particular in enabling
the poor to access them43.
The International Bar Association (IBA) has alsoarguedthat
one of the key responsibilities of bar associations is to
promote free and equal access of the public to the justice
system, including the provision of legal aid and advice44. To
ensure that no person is denied justice, the IBA also states
that bar associations should make available the services of
lawyers to those unable to pay for such services45. In its Pro
Bono Declaration, the IBA states that such pro bono services
are an integral part of the legal profession and therefore an
37 Citizens Advice Bureaux. Accessed on the 3 august2018at
‘http://www.citizensadvice.org.uk/print/index/campaigns/
social_policy/briefings/br_legalaffairs/cr-
delivering_access_to_justice.
38 B. R Njupouen, Ibid.
39 Lawyers, Conflict transition, Effectiveness of bar
associations in conflict and crisis, December 2016.
40 UN Basic Principles on the Roles of Lawyers,(7September
1990), paras 1-4.
41 Ibid. paras 24,25.
42 Basic Principles, paras 1-4.
43 Ibid.
44 International Bar Association, IBA Standards for the
Independence of the Legal Profession, Adopted 1990. n. 11,
para 18(e).
45 Ibid. para 15.
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integral part of the role and responsibilities of bar
associations46.
As both the UN Basic Principles and the IBA suggest, the
provision of pro bono legal servicesshouldbeconsistent and
permanent as an integral part of the organizationofthelegal
profession. However, the provision of pro bono services are
of particular importanceduringperiodsofcrisisorconflict47.
As will be discussed further below, where jurisdictions
experience upheaval, bar associations have a fundamental
role in ensuring that all persons and communities, and
particularly the poor and underprivileged, have the
opportunity to access legal services.
3. Bar associations and its contribution to access to
justice
This section makes an assessment on the role lawyers and
Bar associations could play towards access to justice for the
poor. We shall first start by examining if theBarhasa special
interest on the poor making references to international
instruments. We shall go further to reconsider the
professional interest of bars and the examples we shall be
given will be used to illustrate how the Bar in developed
countries deliver legal aid, while at the same time fulfilling
their professional interest.
3.1. Does Bar associations have a special interest for
the poor
The Basic Principles of the Role of Lawyers, adopted by the
8th United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crimeand
the Treatment of Offenders, Havana, 1990, state:
1) All persons are entitled to call upon the assistance of a
lawyer of their choice to protect and establish their
rights and to defend them in all stages of criminal
proceedings.
2) Governments shall ensure that efficient proceduresand
responsive mechanisms for effectiveandequal accessto
lawyers are provided for all persons within their
territory and subjects to their jurisdiction, without
distinction of any kind, such as discrimination based on
[…], economic or others status.
3) Governments shall ensure the provision of sufficient
funding and other resources for legal services to the
poor […]. Professional associations of lawyers shall
cooperate in the organization and provision of services
[…].
4) Governments and professional associations of lawyers
shall promote programs to inform the publicabouttheir
rights and duties under the law and the important role
of lawyers in protecting their fundamental freedoms.
Special attention should be given to assisting the poor
[…] persons so as to enable them to assert theirs rights
and where necessary call upon the assistance of
lawyers.’
Reference can also be made to the Principles and Guidelines
on the Right to a Fair Trial and Legal Assistance in Africa
(AU-ACHPR, 1994 cited in Baderin, 2005), which states:
46 IBA, IBA Pro Bono Declaration, 16 Oct 2008, paras 1-2.
Available at
http://www.ibanet.org/Document/Default.aspx?DocumentU
id=C4B06FD6-A807-44D4-A98A-C73B464589C6
47 Ibid
‘(f) Professional associations of lawyers shall co-operate in
the organization and provision of services, facilities and
other resources, and shall ensure that:
1) When legal assistance is provided by the judicial body,
lawyers with the experience and competence
commensurate with the nature of the case make
themselves available to represent an accused person or
party to a civil case;
2) Where legal assistance is not provided by the judicial
body in important or serious human rights cases, they
provide legal representation to the accused or partyina
civil case, without any payment by him or her.’
The aforementioned are clear on the duties of lawyers.
Having said that, it is important to explore their original
interests.
3.2. The role of bar associations
3.2.1. To provide aid
A Bar Association is a professional association of lawyers.
Some Bar associations are responsible for the regulation of
the legal profession in their jurisdiction; others are
professional organizations dedicated to serving their
members; in many cases, they are both. In many
commonwealth jurisdictions, the bar association comprises
lawyers who are qualified as barristers or advocates in
particular, versus solicitors. Membership in barassociations
may be mandatory or optional for practicing attorneys,
depending on jurisdiction48. Bar Associations, as the above
suggests, could be seen as aiding access to justice. The
profession helps people regardless of their wealth to have
access to justice. Talcott49 supports this theory as he writes:
‘his [the lawyer’s] function in relation to clients is by no
means only to ‘give them what they want but often to resist
their pressure and get them to realize some of the hard facts
of their situations, not only with reference to what they can,
even with clever legal help, expect to get away with but with
reference to what the law will permit them to do.’ Lawyers
defend their clients’ interestsandconsidertheirproblemsas
theirs.
Furthermore, given the gap between various groups andthe
imbalance of justice, mechanisms are put in place and
lawyers and bars play an important role: ‘lawyers […]
display their altruism in providing gratuitous or low-cost
services; but the magnitude of such charity seem to vary
inversely with how extensively itispublicized– conspicuous
production being the necessary complement of compactors
consumption ’50. However although they assist the poor
through pro-bono activities, lawyers also have professional
interests to fulfil51.
3.2.2. Hindrances
Lawyers generally practice to make a living and gain money.
They interact with their clients, who have their own
48 Available at:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_association,Accessedon
08 October 2019.
49Talcott Parson, 1964, p.384, quoted byAbel RichardL.,The
Legal Profession in England and Wales. Oxford: Basil
Blackwell, 1988. pg. 26.
50 Abel Richard L., The Legal Profession in England and
Wales. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988. pg. 30.
51 B. R Njupouen, Ibid.
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interests, that of being advocated, and who trust them and
give them the authority to represent and defend their
interests. The challenge in such relations is to have a win-
win draw that satisfies each party52. But what sometimes
happens is that the agents overlook their own interests and
Bowles53 writes on this relationship whenhesays‘themoral
hazard arising from the lawyer-client relationship is a
standard principal-agent problem in whichthereisa conflict
of interest between two parties and an asymmetry of
information between them.’ For instance,theclientagreesto
pay the lawyer an hourly rate, ‘w’ and delegates to the
lawyer the choice of how many hours of work ‘h’todevoteto
the matter. An honest lawyer will only act in what s/he
judges to be the best interests of her client and will choose
the hours ‘h’ which would be recommended by an impartial
observer. The unscrupulous lawyer, however, canmaximize
profits by suggesting to the client that the prospects of the
case are better than they really are, in an effort to persuade
the client that the best solution is to spend ‘h**’ hours on the
case54. In this situation, the client who lacks sufficient
knowledge may have to spend more and wait longer for
results. As aforementioned,‘justicedelayedisjusticedenied.’
This is an example of hindering access to justice.
Moreover, citizens who can’t pay legal representation are
unable to represent themselves because of the restrictions
placed by the Bar Association. ‘In most legal systems,private
citizens are not even allowed to appear in court to present
their own cases, a monopoly of competence is bestowed on
the legal profession. Legal rules therefore requirelitigantsto
use Lawyers, who in turn are rare and expensive55. An
extreme example is in Chad, where there are roughly 100
judges and seven practising lawyers for sixmillionpeople56’.
In such circumstances, instead for a lawyer to defend the
poor against abuses, they will rather concentrate on making
money57. It has been noted thatprofessionsgenerallytendto
neglect the public good, despite claims to be ‘refining their
technical skills in the service of society58’ due to their self-
interest. This would also appear to be true for the legal
profession.
Much more could be written on how Bars hinder justice.
However, certain Bar Associations where human rights and
good governance have been proven demonstrates how
difficult it is to reconcile both the interests of lawyers and
those of their clients. This is illustrated below with the
French and English Bars.
52 B. R Njupouen, Ibid.
53 R. Bowles, Reform of Legal Aid and the Solicitors’
Profession in Hume papers on Public Policy, vol.4 No 4:
access to justice. Edited by Frank Stephen. Edinburgh:
University Press, 1996.
54 Bowles 1996, Ibid.
55 B. R Njupouen, Ibid.
56Webb, Ibid. Pg. 50
57 M. Anderson, Access to Justice and Legal Process: Making
Legal Institutions Responsive to Poor People in LDCs,
comment paper on access to justice and legal process, paper
for discussion at WDR Meeting, 2003. Pg. 16-17.Accessed on
25 July 2018 at www.penalreform.org-
download/commentonthediagramsofproblems.
58 Abel 1988, Ibid. Pg. 30
3.3. The experience of renowned international Bars
The mechanisms of legal aid are similar in all countries. To
avoid being repetitive, the following examples focus on
innovative features.
3.3.1. The English Bar and the British examples
The Bar Council of England
The Bar of England is an example of a strong commitment in
delivering access to justice for the poor. The Bar Council
critically responded to a Government WhitePaper bystating
that: “the aims of the Bar of England are to ensure:
Justice: that everyone can obtain justice in the Courts
within a reasonable time and at a reasonable expense;
Access: that everyone has the best possible accesstothe
services of lawyers of the calibre they need, both
solicitors and independent and specialist barristers;
Choice and competition […];
Cab-Rank Rule: that barristersareavailabletorepresent
everyone requiring legal representation whether in
criminal or civil proceedings whoever they may be and
whatever their cause;
Quality and Standards […]; Fair and Reasonable Price
[…]; Advocacy […]; Legal Advice: that objectiveadviceof
high quality is available from solicitors and other
professionals from an independent Bar;
Quality of Judges […]”59.
This commitment is also seen in the organisation of the
English Bar, thereareseveral specialisationbranchessuchas
the English Society of Labour Lawyers andmanyservicesfor
legal aid, such as the Legal ServiceCommission,theLegal Aid
practitioner group, the Bar pro-bono group, the Free
Representation Unit, and the legal aid policy service at the
Law society60.
Nevertheless, Critics were clear that “the legal profession as
presently organized has failed to provide high quality legal
services to persons in such capacities as consumers, welfare
beneficiaries, or enjoyers of clean air [….] a movement has
now begun to provide diffuse interest with the advocacy
services of quality corporate law firms, and Pr. Handler’s
Essay on ‘Public interest Law Firms in the United States’
examines the most important manifestation of thisnewtype
of lawyer. Private foundation-sponsored public interest law
firms, operating since about 1970, began the process of
finding means to redress the imbalance ofadvocacy61,which
hinders the enforcement (and further development) of
important new rights on enforcement.
In fact, with the growing demand of free legal consultation
supposedly due to the government, according to the Bar:
‘The government has for ten years reducedtheavailabilityof
legal aid and thus greatly increased the numbers of those
with small means who cannot afford necessary legal advice
and representation’62, thestatehasincreasedmechanismsto
make legal aid, and thus the Bar, more efficient. Many other
institutions have been helping with legal advice before
lawyers are required in the courts or elsewheretorepresent
59 Bar Council 1989, Pg. 1-2
60 B. R Njupouen, Ibid.
61 Cappelletti, M. (Ed), Access to Justice and the Welfares
state, Martinus Sijthof Publishers,Neetherlands, 1981.
62 General Council of the Bar, 1989, Pg.8,
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poor litigants63. These include Ombudsman, Law Centres,
Legal Advice Centres and more significantly, Citizen Advice
Bureaux.
British Citizens Advice Bureaux
Citizens Advice Bureaux, or CABx, is a network of
independent charities throughout the United Kingdom that
give free, confidential information and advice to assist
people with money, legal consumer and other problems64.
The twin aims of the Citizens Advice service are “to provide
the advice people need for the problems they face” and
secondly “to improve the policies and principles that affect
people’s lives”65. This research and campaigns agenda also
known as social policy is more preventative in nature and
designed to stop problems arising in the first place66.
‘The Citizens Advice Service is a key agency involved in
helping people gain access to justiceintoday’ssocietyand its
role is to ensure that ‘individuals do not suffer from lack of
knowledge of their rights and responsibilities, or of services
available to them, or their inability to express their needs
effectively and equally to exercise a responsibleinfluence on
the development of social policies and services, both locally
and nationally.67’ However, the Bar makes it clear that ‘the
Citizens Advice Bureaux, Law Centres and Legal Advice
Centres cannot be used as a substitute fora propersystem of
legal aid68.
Despite this, it is noticeable that between 2016 and 2017, it
helped 2.7 million people with6.3millionproblems andover
48 million people visited their digital service69. This amply
illustrates the impact such institutions have on access to
justice and legal aid. This is likely to solve the problem of
effectiveness and will make the Bar and Lawyers more
effective as they contribute at a higher level.
3.3.2. The French Bars and CARPAs
In France, there is something called CARPA (Caisses des
Reglements Pecuniares des Avocats). It means that lawyers
are not allowed to hold clients’ money, but must pay it into
the bar’s account, under the control of the president of the
bar. There are over 100 CARPAs in France, and eachisunder
the political and ethical control of the local bar, rather than
of a central body or a financial institution70. CARPA is not
itself a bank, but works with banks.
The French are very proud of their system, for a number of
reasons. First, it guarantees the safety of client funds. They
don’t need a Compensation Fund like that in the USA and
63 Hansen, Ole, Legal aid in Practice-3rd Edition. London:
Legal Aid Action Group, 1993.
64 J. Insley, Citizens Advice Cuts threatenthemostvulnerable
money, the Guardian, retrieved 21/05/2019
65 Campaigns, available at www.enfieldcab.org.uk, accessed
on 18 July 2018
66 Available at:
https://livewell.oxfordshire.gov.uk/Services/3393 ,
Accessed on 15 September 2019
67 B. R Njupouen, Ibid.
68 General Council of the Bar, 1989. Pg. 9
69 Wins charity of the Year, Citizens Advice. Retrieved on 23
February 2018.
70 J. Goldsmith, Compensation Fund – Can we learn from
France?, the Law Society Gazette, 16th July 2009.
England, because clients’ money isnotsusceptibletotheft by
individual lawyers, all going to the bar. Secondly,
transactions relating to the funds are immediatelytraceable,
and so they believe that moneylaunderingandotherlawyer-
related financial crime become impossible, or nearly so.
Lastly, although there are rules for paying interest to clients
in exceptional cases relating to length of time or size of
deposit, the usual rule is that the interest remains with
CARPA. The interest payments accrued to CARPAinthisway
are sizeable, and, once CARPAs own expenses have been
paid, they go towards public interest activities undertaken
by the bars (such as the Paris Bar’s Solidarity Bus, which
travels around Paris giving free legal advice to citizens)71.
This will be perfect in Cameroon where corruption is very
high. The French government is so convinced of the
respectability of the system that they gave responsibility for
payment of all legal aid funds to the CARPAs as well in 1991.
There are two things in play here, which do not need to go
hand in hand. First, the bar controls all client money, taking
it out of the control of individual lawyers. It is a disciplinary
offence for a lawyer not to hand over clients’ money to the
CARPA system. Secondly, the interest paymentsbyandlarge
go to the bar72. It seems to me that you could have the first
without having the second. Would it work here? I am
throwing it into the ring as something to think about, but I
know that it has been considered before, but is not yet
operational to date. Here are some possible reasons why it’s
not operational till date.
First, France has a fragmented system of local bars – over
180 of them, more than there are cheeses. Well over half of
them have fewer than 100 lawyers. Apart from the Paris Bar
and maybe a handful of larger cities, the rest are very small,
and indeed the total size of the French profession is under
half that of ours. That contrasts with the centralised system
in England and Wales, where the regulator would have to
manage singlehandedly the accounts of over 100,000
solicitors73 and over 5000 solicitors in Cameroon.
Second, the work of French lawyers – avocats– isdifferentto
that of solicitors, in that the avocatswork isa notarial system
where notaries undertake real estate, family andotherwork
which traditionally involves the transfer of large sums of
money. Therefore, I assume that the sums passing through
solicitors’ accounts are much, much larger, and probably
more complex, than those passing through the accounts of
avocats. On top of that, although Paris is also a financial
centre, the combination of the nature our country and the
work of solicitors would make handing the law firms’
accounts particularly challenging.
But I’m still trying to be positive, and offer it as something to
be considered when pockets are smarting from the way that
we handle clients’ money. Look across the channel – there
might be another way.
4. The Cameroonian bar association
It is argued that before showing particular interest on the
poor, the Bar should be free and apt in defending everyone,
71 Ibid.
72 J. Goldsmith, Ibid.
73 Ibid.
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thus contributing to the enforcementofthe ruleoflaw74.The
suggestion that the Bar be independent appears to be
relevant in the case of the Cameroon Bar. Moreover, there
are serious concerns in Cameroon over the significant role
the Bar Association could play in legal aid for the poor.
However conflicts of interest and poverty in general
continue to threaten this. Paralegals and CARPA are
suggested solutions for an efficient legal aid system in
Cameroon75.
Section 4.1 examines the Bar’s role towards access to justice
for the poor. The next section makes an assessment of the
Cameroonian legal aid system by examining its nature 4.2
and making an appraisal 4.3.
4.1. The bar towards justice for all
In his analysis on the state of the rule of law in Cameroon,
Justice A.N.T. MBU (2000)76 suggested: ‘the rule of law is
freedom under the law. Freedom under the law is equality
before the law: Equality before the law is equality of
protection by the law. Protection under the law means due
process of law: due process of law means trial by your own
peers, anybody whose rights have been violated, has a right
to remedy given to him by the law’.Thedueprocesssuggests
not only an independentMagistracy,butalsoanindependent
Bar. Muna77 exploring the role of the CameroonianBarinthe
processes of social justice asked “is the independence of the
Bar as vital as the independence of the Judiciary?” and cited
the Canadian Bar Association Committee78 to reply:
“In the first place, access to an independent legal expert
is just as critical for a viable legal system as access to an
independent judge. […]. Without such a legal expert,
there can’t be any true access to the legal process at all,
with equivalent injustice and alienation. In the second
place of the two, the legal expert’s independence is the
more difficult to ensure. A legal expert must be free to
oppose and frustrate both government interests and
public sentiment.”
The Bar can perhaps be seen as a watchdog which plays a
role in ensuring the rule of law and, through this, access to
justice for all. The Cameroonian Bar association comprises
1500 lawyers, almost one lawyer for 10000 citizens,
autonomously managed by the Bar Council whose members
are elected by their peers79. As lawyers work on their own
and the Bar is managed as described above, the professionis
independent. Section 1 of the law regulating practice at the
Bar stipulates that the legal profession is independent, and
honorariums are discussed between clients and lawyers80.
The problem with the Bar’s role in access to Justice is its
74 B. R Njupouen, Ibid.
75 Ngatchou Toto Carles. An AssessmentofCameroon’sLegal
Aid System as an Instrument to PromoteAccesstoJusticefor
the Poor. Journal of Constitutional Law and Jurisprudence.
2019; 2(2): 54–65p.
76 Mbu, ATN. 2000. The Common law in Cameroon: Lecture
on ‘The rule of law’.
77 Ibid. Pg 97
78 Canadian Bar Association Committee. 2000.The
independence of the Judiciary in Canada. Ottawa Ontario:
The Canadian Bar Foundation.
79 B. R Njupouen, Ibid.
80 Recueil de lois.1990.DroitsetLibertés. Yaounde:SOPECAM
conformity with the required conditions and its capacity to
defend everyone. To some extent, it can be said that the Bar,
since its creation in 1972, has succeeded in keeping its
independence81 despite temptations and its members
provide defence to all (poor and rich). But beyond that, the
challenge is to determine what role the Barplaysspecifically
for the poor.
4.2. The Nature of the Cameroonian Legal Aid System
Legal aid can be defined as a system or a mechanism that
allows the underprivileged to benefit from total or partial
procedural fees like registrationfees,bailiff,notaryorexpert
fees. It is also considered as an aid to any natural persons
whose resources are insufficient to defend their interests.
Within this perspective, legal aid enables the beneficiary to
obtain either court judgment or the enforcement of it with
no prior payment of all or part of the costs which he ought to
have paid. In this circumstance, legal aid concerns all
expenses by the courts, procedures or acts for which it is
granted. Article 2 of the 2009 law referred to above states
that, legal aid is said to be total when it is not limited to
certain acts nor specific stages of theprocedureandpartial if
the decision granting it indicates that it is limited only to
certain specific acts or specific procedure82.
But then, there is a resurging question as to what are the
conditions for obtaining legal aid? The realistic response is
that; not everyone can claim legal aid, although its scope has
been expanded with the new law. Therefore, only a specific
category of people can benefit from it. In order to enlighten
the public, the law enumerates in its Article 5 persons
eligible to apply for legal aid. They are the indigenes, that is
to say the extremely poor and needy, persons subject to the
discharge tax etc. It is also granted to natural persons whose
resources are inadequate to have their rights enforced by a
court or to follow up the enforcement of any writ or process
of execution obtained without legal aid or an unemployed
wife with minor children in proceedings of divorce with her
husband83.
Legal aid may exceptionally be granted to moral persons
with inadequate resources to enforce their rights in court.
Article 6 of Chapter 2 extends its beneficiaries to workers
who are victims of an accident at work, claiming for
compensation against their employers and an unemployed
wife who has no resources and has been deserted by her
husband so that she can obtain from the court an order of
maintenance for herself or for the children under her
custody. Other beneficiariesfromlegal aidarepersonsunder
death sentence making an appeal, whose defence was not
handled by an advocate before the lower court.
4.3. An Appraisal of theCameroonianLegalAidSystem
In this section, an appraisal of the Cameroonian legal aid
system is made with emphasis on its practice and what has
been done so far to better access its effectiveness on the
poor.
81 Muna, 1993
82 Ngatchou Toto Carles. An AssessmentofCameroon’sLegal
Aid System as an Instrument to PromoteAccesstoJusticefor
the Poor. Journal of Constitutional Law and Jurisprudence.
2019; 2(2): 54–65p.
83 Ibid
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4.3.1. Legal Aid Centres
With the objective to attain “access to justice for all”, the Bar
created legal aid centres at various courts for those who
cannot afford lawyers84. The Bar realized that the poor lost
cases in court either because they were not aware that they
were entitled to free legal aid, did not understand the
complex legal procedures or were legal illiterates or simply
illiterates. Although ignoranceofthelawisnotan excuse, the
Bar thought it wise that the underprivileged should not
suffer from ignorance of their rights. The Bar provide
assistance to indigenes who could provide a certificate of
indigence, minors, women and victims of massive
exploitation of land. Moreover, legal aid provides legal
information for every litigant, guides them through their
legal procedures and assist them in every step of their
judicial procedure85.
4.3.2. International donors
International donors also fund legal aid in Cameroon. For
instance, at the initiative of the Canadian Cooperative, the
first of three centres was created at the court of Appeal in
Yaoundé. Following this, the British Council also opened a
legal aid centre in Bamenda which covers the North West
Region and that which was created in Kumba was
transferred to Buea and covers the whole of the South West
Region86. Funds are not used to pay lawyers. Lawyers are
paid pro bono. Generally, it concerns all lawyers, but in
practice it is left to unexperienced lawyers and beginners. A
roaster is normally drawn with lawyers working on shift.
They receive clients and provide legal assistance or advice
depending on the nature of the problem.
These legal aid centres provide aid to many Cameroonians.
Although the statistics from the Bar association may seem
insignificant87, it nevertheless shows that lawyers are
participating in improving access to justice for the poor.
These lawyers provide their services pro bono and the Bar
does not remunerate them.
Another project which provides legal aid in Cameroon is
PACDET, as it helps prisoners gain access to justice.
4.3.3. PACDET Project88
This is a program for the amelioration of the conditions of
detention for prisoners and the respect of Human Rights.
This project was launched in 2002 by the EuropeanUnion as
a result of studies and research which showed that several
citizens were awaiting judgments in very bad conditions of
detention89. The British Council manages it and the
Cameroon Bar Association provides expertise.
It effectively began on 30 June 2007 in certain prisons in
Cameroon like that of Bertoua in the Eastern Region of the
country. The general objective of this programme is to
84 B. R. Njupouen, Access to justice for the poor: What role
for Bar Associations? The case of Cameroon,Master’sThesis,
University of Birmingham, 2005.
85 Ibid.
86 Ibid.
87 Cameroun Bar Association. 2000. Evaluation des
conditions de détention dans les prisons au Cameroun.
Yaoundé.
88 Programme pour l’amélioration des conditions de
détention et respect de droit de l’homme.
89 Ibid.
improve the respect of Human Rights in Cameroon by
ameliorating the judicial and prison system in general and
more particularly to reduce the dysfunctions and abuses
linked to detention, precisely pre-trial detention.
Lawyers assist prisoners in enrolling their cases for
judgment90, with some simply need medical treatment,legal
advice or release for medical or other reasons. Generally
these prisoners lack information, not only because of their
literacy level but also because oftheirsituations asdetainees
and the way they are treated in prisons.
The Bar signed an agreement with the project to provide
lawyers who are experts. These lawyers provide legal
assistance to these prisoners. Lawyers assigned by the bar
council don’t receive money from their clients. They receive
a sum of 25000 XAF (Central African CFA Franc) equivalent
to $45 per session91, which is very low compared to the
amount they normally agree with their clients92. Onemaybe
tempted to say that lawyers through this project contribute
significantly in helping the poor gain access to justice, which
is not the case as shall be illustrated subsequently.
The above efforts notwithstanding, access to justicethrough
legal aid and assistance is still a majorprobleminCameroon.
4.3.4. Conflict of Interest
Cameroonian lawyers have sometimes become an obstacle
to access to justice for their clients instead of serving as
catalyzers. They have difficulties in fulfilling their client’s
interest with theirs. When a lawyer for example, who also
acts as an agent, defends his client in a case of a serious
accident which resulted to death, physical or mental
incapacity or the loss of anorgan,andsubsequentlydamages
are paid, it is his duty under Cameroonian law to collect the
money and give to his clients. Even though lawyersandtheir
clients generally agree in advance on a fixed sum to be paid
to the lawyer, some lawyers aretemptedafterrecovering the
money to keep more than what they should93. Many of these
cases have been reported to the Bar council94. The
consequences of such actions are that; lawyers illegally
enrich themselves, increase in poverty for the clients and
access to justice is generallyundermined,particularlyfor the
poor. In fact there is a conflict of interest between both
parties. Furthermore, the reputation of the Bar is
undermined as the society generally havea negativeopinion
of lawyers. Mechanisms have been put in place to deal with
such cases and this assures good governance within the
profession95. Many of such complaints have been brought
before the Bar council and these types of actions have an
impact on access to justice in Cameroon.
Another problem is that of lawyers who retain their client’s
documents and do not assist to court sessions even after
receiving payment. They maximize profits and take other
90 PACDET. 2002. Convention –cadre de soutien entre le
Pacdet et le .barreau du Cameroun.
91 Ibid.
92 Ordre des avocats de Paris. 2002. Les dossiers du barreau
de Paris: Maîtrise et transparence des honoraires,
Nov.2002,No 1, Paris :Publications de l’Ordre.
93 N. M. Ebénézer, De l’Excellence à la Médiocrité, Yaoundé:
Editions Clé, 1970.
94 Ibid.
95 Republic of Cameroun 1990.
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jobs. Additionally, in the poverty context, lawyers take
money from their clients and make fake arrangements with
the lawyers of the adversaries who make good offers. This is
sad because magistrates are sometimes involvedinthiskind
of poor justice, especially when the interest of the rich and
most powerful are involved. This situation where the
powerful and rich dominate over the poor is an obstacle to
access to justice for all. As Windsor Harriet, an ambassador
rightly said:
‘The promise to assure all citizens equal rights beforethe
law is good, but the reality is absolutely essential and, I
am sorry to say , it is not always apparent. Too often, and
we all know this to be true, the letter of the law is not
respected in Cameroon. […]. At times certain individuals
with political influence, with financial clout, enjoy an
advantage over their opponents in the courts, andjustice
does not prevail. […]. Sometimes certain influential
individuals have succeeded in pressurising the courts to
issue judgments that respond less to the law than to
individual will…96.’
From another perspective, some pupils are sent by some
lawyers to deal with the poorer clients. Given that, these
pupils are not paid by their masters accordingtotheinternal
regulation of the Bar council, nor given transport money,
they are likely to collect money from their clients and this
can have serious consequences on the poor.
The Bar is aware of these problems and tries as best as
possible to deal with them, with the objective of assuring
access to justice for the poor. Nevertheless, legal aid in
Cameroon is still a nightmare attached with strings. Certain
recommendations are suggested belowfortheCameroonian
state and the Bar.
4.3.5. The Creation of CARPA and paralegals in
Cameroon
CARPA (not yet in force) was put in place by the Bar in order
to ensure good representation. Cross sections of the
constitution state that CARPA are non-lucrative entities
which are under the patronage of the Bar Council; the
interests generated at the bank shall be used by the bar
council to fund training and to supplement legal aid97.
It is also important to consider the distribution of lawyers
across the country. There are approximately 1500 lawyers
for 16 Million people: more than 1/10000, whichisnot quite
sufficient98. As the Bar has the positive attitude of copying
from renowned foreign bars, it is suggested that paralegal
bodies, such as citizen’s advice bureaux, be established to
help with legal information, as in England. They would also
cover the national territory more fully as lawyers are
concentrated in main cities and donotoftenmoveto provide
legal advice. If local paralegals covered that, it wouldonlybe
left to lawyers to make the trip in order to cover
representation before the courts for a proper legal aid. The
benefit of this would be to limit lawyers to representation,in
such a way that they would have sufficient time for their
96 MBU, ATN, The Common lawinCameroon:Lectureon‘The
rule of law’, 2000
97 (Ordre des Avocats du Cameroun,2004 and UNCA,1999).
98 B. R. Njupouen, Access to justice for the poor: What role
for Bar Associations? The case of Cameroon,Master’sThesis,
University of Birmingham, 2005.
other richer clients. This is likely to decrease conflicts of
interests.
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1. Conclusion
Justice can only be accessed if it is shared equitably among
citizens. The reality is that the wealthy and privileged are
likely to have justice on their side, either because of their
influence over those rendering justice, lack of rule of law,
corruption or political influence, or simply because others
cannot afford fees for good lawyers. In practical terms,
lawyers are contributing towards access to justice by
assisting their clients, regardless of their status, with advice
and/or defence. However, some lawyers are hindering
access to justice because they havenotbeenabletoreconcile
their professional interests with that of their clients. Such
cases were reported and it was found that poverty, a flexible
rule of law and a high rate of corruption might hamper
access to justice for lower classes.
Nevertheless, in Cameroon the Bar has taken significant
steps in ensuring access to justice for the poor. An
admittedly insufficient number of lawyers has intervened in
advising and representing certain categories of poor people
through legal aid. The Bar has also established legal aid
centres, where lawyers provide legal advice and
representation in courts free of charge for certain relevant
cases among indigents, women, minors, and victims of
violation of human rights. Funds provided by the European
Union enabled the Bar in assisting prisoners for little or no
payments. Although the Bar council punishes behaviours
which are contrary to the exigencies of loyalty and probity,
the indelicacy of certain members of the Bar council
continue to render justice inaccessible for the poor.
Moreover, to prevent the mismanagement of clients’ funds
by lawyers, the Bar Council introduced CARPA. Analyses
suggest that the Cameroonian Bar, like other Bars, helps
more than it hinders access to justice. To conclude, the
Cameroonian Bar contributes significantly to improving
access to justice for the poor. However, there is still much to
be done. Certain recommendations are suggested below for
the Cameroonian Bar and State.
5.2. Recommendation
The Bar should inculcate the altruistic spirit of lawyers
through training and disciplinary sanctions. This will create
a suitable environment for the rule of law which is an
indispensable condition for access to justice for the poor.
Necessary steps should be taken in order for CARPA to go
operational in Cameroon. This will be beneficial not only to
the bar association, but also to lawyers, their clients and the
state. It is a secure and efficient way of dealing with clients’
money and thereby improving access to justice. Banking
interest gotten from this money will enable the Bar to
finance legal aid and training.
Moreover, to cope with the scarcity of lawyers, it is
suggested that paralegals could contributeinprovidinglegal
advice while lawyers concentrateonrepresentationincourt.
In this regard, The State and Civil society should provide
structures like CABx in the UK, with the aim of reaching the
MDGs and donors should add subsidiesforlegal aidandlegal
education.