8. ArrayFile Functions Write a function named arrayToFile. The funct.pdf
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8. Array/File Functions Write a function named arrayToFile. The function should accept three arguments: the name of a file, a pointer to an int array, and the size of the array. The function should open the specified file in binary mode, write the contents of the array to the file, and then close the file. Write another function named fileToArray. This function should accept three arguments: the name of a file, a pointer to an int array, and the size of the array. The function should open the specified file in binary mode, read its contents into the array, and then close the file. Write a complete program that demonstrates these functions by using the arrayToFile function to write an array to a file, then using the fileToArray function to read the data from the same file. After the data are read from the file into the array, display the array's contents on the screen..
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Files nts
This document discusses various methods in PHP for working with files, including checking if a file exists, retrieving file information, reading files, reading specific lines or byte ranges from a file, and counting lines, words, and characters in a file. The key functions discussed are file_exists(), stat(), filesize(), file(), file_get_contents(), fread(), fgets(), fopen(), fclose(), array_slice(), strlen(), and str_word_count().
1. The correct option is fstreamExplanation The header file fs.pdf
1. The correct option is
Explanation : The header file fstream that contains the classes for the ifstream
and ofstream for creating objects for input and output files.
The header fstream also contains functions to process and manipulate input
and output files.
2.The correct option is Opens myFile in append mode
Explanation :
The statement ofstream theFile; creates an object of the ofstream class
to open a file to write.
The statement
theFile.open( myFile.txt , ios::app); open a text file called
myFile.txt in append mode.
In append mode, the data written to file is starts from
the end of the file.
3. The correct option is eof() function
Explanation:
The function eof() that checks if the file pointer reached
end of the file or not.
4.Note : no option is matching.
Given options are not suitable for question .
5.The correct option is &j[ 4 ]
Explanation:
The arrays are index based.So the array, j[4] refers to fourth element of array,j.
The &j[4] referes to address of fourth element.
6. The false statement is \" All elements in an array have the same subscript.\"
Explanation:
The arrays starts from index zero and increments until size-1.
All elements of the array are not same.
7. The correct option is use a loop statement
Explanation :
Using loop statement, arrays can be traversed since loops have starting and
ending values with incrementation until a condition is met.
8. The correct option is 3.
Explanation :
The table,
int table[4][3]={
3,7,0,
2,4,9,
8,1,3,
6,5,4};
The values of table[0][0] refers to the zeroth row and zeroth
column of the table. That is first element , 3.
9.The correct option is tracing.
Explanation : Debugger is a tool that helps to find the error or bug
that causes the program to fail and to fix the error.
10.the correct option is Constructor
Explanation :
The constructor function has same name as class name.
It doesnot return any return value.
it is used to intialize the values of the members of a class.
11. the correct option is Field and method.
Explanation :
A class have data members and member functions
where data members are fielda and member functions
are methods.
12.The correct option is getters
Explanation : the accessor methods are used to return
a value from the method. The accessors are called getters.
13. The correct option is Constructor method.
Explanation :
The method constructor is called automatically whenever
an instance of the class is created.
14.The correct option is parameter
Explanation :
The function header contains
return type functionName(parameter1, parameter2,...parametern)
The parameter is a part of the functin header.
15. The corret option is semicolon
Explanation :
the function prototype
void PrintNumber(int) missing semicolon at end of the header.
Solution
1. The correct option is
Explanation : The header file fstream that contains the classes for the ifstream
and ofstream for creating objects for input and output files.
The header fstream also contains functions to process and manipulate inpu.
Bt0067 c programming and data structures2
The document discusses various data structures and file input/output functions in C programming. It defines pointers and their advantages, describes the fread() function syntax, differentiates between linear and nonlinear data structures, discusses stack applications and operations, defines linked lists and their operations, and provides examples for each topic.
Chapter 17
The document discusses .NET classes for retrieving file system information and performing operations like copying files and creating directories. It describes the Directory, File, DirectoryInfo, FileInfo, and DriveInfo classes, as well as the Path class. It also covers reading and writing files with streams, and using the FileUpload control to upload files from a web form.
1. Create a directory structure IFT383FinalExamActivitiesActivity1.pdf
1. Create a directory structure IFT383FinalExam/Activities/Activity1 in your home directory
2. Create a file using the cat command named classRoster
3. Add three records to your file with the following fields, separated by a comma Student ID
First Name Last Name Grade Program of Study ASURITE ID (username)
4. Display the contents of the file classRoster Move the file classRoster to the directory Activity1
5. Go to the Activity1 directory Display the directory you are in
6. Add read, write and execute permissions for user and group to Activity1.dir
7. Create a new file called header using cat command whose contents are the field names,
separated by a tab space Student ID First Name Last Name Grade Program of Study ASURITE
ID (username)
8. Display the header file Copy the contents of header into classRoster, as the first line Replace
the comma with a tab space using appropriate filters (such as cut, paste, tr, head, etc.)
9. Save this file as finalRoster.txt Display the contents of the file finalRoster.txt Convert the
finalRoster to a UNIX file and save as rosterUNIX,
10. perform a byte-by-byte comparison of the two files, and display the differences.
Solution
1) cd ~
mkdir -p IFT383FinalExam/Activities/Activity1
2) cat > classRoster
3) 1,bill,gates,cse,bgates
2,larry,page,cse,lpage
3,elon,musk,ece,emusk
4) cat classRoster
1,bill,gates,cse,bgates
2,larry,page,cse,lpage
3,elon,musk,ece,emusk
mv classRoster IFT383FinalExam/Activities/Activity1/
5) cd IFT383FinalExam/Activities/Activity1
pwd
/home/vkona/IFT383FinalExam/Activities/Activity1
6) chmod -R 771 ../Activity1
ls -l ../Activity1/
total 4
-rwxrwx--x 1 vkona vkona 69 Mar 1 16:35 classRoster
7) cat >header
1 bill gates cse bgates
2 larry page cse lpage
3 elon musk ece emusk
cat header
1 bill gates cse bgates
2 larry page cse lpage
3 elon musk ece emusk
8) cat header >> classRostercat header >> classRoster
cat classRoster
1,bill,gates,cse,bgates
2,larry,page,cse,lpage
3,elon,musk,ece,emusk
1 bill gates cse bgates
2 larry page cse lpage
3 elon musk ece emusk.
Recursively Searching Files and DirectoriesSummaryBuild a class .pdf
Recursively Searching Files and Directories
Summary
Build a class and a driver for use in searching your computer’s secondary storage (hard disk or
flash memory) for a specific file from a set of files indicated by a starting path. Lets start by
looking at a directory listing. Note that every element is either a file or a directory.
Introduction and Driver
In this assignment, your job is to write a class that searches through a file hierarchy (a tree) for a
specified file. Your FindFile class will search a directory (and all subdirectories) for a target file
name.
For example, in the file hierarchy pictured above, the file “lesson.css” will be found once in a
directory near the root or top-level drive name (e.g. “C:\\”) . Your FindFile class will start at the
path indicated and will search each directory and subdirectory looking for a file match. Consider
the following code that could help you build your Driver.java:
String targetFile = “lesson.css”;
String pathToSearch =”
C:\\\\WCWC”; FindFile finder = new FindFile(MAX_NUMBER_OF_FILES_TO_FIND);
Finder.directorySearch(targetFile, pathToSearch);
File Searching
In general, searching can take multiple forms depending on the structure and order of the set to
search. If we can make promises about the data (this data is sorted, or deltas vary by no more
than 10, etc.), then we can leverage those constraints to perform a more efficient search. Files in
a file system are exposed to clients of the operating system and can be organized by filename,
file creation date, size, and a number of other properties. We’ll just be interested in the file
names here, and we’ll want perform a brute force (i.e., sequential) search of these files looking
for a specific file. The way in which we’ll get file information from the operating system will
involve no ordering; as a result, a linear search is the best we can do. We’d like to search for a
target file given a specified path and return the location of the file, if found. You should sketch
out this logic linearly before attempting to tackle it recursively.
FindFile Class Interface
FindFile(int maxFiles): This constructor accepts the maximum number of files to find.
void directorySearch(String target, String dirName): The parameters are the target file name to
look for and the directory to start in.
int getCount(): This accessor returns the number of matching files found
String[] getFiles(): This getter returns the array of file locations, up to maxFiles in size.
Requirements
Your program should be recursive.
You should build and submit at least two files: FindFile.java and Driver.java.
Throw an exception (IllegalArgumentException) if the path passed in as the starting directory is
not a valid directory.
Throw an exception if you\'ve found the MAX_NUMBER_OF_FILES_TO_FIND and catch and
handle this in your main driver. Your program shouldn\'t crash but rather exit gracefully in the
unusual situation that we\'ve discovered the maximum number of files we were interest.
File Input & Output
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This document discusses various methods in PHP for working with files, including checking if a file exists, retrieving file information, reading files, reading specific lines or byte ranges from a file, and counting lines, words, and characters in a file. The key functions discussed are file_exists(), stat(), filesize(), file(), file_get_contents(), fread(), fgets(), fopen(), fclose(), array_slice(), strlen(), and str_word_count().
1. The correct option is fstreamExplanation The header file fs.pdf
1. The correct option is
Explanation : The header file fstream that contains the classes for the ifstream
and ofstream for creating objects for input and output files.
The header fstream also contains functions to process and manipulate input
and output files.
2.The correct option is Opens myFile in append mode
Explanation :
The statement ofstream theFile; creates an object of the ofstream class
to open a file to write.
The statement
theFile.open( myFile.txt , ios::app); open a text file called
myFile.txt in append mode.
In append mode, the data written to file is starts from
the end of the file.
3. The correct option is eof() function
Explanation:
The function eof() that checks if the file pointer reached
end of the file or not.
4.Note : no option is matching.
Given options are not suitable for question .
5.The correct option is &j[ 4 ]
Explanation:
The arrays are index based.So the array, j[4] refers to fourth element of array,j.
The &j[4] referes to address of fourth element.
6. The false statement is \" All elements in an array have the same subscript.\"
Explanation:
The arrays starts from index zero and increments until size-1.
All elements of the array are not same.
7. The correct option is use a loop statement
Explanation :
Using loop statement, arrays can be traversed since loops have starting and
ending values with incrementation until a condition is met.
8. The correct option is 3.
Explanation :
The table,
int table[4][3]={
3,7,0,
2,4,9,
8,1,3,
6,5,4};
The values of table[0][0] refers to the zeroth row and zeroth
column of the table. That is first element , 3.
9.The correct option is tracing.
Explanation : Debugger is a tool that helps to find the error or bug
that causes the program to fail and to fix the error.
10.the correct option is Constructor
Explanation :
The constructor function has same name as class name.
It doesnot return any return value.
it is used to intialize the values of the members of a class.
11. the correct option is Field and method.
Explanation :
A class have data members and member functions
where data members are fielda and member functions
are methods.
12.The correct option is getters
Explanation : the accessor methods are used to return
a value from the method. The accessors are called getters.
13. The correct option is Constructor method.
Explanation :
The method constructor is called automatically whenever
an instance of the class is created.
14.The correct option is parameter
Explanation :
The function header contains
return type functionName(parameter1, parameter2,...parametern)
The parameter is a part of the functin header.
15. The corret option is semicolon
Explanation :
the function prototype
void PrintNumber(int) missing semicolon at end of the header.
Solution
1. The correct option is
Explanation : The header file fstream that contains the classes for the ifstream
and ofstream for creating objects for input and output files.
The header fstream also contains functions to process and manipulate inpu.
Bt0067 c programming and data structures2
The document discusses various data structures and file input/output functions in C programming. It defines pointers and their advantages, describes the fread() function syntax, differentiates between linear and nonlinear data structures, discusses stack applications and operations, defines linked lists and their operations, and provides examples for each topic.
Chapter 17
The document discusses .NET classes for retrieving file system information and performing operations like copying files and creating directories. It describes the Directory, File, DirectoryInfo, FileInfo, and DriveInfo classes, as well as the Path class. It also covers reading and writing files with streams, and using the FileUpload control to upload files from a web form.
1. Create a directory structure IFT383FinalExamActivitiesActivity1.pdf
1. Create a directory structure IFT383FinalExam/Activities/Activity1 in your home directory
2. Create a file using the cat command named classRoster
3. Add three records to your file with the following fields, separated by a comma Student ID
First Name Last Name Grade Program of Study ASURITE ID (username)
4. Display the contents of the file classRoster Move the file classRoster to the directory Activity1
5. Go to the Activity1 directory Display the directory you are in
6. Add read, write and execute permissions for user and group to Activity1.dir
7. Create a new file called header using cat command whose contents are the field names,
separated by a tab space Student ID First Name Last Name Grade Program of Study ASURITE
ID (username)
8. Display the header file Copy the contents of header into classRoster, as the first line Replace
the comma with a tab space using appropriate filters (such as cut, paste, tr, head, etc.)
9. Save this file as finalRoster.txt Display the contents of the file finalRoster.txt Convert the
finalRoster to a UNIX file and save as rosterUNIX,
10. perform a byte-by-byte comparison of the two files, and display the differences.
Solution
1) cd ~
mkdir -p IFT383FinalExam/Activities/Activity1
2) cat > classRoster
3) 1,bill,gates,cse,bgates
2,larry,page,cse,lpage
3,elon,musk,ece,emusk
4) cat classRoster
1,bill,gates,cse,bgates
2,larry,page,cse,lpage
3,elon,musk,ece,emusk
mv classRoster IFT383FinalExam/Activities/Activity1/
5) cd IFT383FinalExam/Activities/Activity1
pwd
/home/vkona/IFT383FinalExam/Activities/Activity1
6) chmod -R 771 ../Activity1
ls -l ../Activity1/
total 4
-rwxrwx--x 1 vkona vkona 69 Mar 1 16:35 classRoster
7) cat >header
1 bill gates cse bgates
2 larry page cse lpage
3 elon musk ece emusk
cat header
1 bill gates cse bgates
2 larry page cse lpage
3 elon musk ece emusk
8) cat header >> classRostercat header >> classRoster
cat classRoster
1,bill,gates,cse,bgates
2,larry,page,cse,lpage
3,elon,musk,ece,emusk
1 bill gates cse bgates
2 larry page cse lpage
3 elon musk ece emusk.
Recursively Searching Files and DirectoriesSummaryBuild a class .pdf
Recursively Searching Files and Directories
Summary
Build a class and a driver for use in searching your computer’s secondary storage (hard disk or
flash memory) for a specific file from a set of files indicated by a starting path. Lets start by
looking at a directory listing. Note that every element is either a file or a directory.
Introduction and Driver
In this assignment, your job is to write a class that searches through a file hierarchy (a tree) for a
specified file. Your FindFile class will search a directory (and all subdirectories) for a target file
name.
For example, in the file hierarchy pictured above, the file “lesson.css” will be found once in a
directory near the root or top-level drive name (e.g. “C:\\”) . Your FindFile class will start at the
path indicated and will search each directory and subdirectory looking for a file match. Consider
the following code that could help you build your Driver.java:
String targetFile = “lesson.css”;
String pathToSearch =”
C:\\\\WCWC”; FindFile finder = new FindFile(MAX_NUMBER_OF_FILES_TO_FIND);
Finder.directorySearch(targetFile, pathToSearch);
File Searching
In general, searching can take multiple forms depending on the structure and order of the set to
search. If we can make promises about the data (this data is sorted, or deltas vary by no more
than 10, etc.), then we can leverage those constraints to perform a more efficient search. Files in
a file system are exposed to clients of the operating system and can be organized by filename,
file creation date, size, and a number of other properties. We’ll just be interested in the file
names here, and we’ll want perform a brute force (i.e., sequential) search of these files looking
for a specific file. The way in which we’ll get file information from the operating system will
involve no ordering; as a result, a linear search is the best we can do. We’d like to search for a
target file given a specified path and return the location of the file, if found. You should sketch
out this logic linearly before attempting to tackle it recursively.
FindFile Class Interface
FindFile(int maxFiles): This constructor accepts the maximum number of files to find.
void directorySearch(String target, String dirName): The parameters are the target file name to
look for and the directory to start in.
int getCount(): This accessor returns the number of matching files found
String[] getFiles(): This getter returns the array of file locations, up to maxFiles in size.
Requirements
Your program should be recursive.
You should build and submit at least two files: FindFile.java and Driver.java.
Throw an exception (IllegalArgumentException) if the path passed in as the starting directory is
not a valid directory.
Throw an exception if you\'ve found the MAX_NUMBER_OF_FILES_TO_FIND and catch and
handle this in your main driver. Your program shouldn\'t crash but rather exit gracefully in the
unusual situation that we\'ve discovered the maximum number of files we were interest.
File Input & Output
The document discusses file input and output in Java. It covers using the File class to get information about files, using JFileChooser to select files, and different streams for reading and writing files including FileInputStream, FileOutputStream, DataInputStream, DataOutputStream, FileWriter, PrintWriter, FileReader and BufferedReader. It provides examples of using these classes and methods to write bytes, primitive data types and text to files and read them back.
Lecture 4 - Object Interaction and Collections
The document discusses using collections like ArrayList in Java. It explains that collections allow storing an arbitrary number of objects and provide functionality to add, remove and iterate over items. The document also demonstrates how to use an ArrayList to organize music files by adding, getting and listing files. Iteration over collections using a for-each loop is described. Generic classes are introduced as a way to specify the type of objects a collection contains.
InstructionYou’ll probably want to import FileReader, PrintWriter,.pdf
Instruction
You’ll probably want to import FileReader, PrintWriter, ArrayList, List, and Scanner.
For this assignment, keep all your classes in one file. Leave the Hwk8 class as public and don’t
use an access modifier for the other classes..
One suggestion for the order to implement the classes would be: the three Exceptions,
Dictionary, Template, and finally the Driver (main method).
You will need to generate the input text files manually from the sample runs of the program.
Exceptions:
The implementation of all three of them (DictionaryFormatException,
EmptyWordListException, and UnsupportedCategoryException) should be very similar.
Since they are all run-time type exceptions, they can extend the RuntimeException class.
You can provide a specific error message to pass into each of them while you are generating the
exceptions in the other classes.
Dictionary:
The instance variables of the Dictionary class are Lists of type String to store the following types
of words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, interjections. Using an ArrayList to
implement the Lists is recommended.
addWord: The input should be from the “words” file. Specifically it will have the format
“partofspeech:word”. Think about String methods you may use to format the input properly
before using it. Then consider what all these inputs should have in common to determine a
delimiter (character) for splitting the String. You should also check if the input line is empty
(skip it in this case) or whether there isn’t exactly two parts split from the String (in this case
throw a DictionaryFormatException). Trim the resulting two Strings at this point, and use their
data to determine which ArrayList the word belongs to before adding it to that list.
getWord: The input is a String representation of the part of speech list you want to extract a word
from. If the String does not correspond to a part of speech name (noun, verb, etc.), throw an
UnsupportedCategoryException. First make sure there are words remaining in the selected list. If
not, throw an EmptyWordListException. Finally, use a random function to randomly remove a
word from that list and return it as the output.
Template:
Its sole instance variable is a String called template. This should be the String equivalent of the
template file the driver reads in.
As such, the constructor should just set the template value to be the String representation of the
template passed into it.
fill: Takes in a dictionary as an argument, and returns a String representation of a modified
template. You’ll want to find a way to split the template String into pieces easier to manage. To
create the result String, you’ll need to keep the parts of the String that aren’t word prompts as-is.
Then for the elements where “/ pos” shows up, you’ll want to replace those by retrieving an
appropriate word from the dictionary list (so choose from the noun list when a noun is requested,
etc.) if the process of appending parts of the String fails for s.
C++ - UNIT_-_V.pptx which contains details about File Concepts
The document discusses file handling in C++. It explains that files are used to store data permanently on a storage device. There are three main classes used for file handling - ifstream for input, ofstream for output, and fstream for both input and output. The key file handling operations include opening a file using open(), reading from a file using read(), writing to a file using write(), and closing a file using close(). It also discusses opening files in different modes, reading and writing binary data to files, and handling exceptions that may occur during file operations.
Input/Output Exploring java.io
This document discusses Java's input/output (I/O) capabilities through the java.io package. It describes the core I/O stream classes like InputStream, OutputStream, Reader and Writer. It also covers file I/O using File and FileInput/OutputStream classes. Buffered, filtered and character streams are explained. The use of serialization interfaces like Serializable and Externalizable for object I/O is summarized. The document provides examples of reading, writing and manipulating files and directories in Java.
Intake 38 10
This document discusses files and streams in .NET framework 4.5. It covers navigating the file system using classes like FileInfo, DirectoryInfo, and DriveInfo. It also discusses reading and writing files using streams, including FileStream for binary data and StreamReader/StreamWriter for text. Key points covered include getting information on files and directories, creating/deleting files and folders, and reading/writing files using streams in a simple way compared to FileStream.
Files.pptx
This document discusses file handling in Python. It explains that files are used to permanently store data and outlines the common file operations of opening, reading/writing, and closing. It then provides details on functions for opening files, reading/writing data, getting file metadata, and closing files. Additional topics covered include reading large files, using JSON and XML modules to load and parse file data, displaying HTML files, and interacting with Excel files.
FILE HANDLING in python to understand basic operations.
The document discusses file handling in Python. It describes how to open, read from, write to, and close files. The key points are:
- Files can be opened in read, write, append modes using the open() function, which returns a file object.
- Reading file data uses functions like read(), readline(), and readlines(). Write uses write() and writelines().
- Files must be closed using the close() method on the file object after reading or writing to release system resources.
- Text files store data as characters while binary files store exact data types. Mode 'w' overwrites, 'a' appends without overwriting existing data.
File
Files are named collections of related information stored on secondary storage. A file has attributes like its name, size, and permissions. An operating system performs basic file operations like creating, writing, reading, deleting, and truncating files. Creating a file allocates space and makes a directory entry. Writing puts data in the file. Reading retrieves data. Deleting removes the file entry and frees its space. Truncating erases contents but keeps attributes.
H file handling
- The document discusses file handling in Python, including opening, reading from, writing to, and closing text files.
- It describes opening files in different modes like reading, writing, and appending. It also shows how to read and write data from files line by line and how to process comma separated value (CSV) files.
- Examples are given of opening a file, reading its contents, splitting lines on commas, and writing data to files from arrays and records.
CS101S. ThompsonUniversity of BridgeportLab 7 Files, File.docx
CS101 S. Thompson
University of Bridgeport Lab 7: Files, File Choosers, and Scanners
Lab 4_2 Files, File Choosers, and Scanners
There are two ways to identify a file in Java.
1. The name of a file
2. Using the File object. This is a type of object that describes a file as it is stored on the computer's file system. The file system is the system of directories (folders) that the operating system uses to organize stored files so users can find them easily.
Here we just need to know that when you use a file chooser (which we will discuss next) to locate a file in the file system, the file chooser gives you access to the file selected by the user through a File object. You can see an example of a Java file chooser dialog in action below.
Here the user has used the JFileChooser dialog box to navigate to the Documents folder and select a file named infix.txt.
To use a JFileChooser, you need to know about the following constructor and methods:
JFileChooser()
int showOpenDialog(Component owner)
File getSelectedFile()
Using a JFileChooser
Look up the JFileChooser documentation online so you know what package to import. To use it, create a JFileChooser object and then call its showOpenDialog(). If you have a GUI application, pass it the Component you want it to appear on top of. This will generally be the JFrame for your application. If you are using a console application, just pass it null. Calling this method will cause a dialog box like the one below to appear:
The user will use the dialog to navigate to some folder and select a file, and then click on the Open button to accept the selected file. If the user changes his (or her) mind, he or she can click on Cancel. Either, way, the showOpenDialog will return an integer to your program indicating the user's choice. If the the user selected a file, the method will return the value JFileChooser.APPROVE_OPTION. At this point, you can call the getSelectedFile() to retrieve a File object that you can use to access the file.
Here is example code for using a file chooser object.
File file = null;
JFileChooser chooser = new JFileChooser();
int result = chooser.showOpenDialog(null);
if (result == JFileChooser.APPROVE_OPTION)
file = chooser.getSelectedFile();
else
{
JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(null, "No file selected");
System.exit(1);
}
If this code does not exit, you will have a File object named file. Next, let us look at how you can use this object to open and read a text file using a Stream object named a FileReader.
FileReader
A FileReader object is used to read text files. Text files are files that are human-readable, usually created by a text editor such as Notepad. Many applications, for example MS Word, Excel, and Access, do not create text files. Instead, they create a different type of file named a binary file. You cannot use a FileReader to read a binary file.
If you look up the documentation for the FileRea.
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. C H A P T E R 6.docx
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
C H A P T E R 6
Files and Exceptions
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
TopicsIntroduction to File Input and OutputUsing Loops to Process FilesProcessing RecordsExceptions
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Introduction to File Input and OutputFor program to retain data between the times it is run, you must save the data
Data is saved to a file, typically on computer disk
Saved data can be retrieved and used at a later time“Writing data to”: saving data on a fileOutput file: a file that data is written to
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Introduction to File Input and Output (cont’d.)“Reading data from”: process of retrieving data from a fileInput file: a file from which data is readThree steps when a program uses a file
Open the file
Process the file
Close the file
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Types of Files and File Access MethodsIn general, two types of files
Text file: contains data that has been encoded as text
Binary file: contains data that has not been converted to textTwo ways to access data stored in file
Sequential access: file read sequentially from beginning to end, can’t skip ahead
Direct access: can jump directly to any piece of data in the file
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Filenames and File ObjectsFilename extensions: short sequences of characters that appear at the end of a filename preceded by a period
Extension indicates type of data stored in the fileFile object: object associated with a specific file
Provides a way for a program to work with the file: file object referenced by a variable
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Filenames and File Objects (cont’d.)
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Opening a Fileopen function: used to open a file
Creates a file object and associates it with a file on the disk
General format:
file_object = open(filename, mode)Mode: string specifying how the file will be opened
Example: reading only ('r'), writing ('w'), and appending ('a')
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Specifying the Location of a FileIf open function receives a filename that does not contain a path, assumes that file is in same directory as programIf program is running and file is created, it is created in the same directory as the program
Can specify alternative path and file name in the open function argument
Prefix the path string literal with the letter r
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Writing Data to a FileMethod: a function that belongs to an object
Performs operations using that objectFile object’s write method used to write data to the file
Format: file_variable.write(string)File should be closed using file object close method
Format: file_variable.close()
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Reading Data From a Fileread method: file object method tha.
Unit-VI.pptx
Unit-VI discusses files in C programming. A file is a collection of related records stored permanently on secondary storage devices like hard disks. There are several file operations in C - opening a file using fopen(), reading the file using fgetc(), and closing it using fclose(). Different text modes like w, r, a, w+, a+ are used for opening files for write, read, append, write and read, append and read operations respectively. Programs are provided to demonstrate opening, writing, reading and closing files in various modes.
FILES IN C
fread() and fwrite() are functions used to read and write structured data from files. fread() reads an entire structure block from a file into memory. fwrite() writes an entire structure block from memory to a file. These functions allow efficient reading and writing of complex data types like structures and arrays from binary files.
3.1 file input and output
This document discusses using the File object in Microsoft Small Basic to read from and write to files. It describes properties of the File object like LastError and operations like WriteLine, AppendContents, ReadContents, CopyFile, GetFiles, CreateDirectory, and GetDirectories. Examples are provided to demonstrate using these operations to write text to a file, append additional content, copy a file, get file listings, create directories, and get directory listings. The LastError property is also described for retrieving error details.
ExplanationThe files into which we are writing the date area called.pdf
Explanation:The files into which we are writing the date area called as output files.If we want to
write the result of the program in the user required format we can write in these files.
2.2) When storing and retrieving data, a sequential access file is much like a VCR tapes
In floppy disks and hard disks data retrieval and storing will be done in Random wise.But this is
not possible in case of VCR tapes.this is the disadvante of this.That why now a days we are using
hard disks to store data.
3.3) If you want to add data to an new file, what is the correct operation to perform?
Ans) create a file
4.4) To create an output file object, you would use what kind of type?
Ans)ofstream
Syntax: ofstream myfile;
myfile.open (\"D:\\\\bankbal.txt\");
5.5) What do the following statements accomplish?
ofstream theFile;
theFile.open( myFile.txt , ios::app);
Ans) Opens myFile in append mode
ios::app – If we opened a file in this mode,If any content we are writing will be appended to the
end of the file.I.e the new content we are wrinting will be appended to the end of the already
existing content.
6.6) When a file is opened in output mode, the file pointer is positioned at the beginning of the
file.
For input file and output file the pointer will we positioned at the beginning of the file only.
7.7) The is_open function returns what kind of data type?
Ans)bool
If(myfile.is_open) we use this to check whether the file opened successfully or not.
8.8) In general, which of the following contains the least amount of data?
Ans)byte
We can store only a single character or single number or single symbol in this byte.like ‘a’,7,#
9.9) To use an output file, the program must include fstream
Explanation: If we want to use either an input file or an output file we have to include fstream.h
header file. Like #include
10.10) Which of the following is not true about files?
Ans) istream, ostream, and iostream are derived from ifstream, ofstream, and fstream,
respectively.
11.11) Compare and contrast the mode operators ios::in, ios::app, and ios::out. Provide a C++
code segment that illustrates the use of these mode operators.
Ans)
To open a file we have to use this member function.
As a first argument we have to supply the filename.
As a second argument we can supply the mode of opening the file.this is an optional parameter.
Syntax: open(filename,mode);
ios::in – if we want to read the data from the file we have to use this mode.This is used for input
operations.
Code:
ifstream file;
file.open(\"D:\\\\bank.txt\"); or file.open(\"D:\\\\bank.txt\",ios::in);
here we are trying to read the data from the file named bank.txt which is available in D
drive.Here we didn’t specify the mode here.By default the file will be opened in ios::in mode
ios::out - if we want to write the data from to a file we have to use this mode.This is used for
output operations.
Code:
ofstream myfile;
myfile.open (\"D:\\\\bankbal.txt\"); or myfile.open (\"D:\\\\bankbal.txt\", ios::out);
myfile <<”Hell.
File handling
The document discusses various components of C++ used for file handling such as header files, classes, file modes, and functions. It explains the classes ifstream, ofstream, and fstream used to open files in different modes. It also describes functions like open(), close(), get(), getline(), put(), tellg(), seekg(), tellp(), and seekp() and how to detect the end of files with and without using eof().
Savitch Ch 06
This document summarizes key concepts from a chapter on C++ I/O streams and file I/O:
- Streams allow programs to perform input/output with files and devices like the keyboard and screen. Input streams provide data to a program, while output streams allow a program to send data.
- The cin and cout streams connect by default to keyboard input and screen output. File I/O streams like ifstream and ofstream can be used to read from and write to files.
- Member functions like open() are used to connect stream objects to files. The fail() function checks if stream operations like opening a file were successful.
- Programs should check for errors when opening files
Savitch Ch 06
This document discusses input/output (I/O) streams in C++. It covers declaring input and output stream variables to connect to files, using stream member functions like open() to connect streams to files, and extraction and insertion operators to read from and write to streams. It also describes formatting output using stream manipulators and functions like setw(), setprecision(), and flags like fixed and showpoint.
Unit V.pptx
This document discusses files, modules, packages and exceptions in Python. It covers reading and writing to text files, opening and closing files, different file access modes, file positions, command line arguments, and common exceptions in Python like syntax errors and exceptions raised during execution. Key topics include using open(), read(), write(), close() functions to perform file operations, os and os.path modules for file and path operations, and sys.argv to access command line arguments in a Python program. Examples are provided for reading, writing, appending files and handling exceptions.
INput output stream in ccP Full Detail.pptx
This document provides information about file handling functions in C language. It discusses functions for opening, reading, writing, and closing files. Some key functions covered are fopen(), fclose(), fgetc(), fputc(), fprintf(), fscanf(), fgets(), fputs(), fread(), and fwrite(). Examples of using these functions to perform basic file operations like reading/writing characters, strings, and structures are also presented.
The Diamonds of 2023-2024 in the IGRA collection
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Community pharmacy- Social and preventive pharmacy UNIT 5
Covered community pharmacy topic of the subject Social and preventive pharmacy for Diploma and Bachelor of pharmacy
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Instruction
You’ll probably want to import FileReader, PrintWriter, ArrayList, List, and Scanner.
For this assignment, keep all your classes in one file. Leave the Hwk8 class as public and don’t
use an access modifier for the other classes..
One suggestion for the order to implement the classes would be: the three Exceptions,
Dictionary, Template, and finally the Driver (main method).
You will need to generate the input text files manually from the sample runs of the program.
Exceptions:
The implementation of all three of them (DictionaryFormatException,
EmptyWordListException, and UnsupportedCategoryException) should be very similar.
Since they are all run-time type exceptions, they can extend the RuntimeException class.
You can provide a specific error message to pass into each of them while you are generating the
exceptions in the other classes.
Dictionary:
The instance variables of the Dictionary class are Lists of type String to store the following types
of words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, interjections. Using an ArrayList to
implement the Lists is recommended.
addWord: The input should be from the “words” file. Specifically it will have the format
“partofspeech:word”. Think about String methods you may use to format the input properly
before using it. Then consider what all these inputs should have in common to determine a
delimiter (character) for splitting the String. You should also check if the input line is empty
(skip it in this case) or whether there isn’t exactly two parts split from the String (in this case
throw a DictionaryFormatException). Trim the resulting two Strings at this point, and use their
data to determine which ArrayList the word belongs to before adding it to that list.
getWord: The input is a String representation of the part of speech list you want to extract a word
from. If the String does not correspond to a part of speech name (noun, verb, etc.), throw an
UnsupportedCategoryException. First make sure there are words remaining in the selected list. If
not, throw an EmptyWordListException. Finally, use a random function to randomly remove a
word from that list and return it as the output.
Template:
Its sole instance variable is a String called template. This should be the String equivalent of the
template file the driver reads in.
As such, the constructor should just set the template value to be the String representation of the
template passed into it.
fill: Takes in a dictionary as an argument, and returns a String representation of a modified
template. You’ll want to find a way to split the template String into pieces easier to manage. To
create the result String, you’ll need to keep the parts of the String that aren’t word prompts as-is.
Then for the elements where “/ pos” shows up, you’ll want to replace those by retrieving an
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etc.) if the process of appending parts of the String fails for s.
C++ - UNIT_-_V.pptx which contains details about File Concepts
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Input/Output Exploring java.io
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Intake 38 10
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Files.pptx
This document discusses file handling in Python. It explains that files are used to permanently store data and outlines the common file operations of opening, reading/writing, and closing. It then provides details on functions for opening files, reading/writing data, getting file metadata, and closing files. Additional topics covered include reading large files, using JSON and XML modules to load and parse file data, displaying HTML files, and interacting with Excel files.
FILE HANDLING in python to understand basic operations.
The document discusses file handling in Python. It describes how to open, read from, write to, and close files. The key points are:
- Files can be opened in read, write, append modes using the open() function, which returns a file object.
- Reading file data uses functions like read(), readline(), and readlines(). Write uses write() and writelines().
- Files must be closed using the close() method on the file object after reading or writing to release system resources.
- Text files store data as characters while binary files store exact data types. Mode 'w' overwrites, 'a' appends without overwriting existing data.
File
Files are named collections of related information stored on secondary storage. A file has attributes like its name, size, and permissions. An operating system performs basic file operations like creating, writing, reading, deleting, and truncating files. Creating a file allocates space and makes a directory entry. Writing puts data in the file. Reading retrieves data. Deleting removes the file entry and frees its space. Truncating erases contents but keeps attributes.
H file handling
- The document discusses file handling in Python, including opening, reading from, writing to, and closing text files.
- It describes opening files in different modes like reading, writing, and appending. It also shows how to read and write data from files line by line and how to process comma separated value (CSV) files.
- Examples are given of opening a file, reading its contents, splitting lines on commas, and writing data to files from arrays and records.
CS101S. ThompsonUniversity of BridgeportLab 7 Files, File.docx
CS101 S. Thompson
University of Bridgeport Lab 7: Files, File Choosers, and Scanners
Lab 4_2 Files, File Choosers, and Scanners
There are two ways to identify a file in Java.
1. The name of a file
2. Using the File object. This is a type of object that describes a file as it is stored on the computer's file system. The file system is the system of directories (folders) that the operating system uses to organize stored files so users can find them easily.
Here we just need to know that when you use a file chooser (which we will discuss next) to locate a file in the file system, the file chooser gives you access to the file selected by the user through a File object. You can see an example of a Java file chooser dialog in action below.
Here the user has used the JFileChooser dialog box to navigate to the Documents folder and select a file named infix.txt.
To use a JFileChooser, you need to know about the following constructor and methods:
JFileChooser()
int showOpenDialog(Component owner)
File getSelectedFile()
Using a JFileChooser
Look up the JFileChooser documentation online so you know what package to import. To use it, create a JFileChooser object and then call its showOpenDialog(). If you have a GUI application, pass it the Component you want it to appear on top of. This will generally be the JFrame for your application. If you are using a console application, just pass it null. Calling this method will cause a dialog box like the one below to appear:
The user will use the dialog to navigate to some folder and select a file, and then click on the Open button to accept the selected file. If the user changes his (or her) mind, he or she can click on Cancel. Either, way, the showOpenDialog will return an integer to your program indicating the user's choice. If the the user selected a file, the method will return the value JFileChooser.APPROVE_OPTION. At this point, you can call the getSelectedFile() to retrieve a File object that you can use to access the file.
Here is example code for using a file chooser object.
File file = null;
JFileChooser chooser = new JFileChooser();
int result = chooser.showOpenDialog(null);
if (result == JFileChooser.APPROVE_OPTION)
file = chooser.getSelectedFile();
else
{
JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(null, "No file selected");
System.exit(1);
}
If this code does not exit, you will have a File object named file. Next, let us look at how you can use this object to open and read a text file using a Stream object named a FileReader.
FileReader
A FileReader object is used to read text files. Text files are files that are human-readable, usually created by a text editor such as Notepad. Many applications, for example MS Word, Excel, and Access, do not create text files. Instead, they create a different type of file named a binary file. You cannot use a FileReader to read a binary file.
If you look up the documentation for the FileRea.
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. C H A P T E R 6.docx
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
C H A P T E R 6
Files and Exceptions
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
TopicsIntroduction to File Input and OutputUsing Loops to Process FilesProcessing RecordsExceptions
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Introduction to File Input and OutputFor program to retain data between the times it is run, you must save the data
Data is saved to a file, typically on computer disk
Saved data can be retrieved and used at a later time“Writing data to”: saving data on a fileOutput file: a file that data is written to
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Introduction to File Input and Output (cont’d.)“Reading data from”: process of retrieving data from a fileInput file: a file from which data is readThree steps when a program uses a file
Open the file
Process the file
Close the file
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Types of Files and File Access MethodsIn general, two types of files
Text file: contains data that has been encoded as text
Binary file: contains data that has not been converted to textTwo ways to access data stored in file
Sequential access: file read sequentially from beginning to end, can’t skip ahead
Direct access: can jump directly to any piece of data in the file
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Filenames and File ObjectsFilename extensions: short sequences of characters that appear at the end of a filename preceded by a period
Extension indicates type of data stored in the fileFile object: object associated with a specific file
Provides a way for a program to work with the file: file object referenced by a variable
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Filenames and File Objects (cont’d.)
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Opening a Fileopen function: used to open a file
Creates a file object and associates it with a file on the disk
General format:
file_object = open(filename, mode)Mode: string specifying how the file will be opened
Example: reading only ('r'), writing ('w'), and appending ('a')
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Specifying the Location of a FileIf open function receives a filename that does not contain a path, assumes that file is in same directory as programIf program is running and file is created, it is created in the same directory as the program
Can specify alternative path and file name in the open function argument
Prefix the path string literal with the letter r
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Writing Data to a FileMethod: a function that belongs to an object
Performs operations using that objectFile object’s write method used to write data to the file
Format: file_variable.write(string)File should be closed using file object close method
Format: file_variable.close()
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Reading Data From a Fileread method: file object method tha.
Unit-VI.pptx
Unit-VI discusses files in C programming. A file is a collection of related records stored permanently on secondary storage devices like hard disks. There are several file operations in C - opening a file using fopen(), reading the file using fgetc(), and closing it using fclose(). Different text modes like w, r, a, w+, a+ are used for opening files for write, read, append, write and read, append and read operations respectively. Programs are provided to demonstrate opening, writing, reading and closing files in various modes.
FILES IN C
fread() and fwrite() are functions used to read and write structured data from files. fread() reads an entire structure block from a file into memory. fwrite() writes an entire structure block from memory to a file. These functions allow efficient reading and writing of complex data types like structures and arrays from binary files.
3.1 file input and output
This document discusses using the File object in Microsoft Small Basic to read from and write to files. It describes properties of the File object like LastError and operations like WriteLine, AppendContents, ReadContents, CopyFile, GetFiles, CreateDirectory, and GetDirectories. Examples are provided to demonstrate using these operations to write text to a file, append additional content, copy a file, get file listings, create directories, and get directory listings. The LastError property is also described for retrieving error details.
ExplanationThe files into which we are writing the date area called.pdf
Explanation:The files into which we are writing the date area called as output files.If we want to
write the result of the program in the user required format we can write in these files.
2.2) When storing and retrieving data, a sequential access file is much like a VCR tapes
In floppy disks and hard disks data retrieval and storing will be done in Random wise.But this is
not possible in case of VCR tapes.this is the disadvante of this.That why now a days we are using
hard disks to store data.
3.3) If you want to add data to an new file, what is the correct operation to perform?
Ans) create a file
4.4) To create an output file object, you would use what kind of type?
Ans)ofstream
Syntax: ofstream myfile;
myfile.open (\"D:\\\\bankbal.txt\");
5.5) What do the following statements accomplish?
ofstream theFile;
theFile.open( myFile.txt , ios::app);
Ans) Opens myFile in append mode
ios::app – If we opened a file in this mode,If any content we are writing will be appended to the
end of the file.I.e the new content we are wrinting will be appended to the end of the already
existing content.
6.6) When a file is opened in output mode, the file pointer is positioned at the beginning of the
file.
For input file and output file the pointer will we positioned at the beginning of the file only.
7.7) The is_open function returns what kind of data type?
Ans)bool
If(myfile.is_open) we use this to check whether the file opened successfully or not.
8.8) In general, which of the following contains the least amount of data?
Ans)byte
We can store only a single character or single number or single symbol in this byte.like ‘a’,7,#
9.9) To use an output file, the program must include fstream
Explanation: If we want to use either an input file or an output file we have to include fstream.h
header file. Like #include
10.10) Which of the following is not true about files?
Ans) istream, ostream, and iostream are derived from ifstream, ofstream, and fstream,
respectively.
11.11) Compare and contrast the mode operators ios::in, ios::app, and ios::out. Provide a C++
code segment that illustrates the use of these mode operators.
Ans)
To open a file we have to use this member function.
As a first argument we have to supply the filename.
As a second argument we can supply the mode of opening the file.this is an optional parameter.
Syntax: open(filename,mode);
ios::in – if we want to read the data from the file we have to use this mode.This is used for input
operations.
Code:
ifstream file;
file.open(\"D:\\\\bank.txt\"); or file.open(\"D:\\\\bank.txt\",ios::in);
here we are trying to read the data from the file named bank.txt which is available in D
drive.Here we didn’t specify the mode here.By default the file will be opened in ios::in mode
ios::out - if we want to write the data from to a file we have to use this mode.This is used for
output operations.
Code:
ofstream myfile;
myfile.open (\"D:\\\\bankbal.txt\"); or myfile.open (\"D:\\\\bankbal.txt\", ios::out);
myfile <<”Hell.
File handling
The document discusses various components of C++ used for file handling such as header files, classes, file modes, and functions. It explains the classes ifstream, ofstream, and fstream used to open files in different modes. It also describes functions like open(), close(), get(), getline(), put(), tellg(), seekg(), tellp(), and seekp() and how to detect the end of files with and without using eof().
Savitch Ch 06
This document summarizes key concepts from a chapter on C++ I/O streams and file I/O:
- Streams allow programs to perform input/output with files and devices like the keyboard and screen. Input streams provide data to a program, while output streams allow a program to send data.
- The cin and cout streams connect by default to keyboard input and screen output. File I/O streams like ifstream and ofstream can be used to read from and write to files.
- Member functions like open() are used to connect stream objects to files. The fail() function checks if stream operations like opening a file were successful.
- Programs should check for errors when opening files
Savitch Ch 06
This document discusses input/output (I/O) streams in C++. It covers declaring input and output stream variables to connect to files, using stream member functions like open() to connect streams to files, and extraction and insertion operators to read from and write to streams. It also describes formatting output using stream manipulators and functions like setw(), setprecision(), and flags like fixed and showpoint.
Unit V.pptx
This document discusses files, modules, packages and exceptions in Python. It covers reading and writing to text files, opening and closing files, different file access modes, file positions, command line arguments, and common exceptions in Python like syntax errors and exceptions raised during execution. Key topics include using open(), read(), write(), close() functions to perform file operations, os and os.path modules for file and path operations, and sys.argv to access command line arguments in a Python program. Examples are provided for reading, writing, appending files and handling exceptions.
INput output stream in ccP Full Detail.pptx
This document provides information about file handling functions in C language. It discusses functions for opening, reading, writing, and closing files. Some key functions covered are fopen(), fclose(), fgetc(), fputc(), fprintf(), fscanf(), fgets(), fputs(), fread(), and fwrite(). Examples of using these functions to perform basic file operations like reading/writing characters, strings, and structures are also presented.
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C++ - UNIT_-_V.pptx which contains details about File Concepts
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File Handlingb in java. A brief presentation on file handling
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FILE HANDLING in python to understand basic operations.
FILE HANDLING in python to understand basic operations.
CS101S. ThompsonUniversity of BridgeportLab 7 Files, File.docx
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Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. C H A P T E R 6.docx
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. C H A P T E R 6.docx
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This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
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তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
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