This document discusses spanning trees and their application to mazes. It defines a spanning tree as a connected subgraph of an undirected graph with no cycles. Two common algorithms for finding minimum-cost spanning trees are described: Kruskal's algorithm and Prim's algorithm. Mazes can be represented as spanning trees, with locations as nodes and open doors as edges, ensuring a single path between any two locations. An algorithm is provided for building a maze by iteratively adding locations to the spanning tree from a frontier of adjacent, unadded locations.
Un disparador es un objeto de base de datos con nombre que se asocia a una tabla, y se activa cuando ocurre un evento en particular para la tabla. Algunos usos para los disparadores es verificar valores a ser insertados o llevar a cabo cálculos sobre valores involucrados en una actualización.
Aqui les dejo un ejemplo de Trigger, que puede servir de referencia, como elemento Accounting, de seguridad para algunas tablas de sus bases de Datos
Estimados usuarios.
Bienvenidos a nuestro sitio virtual de la UNIVERSIDAD MAGISTER en Slide Share donde podrá encontrar los resultados de importantes trabajos de investigación prácticos producidos por nuestros profesionales. Esperamos que estos Mares Azules que les ponemos a su disposición sirvan de base para otras investigaciones y juntos cooperemos en el Desarrollo Económico y Social de Costa Rica y otras latitudes.
Queremos ser enfáticos en que estos trabajos tienen Propiedad Intelectual por lo que queda totalmente prohibida su reproducción parcial o total, así como ser utilizados por otro autor, a excepción de que los compartan como citas de autor o referencias bibliográficas. Toda esta información también quedará a su disposición desde nuestro sitio web www.umagister.com,
Disfruten con nosotros de este magno contenido bibliográfico Magister esperando sus amables comentarios, no sin antes agradecer a nuestro Ing. Jerry González quien está administrando este sitio.
Rectoría, Universidad Magister. – 2014.
Un disparador es un objeto de base de datos con nombre que se asocia a una tabla, y se activa cuando ocurre un evento en particular para la tabla. Algunos usos para los disparadores es verificar valores a ser insertados o llevar a cabo cálculos sobre valores involucrados en una actualización.
Aqui les dejo un ejemplo de Trigger, que puede servir de referencia, como elemento Accounting, de seguridad para algunas tablas de sus bases de Datos
Estimados usuarios.
Bienvenidos a nuestro sitio virtual de la UNIVERSIDAD MAGISTER en Slide Share donde podrá encontrar los resultados de importantes trabajos de investigación prácticos producidos por nuestros profesionales. Esperamos que estos Mares Azules que les ponemos a su disposición sirvan de base para otras investigaciones y juntos cooperemos en el Desarrollo Económico y Social de Costa Rica y otras latitudes.
Queremos ser enfáticos en que estos trabajos tienen Propiedad Intelectual por lo que queda totalmente prohibida su reproducción parcial o total, así como ser utilizados por otro autor, a excepción de que los compartan como citas de autor o referencias bibliográficas. Toda esta información también quedará a su disposición desde nuestro sitio web www.umagister.com,
Disfruten con nosotros de este magno contenido bibliográfico Magister esperando sus amables comentarios, no sin antes agradecer a nuestro Ing. Jerry González quien está administrando este sitio.
Rectoría, Universidad Magister. – 2014.
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2. Spanning trees
Suppose you have a connected undirected graph
Connected: every node is reachable from every other node
Undirected: edges do not have an associated direction
...then a spanning tree of the graph is a connected
subgraph in which there are no cycles
A connected, Four of the spanning trees of the graph
undirected graph
2
3. Finding a spanning tree
To find a spanning tree of a graph,
pick an initial node and call it part of the spanning tree
do a search from the initial node:
each time you find a node that is not in the spanning tree, add to the
spanning tree both the new node and the edge you followed to get to
it
An undirected graph One possible One possible
result of a BFS result of a DFS
starting from top starting from3top
4. Minimizing costs
Suppose you want to supply a set of houses (say, in a
new subdivision) with:
electric power
water
sewage lines
telephone lines
To keep costs down, you could connect these houses
with a spanning tree (of, for example, power lines)
However, the houses are not all equal distances apart
To reduce costs even further, you could connect the
houses with a minimum-cost spanning tree
4
5. Minimum-cost spanning trees
Suppose you have a connected undirected graph with a weight
(or cost) associated with each edge
The cost of a spanning tree would be the sum of the costs of its
edges
A minimum-cost spanning tree is a spanning tree that has the
lowest cost
16 16
A B A B
21 11 6 11 6
19 5 5
F C F C
33 14
10
E 18 D E 18 D
A connected, undirected graph A minimum-cost spanning tree
5
6. Finding spanning trees
There are two basic algorithms for finding minimum-cost
spanning trees, and both are greedy algorithms
Kruskal’s algorithm: Start with no nodes or edges in the
spanning tree, and repeatedly add the cheapest edge that does
not create a cycle
Here, we consider the spanning tree to consist of edges only
Prim’s algorithm: Start with any one node in the spanning
tree, and repeatedly add the cheapest edge, and the node it leads
to, for which the node is not already in the spanning tree.
Here, we consider the spanning tree to consist of both nodes and edges
6
7. Kruskal’s algorithm
T = empty spanning tree;
E = set of edges;
N = number of nodes in graph;
while T has fewer than N - 1 edges {
remove an edge (v, w) of lowest cost from E
if adding (v, w) to T would create a cycle
then discard (v, w)
else add (v, w) to T
}
Finding an edge of lowest cost can be done just by sorting
the edges
Efficient testing for a cycle requires a fairly complex
algorithm (UNION-FIND) which we don’t cover in this
course
7
8. Prim’s algorithm
T = a spanning tree containing a single node s;
E = set of edges adjacent to s;
while T does not contain all the nodes {
remove an edge (v, w) of lowest cost from E
if w is already in T then discard edge (v, w)
else {
add edge (v, w) and node w to T
add to E the edges adjacent to w
}
}
An edge of lowest cost can be found with a priority queue
Testing for a cycle is automatic
Hence, Prim’s algorithm is far simpler to implement than Kruskal’s
algorithm
8
9. Mazes
Typically,
Every location in a maze is
reachable from the starting location
There is only one path from start to
finish
If the cells are “vertices” and the
open doors between cells are
“edges,” this describes a
spanning tree
Since there is exactly one path
between any pair of cells, any
cells can be used as “start” and
“finish”
This describes a spanning tree
9
10. Mazes as spanning trees
While not every maze is a
spanning tree, most can be
represented as such
The nodes are “places” within
the maze
There is exactly one cycle-
free path from any node to
any other node
10
11. Building a maze I
This algorithm requires two
sets of cells
the set of cells already in the
spanning tree, IN
the set of cells adjacent to the
cells in the spanning tree (but
not in it themselves), called
the FRONTIER
Start with all walls present
Pick any cell and put it into IN (red)
• Put all adjacent cells, that aren’t in IN, into FRONTIER (blue)
11
12. Building a maze II
Repeatedly do the
following:
Remove any one cell C from
FRONTIER and put it in IN
Erase the wall between C and
some one adjacent cell in IN
Add to FRONTIER all the cells
adjacent to C that aren’t in IN
(or in FRONTIER already)
• Continue until there are no more cells in FRONTIER
• When the maze is complete (or at any time), choose the start
and finish cells
12