311
AFFECTIV TEMPERAMENTS AND PERSONALIY TRAITS IN
ADDICT SUBJECTS
Alexander KELEMEN 1
Maria PUSCHITA
Delia PODEA
ABSTRACT
Drug abuse is a phenomenon that can be found in almost all studied societies from
antiquity to nowadays. Much of the designed literature has described personality disorder
constructs for addict subjects (Vincent, 2009).
Building on previous work, and after reviewing the theory of affective temperaments of
Akiskal and Mallya, we examined the relevance of affective temperament and personality
measures in patients with alcohol and heroin addictions.
The patients were compared, regarding affective temperaments and personality lines,
according to the Akiskal formulation and EPQ questionnaire, in which 50 were heroin addicts
and 50 were alcohol addict people, both of them sharing similar backgrounds.
As a result no differences were observed between heroin addicts and alcohol users on
either cyclothymic or hyperthymic scales. Significant discrepancies were noted in depressive
and irritability scales, on which heroin addicts scored higher.
In a multivariate discriminant analysis, mainly depressive and irritable traits show a
distinction between heroin addicts and alcohol users. Our data suggest a new hypothesis,
stating that some of hyperthymic and irritable traits, could represent the temperamental profile
of heroin addicts. Personality traits are also associated with heroin and alcohol use and
extroversion and psycho-emotional instability are common features; the motivation for testing is
higher in heroin users and alcohol abusers tend to dissimulate more frequently.
KEY WORDS: alcohol abusers, heroin addicts, affective temperaments and
personality
JEL: I10
INTRODUCTION
The temperament and personality characteristics of alcoholics and drug addicts
have been a major issue in the field of substance abuse research, but the results reported
are seldom comparable, on account of the differences in the means of assessment and
the conceptualizations used (Basiaux et al, (2001) ).
Difficult temperament, antisocial personality disorder and borderline, or
affectively unstable profiles have been associated with alcohol abuse (De Jong et al,
(1993) ).
Alcohol abuse has also been linked to axis I mood instability while the role of
axis II mood instability remained unclear and defined along different constructs.
More recently, some authors have been building on the concept of an affective
spectrum, meaning by tha, that a group of syndromes varying in severity and symptom
quality, but all representing degrees, stages, or variants of the same basic biological
1 PhD. Faculty of Medicine, Vasile ...
The Sweet Taste Test Relationships with Anhedonia Subtypes,.docxarnoldmeredith47041
The Sweet Taste Test: Relationships with Anhedonia Subtypes,
Personality Traits, and Menstrual Cycle Phases
Jeffrey S. Bedwell1 & Christopher C. Spencer1 & Cristina A. Chirino1 & John P. O’Donnell1
Published online: 15 January 2019
# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2019
Abstract
A better understanding of the etiology and pathology related to distinct subtypes of anhedonia can lead to more efficacious
personalized treatments. The current study advances knowledge on consummatory anhedonia - represented in the Research
Domain Criteria (RDoC) subconstruct of Initial Response to Reward (IRR). The Sweet Taste Test (STT) has promise as a
behavioral paradigm for IRR, as it is sensitive to manipulation of μ-opioid receptors. However, there is a lack of existing
knowledge of how the STT relates to subtypes of anhedonia, personality traits, and phases of the menstrual cycle. To address
these questions, we administered the STT to 72 nonpsychiatric adults (76% women; mean age: 19.11). As predicted, the hedonic
slope reflecting increasing Blike^ ratings over increasing concentrations of five sucrose solutions (ranging from 0.05 M to
0.86 M), was lower in individuals reporting higher consummatory anhedonia (measured with Temporal Experience of
Pleasure Scales - Consummatory Subscale) and in women in the mid-to-late luteal menstrual phase (days 20 to 28). Both effects
were driven by lower hedonic ratings to the sweetest concentration. The hedonic slope was larger in individuals scoring higher on
the Flight-Freeze-Avoidance System personality factor from the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory Personality Questionnaire -
driven by lower hedonic ratings for the least sweet concentration. No factor or aspect from the Big Five Aspects Scale related to
hedonic ratings on the STT. The STT may be a valid and specific standardized behavioral paradigm to add to IRR, particularly if
validated in a large transdiagnostic psychiatric sample.
Keywords Sucrose .Reward .Consummatoryanhedonia .Initialresponsivenesstorewardattainment .Researchdomaincriteria .
Consummatory pleasure
Introduction
Anhedonia is a transdiagnostic symptom which is particularly
resistant to existing treatments relative to most co-occurring
symptoms (McCabe et al. 2010; Vittengl et al. 2015). While
the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) defines anhedonia as a unitary construct (e.g.,
Bdecreased interest and pleasure in most activities most of
the day;^ American Psychiatric Association 2013), recent ad-
vances in affective neuroscience suggest three distinct sub-
types (Treadway and Zald 2011): motivational (i.e., wanting),
consummatory (i.e., liking), and decisional (i.e., reward learn-
ing). The National Institute of Mental Health’s (NIMH)
Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) Matrix includes
corresponding constructs under the Positive Valence
Systems (PVS) domain (Insel et al. 2010). A better under-
standing of the etiology and pathology relate.
1PAGE 21. What is the question the authors are asking .docxfelicidaddinwoodie
1
PAGE
2
1. What is the question the authors are asking?
They asked about a reduction in judgmental biases regarding the cost and probability associated with adverse social events as they are presumed as being mechanisms for the treatment of Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD). Also, the authors poised on the changes in judgmental biases as mechanisms to explain cognitive-behavioral therapy for social anxiety disorder. On top of that, they stated that methodological limitations extant studies highlight the possibility that rather than causing symptom relief, a significant reduction in judgmental biases tends to be consequences of it or correlate. Considerably, they expected cost bias at mid-treatment to be a predictor of the treatment outcome.
2. Why do the authors believe this question is important?
According to the authors, this question was relevant as methodological limitations of present studies reflect on the possibility that instead of causing symptom belief, a significant reduction in judgmental biases can be consequences or correlated to it. Additionally, they ought to ascertain the judgment bias between treated and non-treated participants. Significantly, this was important as they had to determine the impact of pre and post changes in cost and probability of the treatment outcomes. But, probability bias at mid-treatment was a predictor of the treatment outcome contrary to the cost bias at mid-treatment that could not be identified as a significant predictor of the treatment outcome.
3. How do they try to answer this question?
They conducted a study to evaluate the significant changes in judgmental bias as aspects of cognitive-behavioral therapy for social anxiety disorders. To do this, they conducted a study using information from two treatment studies; an uncontrolled trial observing amygdala activity as a response to VRE (Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy) with the use of functional magnetic resonance imaging and a randomized control trial that compared Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy with Exposure Group Therapy for SAD. A total of 86 individuals who met the DSM-IV-TR criteria for the diagnosis of non-generalized (n=46) and generalized (n=40) SAD participated. After completing eight weeks of the treatment protocol, the participants who identified public speaking as their most fearsome social situation were included. The SCID (Structured clinical interview for the DSM-IV) was used to ascertain diagnostic and eligibility status on Axis 1 conditions within substance abuse, mood and anxiety disorder modules. The social anxiety measures were measured with the use of BFNE (Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation), a self-reporting questioner that examined the degree to which persons fear to be assessed by other across different social settings. Additionally, the OPQ (Outcome Probability Questionnaire) self-reporting questionnaire was used to evaluate individual’s estimate on the probability that adverse, threatening events will occur at t ...
ABSTRACT- Background: The occurrence of psychiatric disorders is more in the prisoners than in general population. Co-morbidity is seen to be an important and complex entity in clinical assessment of mental state competence (diminished mental capacity, temporary insanity and insanity) in the offenders at the time of the offence. It has a great role in determining all possible options in future treatment of violent offenders. Aim: This research article is focused on the co-morbid psychiatric diagnoses and the treatment outcomes in the mentally ill prisoners referred to the tertiary care mental health facility. Materials and Method: Total 100 mentally ill prisoners referred to the tertiary care psychiatric hospital during the study period (Jan 2015 - Dec 2015) was the sample size. It was a prospective study and the sampling method was of the purposive type. Results: Besides their primary diagnosis, the referred prisoners had more than one co-morbid psychiatric diagnosis in 46% of the cases. The most frequent co-occurring conditions were learning disabilities, personality disorders, and substance use disorders. The outcomes for the psychiatric conditions were positive as patients responded well to the line of management. Conclusion: The study provides valuable data to understand the mental health needs and the treatment gaps in this population so as to plan adequate services to tackle these issues. Key-words- Mentally ill prisoners, Psychiatric co-morbidities, Treatment outcomes, Substance use disorders, Personality disorders
O R I G I N A L P A P E RSelf-Reported Depressive Symptoms.docxhopeaustin33688
O R I G I N A L P A P E R
Self-Reported Depressive Symptoms Have Minimal Effect
on Executive Functioning Performance in Children
and Adolescents
Benjamin D. Hill • Danielle M. Ploetz •
Judith R. O’Jile • Mary Bodzy • Karen A. Holler •
Martin L. Rohling
Published online: 9 May 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012
Abstract The relation between mood and executive
functioning in children and adolescents has not been previ-
ously reported. This study examined the association between
self-reported depressive symptoms in both clinical outpa-
tient and psychiatric inpatient samples to the following
measures of executive functioning: the Controlled Oral
Word Association Test, Animal Naming, Trail Making Test,
and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Records from children and
adolescents aged 7–17 years old with an IQ [ 70 were
examined. Data were gathered at either an outpatient neu-
ropsychology clinic (n = 89) or an inpatient psychiatric
hospital setting (n = 81). Mood was measured with the
Children’s Depression Inventory. Generally, statistical
associations between self-reported depressive symptoms and
executive functioning were small and non-significant. The
variance predicted by mood on measures of executive
functioning was minimal (generally less than 2 %) for the
total sample, the outpatient group, inpatient group, and a
subgroup who endorsed elevated mood symptoms. These
results suggest that impaired performance on measures of
executive functioning in children and adolescents is mini-
mally related to self-reported depressive symptoms.
Keywords Executive functioning � Mood � Depression �
Cognitive ability � Neuropsychological assessment
Introduction
There is a long standing debate that has generated a con-
siderable amount of research in adults concerning the
relationship between levels of emotional disturbance and
their effects on performance on standard neuropsycholog-
ical tests. It appears that when the literature is taken as a
whole, adults diagnosed with psychiatric disorders tend to
perform worse than individuals without diagnoses (Basso
and Bornstein 1999; Cassens et al. 1990; Kindermann and
Brown 1997; Sackeim et al. 1992; Sherman et al. 2000;
Sweet et al. 1992; Tancer et al. 1990; Veiel 1997).
Depression, the most common mood disorder, is generally
associated with dysfunctional memory performance in the
adult literature (Burt et al. 1995; Christensen et al. 1997).
However, adult studies have shown conflicting patterns of
results across other neuropsychological domains. Some
researchers have reported depression to also be associated
with executive dysfunction (McDermott and Ebmeier
2009; Reppermund et al. 2007; Merriam et al. 1999; Martin
et al. 1991). However, others studies have reported no
effect of depression on executive functioning (Castaneda
et al. 2008; Miller et al. 1991; Rohling et al. 2002, Markela-
Lerenc et al. 2006).
While many different adult populations have been
.
The Sweet Taste Test Relationships with Anhedonia Subtypes,.docxarnoldmeredith47041
The Sweet Taste Test: Relationships with Anhedonia Subtypes,
Personality Traits, and Menstrual Cycle Phases
Jeffrey S. Bedwell1 & Christopher C. Spencer1 & Cristina A. Chirino1 & John P. O’Donnell1
Published online: 15 January 2019
# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2019
Abstract
A better understanding of the etiology and pathology related to distinct subtypes of anhedonia can lead to more efficacious
personalized treatments. The current study advances knowledge on consummatory anhedonia - represented in the Research
Domain Criteria (RDoC) subconstruct of Initial Response to Reward (IRR). The Sweet Taste Test (STT) has promise as a
behavioral paradigm for IRR, as it is sensitive to manipulation of μ-opioid receptors. However, there is a lack of existing
knowledge of how the STT relates to subtypes of anhedonia, personality traits, and phases of the menstrual cycle. To address
these questions, we administered the STT to 72 nonpsychiatric adults (76% women; mean age: 19.11). As predicted, the hedonic
slope reflecting increasing Blike^ ratings over increasing concentrations of five sucrose solutions (ranging from 0.05 M to
0.86 M), was lower in individuals reporting higher consummatory anhedonia (measured with Temporal Experience of
Pleasure Scales - Consummatory Subscale) and in women in the mid-to-late luteal menstrual phase (days 20 to 28). Both effects
were driven by lower hedonic ratings to the sweetest concentration. The hedonic slope was larger in individuals scoring higher on
the Flight-Freeze-Avoidance System personality factor from the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory Personality Questionnaire -
driven by lower hedonic ratings for the least sweet concentration. No factor or aspect from the Big Five Aspects Scale related to
hedonic ratings on the STT. The STT may be a valid and specific standardized behavioral paradigm to add to IRR, particularly if
validated in a large transdiagnostic psychiatric sample.
Keywords Sucrose .Reward .Consummatoryanhedonia .Initialresponsivenesstorewardattainment .Researchdomaincriteria .
Consummatory pleasure
Introduction
Anhedonia is a transdiagnostic symptom which is particularly
resistant to existing treatments relative to most co-occurring
symptoms (McCabe et al. 2010; Vittengl et al. 2015). While
the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) defines anhedonia as a unitary construct (e.g.,
Bdecreased interest and pleasure in most activities most of
the day;^ American Psychiatric Association 2013), recent ad-
vances in affective neuroscience suggest three distinct sub-
types (Treadway and Zald 2011): motivational (i.e., wanting),
consummatory (i.e., liking), and decisional (i.e., reward learn-
ing). The National Institute of Mental Health’s (NIMH)
Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) Matrix includes
corresponding constructs under the Positive Valence
Systems (PVS) domain (Insel et al. 2010). A better under-
standing of the etiology and pathology relate.
1PAGE 21. What is the question the authors are asking .docxfelicidaddinwoodie
1
PAGE
2
1. What is the question the authors are asking?
They asked about a reduction in judgmental biases regarding the cost and probability associated with adverse social events as they are presumed as being mechanisms for the treatment of Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD). Also, the authors poised on the changes in judgmental biases as mechanisms to explain cognitive-behavioral therapy for social anxiety disorder. On top of that, they stated that methodological limitations extant studies highlight the possibility that rather than causing symptom relief, a significant reduction in judgmental biases tends to be consequences of it or correlate. Considerably, they expected cost bias at mid-treatment to be a predictor of the treatment outcome.
2. Why do the authors believe this question is important?
According to the authors, this question was relevant as methodological limitations of present studies reflect on the possibility that instead of causing symptom belief, a significant reduction in judgmental biases can be consequences or correlated to it. Additionally, they ought to ascertain the judgment bias between treated and non-treated participants. Significantly, this was important as they had to determine the impact of pre and post changes in cost and probability of the treatment outcomes. But, probability bias at mid-treatment was a predictor of the treatment outcome contrary to the cost bias at mid-treatment that could not be identified as a significant predictor of the treatment outcome.
3. How do they try to answer this question?
They conducted a study to evaluate the significant changes in judgmental bias as aspects of cognitive-behavioral therapy for social anxiety disorders. To do this, they conducted a study using information from two treatment studies; an uncontrolled trial observing amygdala activity as a response to VRE (Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy) with the use of functional magnetic resonance imaging and a randomized control trial that compared Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy with Exposure Group Therapy for SAD. A total of 86 individuals who met the DSM-IV-TR criteria for the diagnosis of non-generalized (n=46) and generalized (n=40) SAD participated. After completing eight weeks of the treatment protocol, the participants who identified public speaking as their most fearsome social situation were included. The SCID (Structured clinical interview for the DSM-IV) was used to ascertain diagnostic and eligibility status on Axis 1 conditions within substance abuse, mood and anxiety disorder modules. The social anxiety measures were measured with the use of BFNE (Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation), a self-reporting questioner that examined the degree to which persons fear to be assessed by other across different social settings. Additionally, the OPQ (Outcome Probability Questionnaire) self-reporting questionnaire was used to evaluate individual’s estimate on the probability that adverse, threatening events will occur at t ...
ABSTRACT- Background: The occurrence of psychiatric disorders is more in the prisoners than in general population. Co-morbidity is seen to be an important and complex entity in clinical assessment of mental state competence (diminished mental capacity, temporary insanity and insanity) in the offenders at the time of the offence. It has a great role in determining all possible options in future treatment of violent offenders. Aim: This research article is focused on the co-morbid psychiatric diagnoses and the treatment outcomes in the mentally ill prisoners referred to the tertiary care mental health facility. Materials and Method: Total 100 mentally ill prisoners referred to the tertiary care psychiatric hospital during the study period (Jan 2015 - Dec 2015) was the sample size. It was a prospective study and the sampling method was of the purposive type. Results: Besides their primary diagnosis, the referred prisoners had more than one co-morbid psychiatric diagnosis in 46% of the cases. The most frequent co-occurring conditions were learning disabilities, personality disorders, and substance use disorders. The outcomes for the psychiatric conditions were positive as patients responded well to the line of management. Conclusion: The study provides valuable data to understand the mental health needs and the treatment gaps in this population so as to plan adequate services to tackle these issues. Key-words- Mentally ill prisoners, Psychiatric co-morbidities, Treatment outcomes, Substance use disorders, Personality disorders
O R I G I N A L P A P E RSelf-Reported Depressive Symptoms.docxhopeaustin33688
O R I G I N A L P A P E R
Self-Reported Depressive Symptoms Have Minimal Effect
on Executive Functioning Performance in Children
and Adolescents
Benjamin D. Hill • Danielle M. Ploetz •
Judith R. O’Jile • Mary Bodzy • Karen A. Holler •
Martin L. Rohling
Published online: 9 May 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012
Abstract The relation between mood and executive
functioning in children and adolescents has not been previ-
ously reported. This study examined the association between
self-reported depressive symptoms in both clinical outpa-
tient and psychiatric inpatient samples to the following
measures of executive functioning: the Controlled Oral
Word Association Test, Animal Naming, Trail Making Test,
and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Records from children and
adolescents aged 7–17 years old with an IQ [ 70 were
examined. Data were gathered at either an outpatient neu-
ropsychology clinic (n = 89) or an inpatient psychiatric
hospital setting (n = 81). Mood was measured with the
Children’s Depression Inventory. Generally, statistical
associations between self-reported depressive symptoms and
executive functioning were small and non-significant. The
variance predicted by mood on measures of executive
functioning was minimal (generally less than 2 %) for the
total sample, the outpatient group, inpatient group, and a
subgroup who endorsed elevated mood symptoms. These
results suggest that impaired performance on measures of
executive functioning in children and adolescents is mini-
mally related to self-reported depressive symptoms.
Keywords Executive functioning � Mood � Depression �
Cognitive ability � Neuropsychological assessment
Introduction
There is a long standing debate that has generated a con-
siderable amount of research in adults concerning the
relationship between levels of emotional disturbance and
their effects on performance on standard neuropsycholog-
ical tests. It appears that when the literature is taken as a
whole, adults diagnosed with psychiatric disorders tend to
perform worse than individuals without diagnoses (Basso
and Bornstein 1999; Cassens et al. 1990; Kindermann and
Brown 1997; Sackeim et al. 1992; Sherman et al. 2000;
Sweet et al. 1992; Tancer et al. 1990; Veiel 1997).
Depression, the most common mood disorder, is generally
associated with dysfunctional memory performance in the
adult literature (Burt et al. 1995; Christensen et al. 1997).
However, adult studies have shown conflicting patterns of
results across other neuropsychological domains. Some
researchers have reported depression to also be associated
with executive dysfunction (McDermott and Ebmeier
2009; Reppermund et al. 2007; Merriam et al. 1999; Martin
et al. 1991). However, others studies have reported no
effect of depression on executive functioning (Castaneda
et al. 2008; Miller et al. 1991; Rohling et al. 2002, Markela-
Lerenc et al. 2006).
While many different adult populations have been
.
Cognitive conflicts in major depression: Between desired change and personal ...Guillem Feixas
Article in British Journal of Clinical Psychology (early view). Abstract:
Objectives
The notion of intra-psychic conflict has been present in psychopathology for more than a century within different theoretical orientations. However, internal conflicts have not received enough empirical attention, nor has their importance in depression been fully elaborated. This study is based on the notion of cognitive conflict, understood as implicative dilemma, and on a new way of identifying these conflicts by means of the repertory grid technique. Our aim is to explore the relevance of cognitive conflicts among depressive patients.
Design
Comparison between persons with a diagnosis of major depressive disorder and community controls.
Methods
161 patients with major depression and 110 non-depressed participants were assessed for presence of implicative dilemmas and level of symptom severity. The content of these cognitive conflicts was also analysed.
Results
Repertory grid analysis indicated conflict (presence of implicative dilemma/s) in a greater proportion of depressive patients than in controls. Taking only those grids with conflict, the average number of implicative dilemmas per person was higher in the depression group.
In addition, participants with cognitive conflicts displayed higher symptom severity. Within the clinical sample, patients with implicative dilemmas presented lower levels of global functioning and a more frequent history of suicide attempts.
Conclusions
Cognitive conflicts were more prevalent in depressive patients and were associated with clinical severity. Conflict assessment at pre-therapy could aid in treatment planning to fit patient characteristics.
Practitioner Points
• Internal conflicts have been postulated in clinical psychology for a long time but there is little evidence about its relevance due to the lack of methods to measure them.
• We developed a method for identifying conflicts using the Repertory Grid Technique.
• Depressive patients have higher presence and number of conflicts than controls.
• Conflicts (implicative dilemmas) can be a new target for intervention in depression.
Cautions/Limitations
• A cross-sectional design precluded causal conclusions.
• The role of implicative dilemmas in the causation or maintenance of depression cannot be ascertained from this study.
Research Methods in PsychologyThe Effectiveness of Psychodyn.docxronak56
Research Methods in Psychology
The Effectiveness of Psychodynamic Therapy on Childhood Abused Victims.
Annotate Bibliography
Nickel, R., & Egle, U. T. (2005). Influence of childhood adversities and defense styles on the 1-year follow-up of psychosomatic- psychotherapeutic inpatient treatment. Psychotherapy Research, 15(4), 483-494. doi:10.1080/10503300500091660
This study was conducted to examine childhood abused victims' quality of life before treatment, and after treatment. A multimodal psychodynamic group concept was used to treat 138 patients for an average of 80.4 days. In order, to properly develop a comparison, clinical examiners interviewed each patient before the start to their in-patient program to diagnose each individual, and have therapy goals for them. The questionnaires that were used to measure quality of life targeted the patient's social life health, general health, emotional and physical functioning. The patients were all re-assessed after one year had passed by, to examine any changes in their quality of life. It was revealed that the patients' mental quality of life had improved by more than one standard deviation. Their physical quality of life improved just less than one standard deviation.
Baker, V., & Sheldon, H. (2007). 'The Light at the End of the Tunnel': Issues of Hope and Loss in Endings with Survivors Groups. Group Analysis, 40(3), 404-416. doi:10.1177/0533316407081759
In this article, a previous study was mentioned in which childhood abuse survivors were treated for 20 sessions. The authors of this article agreed that 20 sessions of treatment for childhood abuse survivors isn't enough for them to develop a secure attachment to the group. This study explores whether childhood abuse victims can benefit from treatment by being treated for a longer period. Seven group members of ages 23-55 were treated for 52 sessions, over a period of 13 months. All of the members in this group are women, and they had all been sexually abused in their childhood by a family member. They followed a psychodynamic, time-limited closed group therapy, in which they all benefited somewhat. However, many of the members expressed anxiety of leting go, and not being able to move on after the group ended.
Foa, E. (2009). Psychodynamic Therapy for Child Trauma. Retrieved from https://www.istss.org/ISTSS_Main/media/Documents/ISTSS_g12.pdf
The authors of this article discuss the efficacy of pyshcodynamic methods on childhood abuse victims, by presenting the results of five randomized controled trials. The population involved in these randomized controled trials were : preschoolers that were exposed to domestic violance, abused infant and sexually abused girls. Three of these randomized controled trials focused on a child-parent therapy, using a relationship-based intervention. The goal to these three randomzied trials was to strengthen the parent-child relationship to lead to a long term healthy child development. Another randomized ...
Running Head ARTICLE EVALUATION1ARTICLE EVALUATION2.docxSUBHI7
Running Head: ARTICLE EVALUATION 1
ARTICLE EVALUATION 2
Article Evaluation
Lana Eliot
Psychology 325
Professor Dr. Kendra Jackson
June 13, 2016
The article, Do Men with Excessive Alcohol Consumption and Social Stability Have an Addictive Personality? gives the reader information and research about men’s personalities when they consume alcohol. It asks the question of whether or not men with social stability that drink alcohol excessively actually have an addictive personality. Drinking alcohol affects everyone differently. Some people that drink excessively are sometimes called “sloppy drunks” and others “mean drunks” and so on. Drinking alcohol is addictive and that alcohol does affect an individual’s personality. The article offers us great information on the research and statistics of men that drink excessively and are socially stable. I will read this article and look at their findings to determine what answers the authors are trying to answer. Consuming alcohol in large amounts is dangerous to anyone. While consuming alcohol is not addictive for most people, it will alter their personality in many ways. Understanding how and why research like this is done and being able to understand their findings is a benefit to anyone studying psychology.
The authors of this article are studying men who consume excessive amounts of alcohol to see if they have an addictive personality. The men in this study are stated to be socially stable, which has an effect on the research findings. The article states, “The main objective of the present study was to investigate personality traits in a group of male individuals with excessive alcohol consumption and in controls by comparison with normative data and also by a multivariate projection-based approach” (Berglund, Roman, Balldin, Berggren, Eriksson, Gustavsson, & Fahlke, 2011).
The article explains that there are two types of alcoholics, the first being a Type 1 Alcoholic, which is characterized by social stability with a later start of turning into an alcoholic. The second type described is Type 2. Type 2 alcoholics have early signs of alcoholism and have a serious dependence on alcohol and may have medical health issues and in some cases, social consequences. A Type 2 alcoholic will have more of a risk of developing liver and kidney problems and may also have a hard time in social settings and have a difficult time maintaining healthy relationships. During the study, it was found that Type 2 alcoholics have a different personality profile when compared with Type 1 alcoholics. Type 2 alcoholics are also more likely to be aggressive, impulsive, and seek out medical prescriptions. On the other hand, Type 1 alcoholics have very few, if any, psychological and social symptoms.
The hypothesis that was being tested during this research was whether or not socially stable men have an addictive personality based on the amount of alcohol they drink. The researchers started their study in ...
1.Freeman, S. (2011). Improving cognitive treatments for delus.docxjeremylockett77
1.
Freeman, S. (2011). Improving cognitive treatments for delusions. Schizophrenia Research, 132, (2–3), 135-139. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2011.08.012
generation CBT for psychosis was successful but the strength of the treatment was weak and as the author states similar to those of clozapine (an antipsychotic used as a last resort for psychosis). Therapy is not up to date as it should be for delusions as delusion are understood quite well and therapy needs to catch up. The treatment of CBT for psychosis is similar to CBT treatment for anxiety.
Pay attention to single symptoms in psychosis
2.
Munro, Alistair (May 1992) Psychiatric Disorders Characterized by Delusions: Treatment in Relation to Specific Types. Psychiatric Annals, 22, 5, ProQuest Central pg. 232
3.
Ho-wai So, S., Roisin Peters, E., Swendsen, J., Garety, P.A., & Kapur, S. (2014) Changes in delusions in the early phase of antipsychotic treatment – An experience sampling study. Psychiatry Research 215, 568-573
Summarize including the research question addressed in the source, if applicable, and major findings.
Evaluate the usefulness of the source for your literature review, making sure to directly state why the source is informative for your specific topic
Three dimensions of delusions are always present in factor analyses and they are a conviction, distress, preoccupation, and disruption to life. More studies need to be done to learn how delusions respond to antipsychotic. Conviction has been least amenable to change shows the studies. Many studies ponder the question, “why does conviction exist?” There have been studies that show that reasoning bias including “Jumping to conclusion (JTC)” bias and by patients being inflexible contributes to the maintenance of delusions. JTC has also shown that the dimension of conviction of delusions and the severity of delusions is influenced by JTC. Delusions improve during the first few weeks of treatment and some studies show improvement in the first few hours.
It was hypothesized that delusion distress and preoccupation would reduce significantly over two weeks of antipsychotic treatment; but not a conviction. Female participants showed a higher response on all four delusion dimensions compared to the male participants. 57% of the participants showed the JTC bias. The no-JTC group showed a larger improvement in conviction and distress and with their delusions in general.
This study is important for my literature review and further studies because the three dimensions of delusions: distress, preoccupation, and conviction are important for the clinical implications of treatment. If we take into account these three dimensions it will benefit further research and treatments.
4.
The efficacy of a new translational treatment for persecutory delusions: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial (The Feeling Safe Study)
Freeman et al. (2016) Trials, 17:134. doi:10.1186/s13063-016-1245-0
Summarize including the research questi ...
Running Head Critique 1Critique2CritiqueAma.docxjoellemurphey
Running Head: Critique 1
Critique 2
Critique
Amanda Kroeger
PSY 326
Prof. Luker
June 30, 2014
Critique
The purpose regarding this paper is to discuss the health and social challenges as a result of drug addiction globally. Particularly it brings to the attention of the reader the complexities that arise with the combined forces by diverse organizations, families, governments, and individuals in striving to counteract the abuse of drugs within traditional families whereby jeopardizing significant social virtues and values creating room for deviant behavior such as crime. The study at hand, “Familial Risk Factors Favoring Drug Addiction Onset” by Zimi & Jukic aim at the identification of the familial factors that favor the onset of drug addiction in the community. The paper further evaluates and critiques the various scholarly articles on drug addiction and their effects socially, economically, and culturally.
From this study’s 146 addicts and around 134 fundamental subjects, the authors discovered that “the families the addicts were born into, familial risk factors capable of influencing their psychosocial progress and favoring drug addiction onset had been statistically more encountered during childhood and youth as compared to the controls” (Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 2012). In addition, the outcomes from the study indicate the need to research further into three sections namely the structure of the drug addict families, familial interrelations of the families from which the drug addicts come from and the importance of implementing family-based approaches to address prevention and therapy for drug addiction. The hypothesis of the study is the effect of poor inter-parental relations on the psychological development of children. This showed that conflicts in marriages have were linked to the child’s social adjustment, incapacity, and harsh upbringing regiment which in turn results in risky behavior patterns including substance abuse (Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 2012)]. It is from this understanding that Zimi ´ and Jukic’s study tries to investigate the familial factors in favor of drug addiction onset by putting into consideration social, developmental, and interaction elements as the determinants of family relations and familial features associated with drug addicts thus, causing children to turn to drug abuse.
In analyzing both the study at hand, that is, “Familial Risk Factors Favoring Drug Addiction Onset” and various articles from the bibliography such as Development: Which Way Now?, Personal Savings and Anticipated Inflation, Assessment and management of pain in infants, The capability of psychodynamic treatment and cognitive behavior therapy in the nursing of personality disorders: A meta-analysis, Macro dynamics, Regime Switching and Financial Stress: Hypothesis and Empirics for the US, the EU and Non-EU Countries, and Hunger, Human Development, and Health in Canada: Research, Practice, and ...
The DSM-5 Clinical Cases e-book has provided multiple case-scena.docxkarisariddell
The DSM-5 Clinical Cases e-book has provided multiple case-scenarios relating to various psychological and psychiatric conditions relating to various individuals. The paper analyses the case of Irene Upton, a twenty-nine years old elementary teacher who had gone to the psychiatric for extensive consultations regarding her condition. The latter complaint of being “tired” of loneliness, besides that from her medical history it can be observed that she was hospitalized more than once for suicidal attempts and self-cutting, which represents intense, emotional pain, and frustrations. Coherently, the sister confessed to the past traumatic events that Irene was expected to, notably; at the age of thirteen, the father would sexually exploit Irene a “weird” manner. Irene has failed to recall certain activities she undertook while between the ages of seven and thirteen, which would represent the specific loss of memory due to traumatic experiences. The client laments that she does not consume or abuse alcohol or drugs, ideally, during her late teen, Irene experienced a certain shift in her life when she suddenly became more engaged and proactive for in class and co-curriculum activities. Therefore, leading to a successful life both in high school and college and later getting employed to become of the best teachers in her school.
From the excerpt, the one can be observed properly professional interpretation of Irene’s condition, where the privacy and confidentiality of the patient have been upheld through the exclusion of deeming statements that may be unethically interpreted. For instance, the level of impartiality or conflict of interest has been eliminated since there are no comments or reading that advocate any additional information on behalf of the patients there are no sections or comments that illustrates the certain type of advice or personal opinions. Therefore demonstrating a high level of ethical practice since there are no statements that demonstrate any gross misconduct when conducting a patient assessment; the excerpt provides only the necessary information useful for interpretation while excluding the confidentiality and privacy of the patient.
Evaluation
There are multiple techniques and methods, which can be used to conduct a psychological assessment on a given patient in order to accurately diagnose the individual. The paper will describe a battery of these assessments to understand the subject’s condition fully.
A clinical interview is a treatment technique utilized by psychologist and other physicians to document the accurate diagnosis of mental disorders especially the obsessive-compulsory disorder they include the clinical diagnostic interview and structured clinical interviews. The clinical diagnosis involves narrative conversation between the patient and the doctor where the latter asked a series of questions such as “how was your childhood?” “What was school like when growing?” “How wa ...
(No Plagiarism) Explain the statement Although many leading organi.docxtamicawaysmith
(No Plagiarism) Explain the statement: "Although many leading organizations have invested significant resources in developing the culture and routines for this innovation processes, most organizations continue to rely on the efforts of a handful of people and chance. An innovative organization is one that can perfect these routines in addition to creating an innovation culture in the organization that engages people. Five key routines can facilitate its management of the innovation process” (Dooley & O'Sullivan, 2003).
.
What made you choose this career path What advice do you hav.docxtamicawaysmith
What made you choose this career path?
What advice do you have for those hoping to enter this career path?
What were some obstacles you faced upon graduating from college?
Does your career require graduate school? What programs would be acceptable?
Is there anything you wish you would have done differently?
Is it difficult to find a job in this area?
What is a typical work week like?
Etcetera, depending on the field and what you’re interested in.
.
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Cognitive conflicts in major depression: Between desired change and personal ...Guillem Feixas
Article in British Journal of Clinical Psychology (early view). Abstract:
Objectives
The notion of intra-psychic conflict has been present in psychopathology for more than a century within different theoretical orientations. However, internal conflicts have not received enough empirical attention, nor has their importance in depression been fully elaborated. This study is based on the notion of cognitive conflict, understood as implicative dilemma, and on a new way of identifying these conflicts by means of the repertory grid technique. Our aim is to explore the relevance of cognitive conflicts among depressive patients.
Design
Comparison between persons with a diagnosis of major depressive disorder and community controls.
Methods
161 patients with major depression and 110 non-depressed participants were assessed for presence of implicative dilemmas and level of symptom severity. The content of these cognitive conflicts was also analysed.
Results
Repertory grid analysis indicated conflict (presence of implicative dilemma/s) in a greater proportion of depressive patients than in controls. Taking only those grids with conflict, the average number of implicative dilemmas per person was higher in the depression group.
In addition, participants with cognitive conflicts displayed higher symptom severity. Within the clinical sample, patients with implicative dilemmas presented lower levels of global functioning and a more frequent history of suicide attempts.
Conclusions
Cognitive conflicts were more prevalent in depressive patients and were associated with clinical severity. Conflict assessment at pre-therapy could aid in treatment planning to fit patient characteristics.
Practitioner Points
• Internal conflicts have been postulated in clinical psychology for a long time but there is little evidence about its relevance due to the lack of methods to measure them.
• We developed a method for identifying conflicts using the Repertory Grid Technique.
• Depressive patients have higher presence and number of conflicts than controls.
• Conflicts (implicative dilemmas) can be a new target for intervention in depression.
Cautions/Limitations
• A cross-sectional design precluded causal conclusions.
• The role of implicative dilemmas in the causation or maintenance of depression cannot be ascertained from this study.
Research Methods in PsychologyThe Effectiveness of Psychodyn.docxronak56
Research Methods in Psychology
The Effectiveness of Psychodynamic Therapy on Childhood Abused Victims.
Annotate Bibliography
Nickel, R., & Egle, U. T. (2005). Influence of childhood adversities and defense styles on the 1-year follow-up of psychosomatic- psychotherapeutic inpatient treatment. Psychotherapy Research, 15(4), 483-494. doi:10.1080/10503300500091660
This study was conducted to examine childhood abused victims' quality of life before treatment, and after treatment. A multimodal psychodynamic group concept was used to treat 138 patients for an average of 80.4 days. In order, to properly develop a comparison, clinical examiners interviewed each patient before the start to their in-patient program to diagnose each individual, and have therapy goals for them. The questionnaires that were used to measure quality of life targeted the patient's social life health, general health, emotional and physical functioning. The patients were all re-assessed after one year had passed by, to examine any changes in their quality of life. It was revealed that the patients' mental quality of life had improved by more than one standard deviation. Their physical quality of life improved just less than one standard deviation.
Baker, V., & Sheldon, H. (2007). 'The Light at the End of the Tunnel': Issues of Hope and Loss in Endings with Survivors Groups. Group Analysis, 40(3), 404-416. doi:10.1177/0533316407081759
In this article, a previous study was mentioned in which childhood abuse survivors were treated for 20 sessions. The authors of this article agreed that 20 sessions of treatment for childhood abuse survivors isn't enough for them to develop a secure attachment to the group. This study explores whether childhood abuse victims can benefit from treatment by being treated for a longer period. Seven group members of ages 23-55 were treated for 52 sessions, over a period of 13 months. All of the members in this group are women, and they had all been sexually abused in their childhood by a family member. They followed a psychodynamic, time-limited closed group therapy, in which they all benefited somewhat. However, many of the members expressed anxiety of leting go, and not being able to move on after the group ended.
Foa, E. (2009). Psychodynamic Therapy for Child Trauma. Retrieved from https://www.istss.org/ISTSS_Main/media/Documents/ISTSS_g12.pdf
The authors of this article discuss the efficacy of pyshcodynamic methods on childhood abuse victims, by presenting the results of five randomized controled trials. The population involved in these randomized controled trials were : preschoolers that were exposed to domestic violance, abused infant and sexually abused girls. Three of these randomized controled trials focused on a child-parent therapy, using a relationship-based intervention. The goal to these three randomzied trials was to strengthen the parent-child relationship to lead to a long term healthy child development. Another randomized ...
Running Head ARTICLE EVALUATION1ARTICLE EVALUATION2.docxSUBHI7
Running Head: ARTICLE EVALUATION 1
ARTICLE EVALUATION 2
Article Evaluation
Lana Eliot
Psychology 325
Professor Dr. Kendra Jackson
June 13, 2016
The article, Do Men with Excessive Alcohol Consumption and Social Stability Have an Addictive Personality? gives the reader information and research about men’s personalities when they consume alcohol. It asks the question of whether or not men with social stability that drink alcohol excessively actually have an addictive personality. Drinking alcohol affects everyone differently. Some people that drink excessively are sometimes called “sloppy drunks” and others “mean drunks” and so on. Drinking alcohol is addictive and that alcohol does affect an individual’s personality. The article offers us great information on the research and statistics of men that drink excessively and are socially stable. I will read this article and look at their findings to determine what answers the authors are trying to answer. Consuming alcohol in large amounts is dangerous to anyone. While consuming alcohol is not addictive for most people, it will alter their personality in many ways. Understanding how and why research like this is done and being able to understand their findings is a benefit to anyone studying psychology.
The authors of this article are studying men who consume excessive amounts of alcohol to see if they have an addictive personality. The men in this study are stated to be socially stable, which has an effect on the research findings. The article states, “The main objective of the present study was to investigate personality traits in a group of male individuals with excessive alcohol consumption and in controls by comparison with normative data and also by a multivariate projection-based approach” (Berglund, Roman, Balldin, Berggren, Eriksson, Gustavsson, & Fahlke, 2011).
The article explains that there are two types of alcoholics, the first being a Type 1 Alcoholic, which is characterized by social stability with a later start of turning into an alcoholic. The second type described is Type 2. Type 2 alcoholics have early signs of alcoholism and have a serious dependence on alcohol and may have medical health issues and in some cases, social consequences. A Type 2 alcoholic will have more of a risk of developing liver and kidney problems and may also have a hard time in social settings and have a difficult time maintaining healthy relationships. During the study, it was found that Type 2 alcoholics have a different personality profile when compared with Type 1 alcoholics. Type 2 alcoholics are also more likely to be aggressive, impulsive, and seek out medical prescriptions. On the other hand, Type 1 alcoholics have very few, if any, psychological and social symptoms.
The hypothesis that was being tested during this research was whether or not socially stable men have an addictive personality based on the amount of alcohol they drink. The researchers started their study in ...
1.Freeman, S. (2011). Improving cognitive treatments for delus.docxjeremylockett77
1.
Freeman, S. (2011). Improving cognitive treatments for delusions. Schizophrenia Research, 132, (2–3), 135-139. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2011.08.012
generation CBT for psychosis was successful but the strength of the treatment was weak and as the author states similar to those of clozapine (an antipsychotic used as a last resort for psychosis). Therapy is not up to date as it should be for delusions as delusion are understood quite well and therapy needs to catch up. The treatment of CBT for psychosis is similar to CBT treatment for anxiety.
Pay attention to single symptoms in psychosis
2.
Munro, Alistair (May 1992) Psychiatric Disorders Characterized by Delusions: Treatment in Relation to Specific Types. Psychiatric Annals, 22, 5, ProQuest Central pg. 232
3.
Ho-wai So, S., Roisin Peters, E., Swendsen, J., Garety, P.A., & Kapur, S. (2014) Changes in delusions in the early phase of antipsychotic treatment – An experience sampling study. Psychiatry Research 215, 568-573
Summarize including the research question addressed in the source, if applicable, and major findings.
Evaluate the usefulness of the source for your literature review, making sure to directly state why the source is informative for your specific topic
Three dimensions of delusions are always present in factor analyses and they are a conviction, distress, preoccupation, and disruption to life. More studies need to be done to learn how delusions respond to antipsychotic. Conviction has been least amenable to change shows the studies. Many studies ponder the question, “why does conviction exist?” There have been studies that show that reasoning bias including “Jumping to conclusion (JTC)” bias and by patients being inflexible contributes to the maintenance of delusions. JTC has also shown that the dimension of conviction of delusions and the severity of delusions is influenced by JTC. Delusions improve during the first few weeks of treatment and some studies show improvement in the first few hours.
It was hypothesized that delusion distress and preoccupation would reduce significantly over two weeks of antipsychotic treatment; but not a conviction. Female participants showed a higher response on all four delusion dimensions compared to the male participants. 57% of the participants showed the JTC bias. The no-JTC group showed a larger improvement in conviction and distress and with their delusions in general.
This study is important for my literature review and further studies because the three dimensions of delusions: distress, preoccupation, and conviction are important for the clinical implications of treatment. If we take into account these three dimensions it will benefit further research and treatments.
4.
The efficacy of a new translational treatment for persecutory delusions: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial (The Feeling Safe Study)
Freeman et al. (2016) Trials, 17:134. doi:10.1186/s13063-016-1245-0
Summarize including the research questi ...
Running Head Critique 1Critique2CritiqueAma.docxjoellemurphey
Running Head: Critique 1
Critique 2
Critique
Amanda Kroeger
PSY 326
Prof. Luker
June 30, 2014
Critique
The purpose regarding this paper is to discuss the health and social challenges as a result of drug addiction globally. Particularly it brings to the attention of the reader the complexities that arise with the combined forces by diverse organizations, families, governments, and individuals in striving to counteract the abuse of drugs within traditional families whereby jeopardizing significant social virtues and values creating room for deviant behavior such as crime. The study at hand, “Familial Risk Factors Favoring Drug Addiction Onset” by Zimi & Jukic aim at the identification of the familial factors that favor the onset of drug addiction in the community. The paper further evaluates and critiques the various scholarly articles on drug addiction and their effects socially, economically, and culturally.
From this study’s 146 addicts and around 134 fundamental subjects, the authors discovered that “the families the addicts were born into, familial risk factors capable of influencing their psychosocial progress and favoring drug addiction onset had been statistically more encountered during childhood and youth as compared to the controls” (Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 2012). In addition, the outcomes from the study indicate the need to research further into three sections namely the structure of the drug addict families, familial interrelations of the families from which the drug addicts come from and the importance of implementing family-based approaches to address prevention and therapy for drug addiction. The hypothesis of the study is the effect of poor inter-parental relations on the psychological development of children. This showed that conflicts in marriages have were linked to the child’s social adjustment, incapacity, and harsh upbringing regiment which in turn results in risky behavior patterns including substance abuse (Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 2012)]. It is from this understanding that Zimi ´ and Jukic’s study tries to investigate the familial factors in favor of drug addiction onset by putting into consideration social, developmental, and interaction elements as the determinants of family relations and familial features associated with drug addicts thus, causing children to turn to drug abuse.
In analyzing both the study at hand, that is, “Familial Risk Factors Favoring Drug Addiction Onset” and various articles from the bibliography such as Development: Which Way Now?, Personal Savings and Anticipated Inflation, Assessment and management of pain in infants, The capability of psychodynamic treatment and cognitive behavior therapy in the nursing of personality disorders: A meta-analysis, Macro dynamics, Regime Switching and Financial Stress: Hypothesis and Empirics for the US, the EU and Non-EU Countries, and Hunger, Human Development, and Health in Canada: Research, Practice, and ...
The DSM-5 Clinical Cases e-book has provided multiple case-scena.docxkarisariddell
The DSM-5 Clinical Cases e-book has provided multiple case-scenarios relating to various psychological and psychiatric conditions relating to various individuals. The paper analyses the case of Irene Upton, a twenty-nine years old elementary teacher who had gone to the psychiatric for extensive consultations regarding her condition. The latter complaint of being “tired” of loneliness, besides that from her medical history it can be observed that she was hospitalized more than once for suicidal attempts and self-cutting, which represents intense, emotional pain, and frustrations. Coherently, the sister confessed to the past traumatic events that Irene was expected to, notably; at the age of thirteen, the father would sexually exploit Irene a “weird” manner. Irene has failed to recall certain activities she undertook while between the ages of seven and thirteen, which would represent the specific loss of memory due to traumatic experiences. The client laments that she does not consume or abuse alcohol or drugs, ideally, during her late teen, Irene experienced a certain shift in her life when she suddenly became more engaged and proactive for in class and co-curriculum activities. Therefore, leading to a successful life both in high school and college and later getting employed to become of the best teachers in her school.
From the excerpt, the one can be observed properly professional interpretation of Irene’s condition, where the privacy and confidentiality of the patient have been upheld through the exclusion of deeming statements that may be unethically interpreted. For instance, the level of impartiality or conflict of interest has been eliminated since there are no comments or reading that advocate any additional information on behalf of the patients there are no sections or comments that illustrates the certain type of advice or personal opinions. Therefore demonstrating a high level of ethical practice since there are no statements that demonstrate any gross misconduct when conducting a patient assessment; the excerpt provides only the necessary information useful for interpretation while excluding the confidentiality and privacy of the patient.
Evaluation
There are multiple techniques and methods, which can be used to conduct a psychological assessment on a given patient in order to accurately diagnose the individual. The paper will describe a battery of these assessments to understand the subject’s condition fully.
A clinical interview is a treatment technique utilized by psychologist and other physicians to document the accurate diagnosis of mental disorders especially the obsessive-compulsory disorder they include the clinical diagnostic interview and structured clinical interviews. The clinical diagnosis involves narrative conversation between the patient and the doctor where the latter asked a series of questions such as “how was your childhood?” “What was school like when growing?” “How wa ...
(No Plagiarism) Explain the statement Although many leading organi.docxtamicawaysmith
(No Plagiarism) Explain the statement: "Although many leading organizations have invested significant resources in developing the culture and routines for this innovation processes, most organizations continue to rely on the efforts of a handful of people and chance. An innovative organization is one that can perfect these routines in addition to creating an innovation culture in the organization that engages people. Five key routines can facilitate its management of the innovation process” (Dooley & O'Sullivan, 2003).
.
What made you choose this career path What advice do you hav.docxtamicawaysmith
What made you choose this career path?
What advice do you have for those hoping to enter this career path?
What were some obstacles you faced upon graduating from college?
Does your career require graduate school? What programs would be acceptable?
Is there anything you wish you would have done differently?
Is it difficult to find a job in this area?
What is a typical work week like?
Etcetera, depending on the field and what you’re interested in.
.
Patient Population The student will describe the patient populati.docxtamicawaysmith
Patient Population: The student will describe the patient population that is impacted by the clinical issue. With a focus on the diversity of the human condition found within this patient population, the student will describe the influence that cultural values may have on the proposed solution. Proposed
Solution
: The student will set the stage for proposing the best solution to the clinical problem by using appropriate evidence-based data and integrating data from peer-reviewed journal articles. In this paper, the student will: i. Propose a clear solution to the clinical problem that is supported by a minimum of three scholarly, peer-reviewed journal articles.ii. Expand on the ethical considerations when developing the plan.
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Dr. Paul Murray
Bessie Coleman
Jean-Bapiste Belley
Harriet Elizabeth Brown
Monte Irvin
Shirley Graham Dubois
Vernon Dahmer
Hale Woodruff
Jo Ann Robinson
Eugene "Pineapple" Jackson
Dr. Francis Cress Welsing
Dr. Kenneth Clark
Amy Jacques Garvey
Ophelia DeVore
Augusta Fells Savage
Eugene Jacques Bullard
Bobby Timmons
Clyde Kennard
Madison Washington
Joseph Winters
Sam Sharpe
Joseph Rainey
Bessie Stringfield
DJ Kool Herc
Lonnie Clayton
Mrs. Mamie Lang Kirkland
Lucius Septimius Bassianus
Carolyn Gudger
Jasmine Twitty
Daisy Bates
Ella Jenkins
Lewis Henry Douglass
Cynthia Robinson
Sylvester Magee
Mabel Fairbanks
Cathay Williams
Clara Belle Williams
John Baxter Taylor Jr.
Anna J. Cooper
The Black Seminoles
Dr. Daniel Hale Williams
Matthew Williams
Phillipa Schuyler
Yarrow Mamout
Mamie "Peanut" Johnson
Frank E. Petersen
"Miss Maggie" Walker
Paul Robeson
Olivia J. Hooker
Dr. Henry T Sampson
Lovie Yancy
Willie James Howard
Toni Stone (Marcenia Lyle Alberga)
Lucien Victor Alexis
Mevinia Sheilds
Dr. Lonnie Smith
Rosewood
Miss Jane Pittman
Lucy Terry
Abraham Galloway
Thomas Jennings
Irene Morgan
Paul Lawrence Dunbar
Jean Toomer
Doris Payne
Ann Petry
Madam C.J. Walker
Dr. May Edward Chinn
Greenwood, Tulsa, OK
Karen Bass
Dr. Dorothy Height
Dr. Geneva Smitherman
Michaëlle Jean
Robin Kelly
Mary Macleod Bethune
Jane Bolin
Donna Edwards
Dame Eugenia Charles
Dr. Thomas Elkins
Wilma Rudolph
Annie Malone
Ann Lowe
Black Wall Street
Cathy Hughes
Kamala Harris
Fannie Lou Hamer
Sarah Rector
Ruth Simmons
Claudette Colvin
MC Lyte
Benajin Banneker
Benjamin O. Davis, Jr.
Thurgood Marshall
Doris "Dorie" Miller
Cecil Noble
WC Handy
Dorothy Counts
Bayard Rustin
Dr. Eliza Ann Grier
Matthew Henson
Jesse Owens
Nina Simone
Wendell Scott
Adam Clayton Powell
Percy Julian
Dr. Charles Drew
Thomas "Fats" Waller
Satchel Paige
Bass Reeves
Marian Anderson
Josephine Baker
Joe Louis
Walter White
William Hastie
Elijah McCoy
Jan Matzelger
Lewis Latimer
Granville T. Woods
Fred Jones
Nella Larsen
Lloyd Hall
A. Philip Randolph
Althea Gibson
Barbara C. Jordon
Marcus Garvey
Malcolm X
James Meridith
Guy Buford
Hazel Scott
Stokely Carmichal
Denmark Vessey
Alex Haley
Virginia Hamilton
Ishmael Reed
Nalo Hopkinson
George Schuyler
Patricia Roberts Harris
John Lewis
Les McCann
Martin Delany
Derek Walcott
Carter Godwin Woodson
Alvin Ailey
Debbie Allen
Ralph Abernathy
Arthur Ashe
Crispus Attucks
Amiri Baraka
Seko.
In depth analysis of your physical fitness progress Term p.docxtamicawaysmith
In depth analysis of your physical fitness progress
Term paper should include details of:
▪ What worked and why (include all documentation)
▪ What didn’t and why
▪ Are your physical fitness results in alignment with your health continuum goals (include documentation)
▪ What are your current goals
▪ What are your future goals
▪ Develop a road map to get achieve those goals Due no later than November 30, 2020.
samples
Physical fitness benchmark assessments
Fitness assessment data sheet
Exercise charts
Personal physical fitness progress chart
Self assessment: Individual Health Continuum
.
Information systems infrastructure evolution and trends Str.docxtamicawaysmith
Information systems infrastructure: evolution and trends
Strategic importance of cloud computing in business organizations
Big data and its business impacts
Managerial issues of a networked organization
Emerging enterprise network applications
Mobile computing and its business implications
Instructions:
9- 10 pages (does not include Title page and references )
can Include images (not more than two)
Minimum six (6) sources – at least two (2) from peer reviewed journals
Include an abstract, introduction, and conclusion
.
⦁One to two paragraph brief summary of the book. ⦁Who is the.docxtamicawaysmith
⦁One to two paragraph brief summary of the book.
⦁Who is the author and his/her background?
⦁Does the author have any particular ideological viewpoint that he or she is trying to advance or do you consider the author to have been neutral and presented both sides of controversial issues? (You will find asking this same question will help you in other courses and your future career.)
⦁When was this book written? Does the author reflect the views (biases) of the time when the book was written? Why or why not?
⦁What did you find most interesting in the book? Least interesting?
⦁What additional topics should the author have included in the book? Why?
⦁How had people before the age of the telegraph attempted to communicate faster over distances?
⦁How did the telegraph reflect scientific and technological developments, both in the United States and other countries?
⦁Why did the telegraph represent such a revolutionary development and not just an incremental improvement in communication?
⦁How did the telegraph impact politics, journalism, business, military strategy and society in general?
⦁How were the American and European experiences similar or different in developing the telegraph? Did the telegraph have a similar impact in the United States and Europe?
⦁What do you think of the author’s title? Is the Victorian-era telegraph really the equivalent of today’s internet in terms of its impact or is that an exaggeration? Why or why not?
⦁Do you think the author makes the material interesting, understandable and relevant to the general public? Why or why not?
⦁If you were the editor in the publishing company, what changes would you make to the author’s draft?
⦁Did the book increase your interest in a particular issue that you would like to learn more about?
⦁Do you think it is worthwhile learn about the historical impact of scientific and technological developments?
⦁Would you recommend this book to a friend? Why or why not?
⦁Would you recommend that I continue to use this book in this course with future students?
.
100.0 Criteria10.0 Part 1 PLAAFP The PLAAFP thoroughly an.docxtamicawaysmith
100.0 %Criteria
10.0 %Part 1: PLAAFP
The PLAAFP thoroughly and adeptly incorporates student's academic strengths, evaluations, performance in classes, and any other relevant issues.
10.0 %Part 2: Present Levels for Transition COE 3.8 [CEC 5.1, ICSI.5.S8, ICSI.5.S15, IGC.5.K1, IGC.5.S7, IGC.5.S23, IGC.5.S24; InTASC 1(b), 2(d), 5(f), 6(v), 8(s), 9(h); MC2, MC3, MC4, MC5]
Preferential learning environment, strengths and interests relating to the transition, and areas in need of improvement for transition are substantially described.
15.0 %Part 2: Transition Plan COE: 3.10 [CEC 5.5, ICSI.5.S8, ICSI.5.S8, ICSI.5.S15, ICSI.5.S17, ICSI.5.S19, IGC.5.K1, IGC.5.K3, IGC.5.K8, IGC.5.S1, IGC.5.S2, IGC.5.S11 IGC.5.S23, IGC.5.S24; InTASC 7(b), 7(e); MC1, MC2, MC4, MC5]
The transition plan demonstrates best practices in identifying proficient, measureable transition plan goals that are aligned with student's interests and present levels. Also includes quality aligned activities/services, persons/agency involved and realistic expected dates of achievement.
10.0 %Part 3: Rationale - Justification COE: 5.1 [ACEI 5.0; CEC 6.1, ICSI.6.K2, ICSI.6.K4 ICSI.6.S1, ICSI.6.S2, ICSI.6.S3, ICSI.6.S4, ICSI.6.S5, ICSI.6.S7, IGC.6.K4, IGC.6.K6, IGC.6.S2; InTASC 9(l), 9(o); MC2, MC3, MC4]
Rationale skillfully justifies content and decisions displayed in PLAAFP, annual goals, and transition plan, convincingly demonstrating how they meet the needs of the student. Claims are fully grounded in CEC Code of Ethics.
15.0 %Part 4: Rationale - Confidentiality COE: 5.8 [CEC 6.1, ICSI.6.S1, ICSI.6.S2, ICSI.6.S4, ICSI.7.S1, IGC.6.K1, IGC.6.K6; InTASC 5(k); MC1, MC2, MC4, MC5]
The rationale thoroughly defends the legal, ethical, and quality requirements related to the management of confidential student information.
10.0 %Reflection COE: 5.4 [CEC 6.2, ICSI.6.S1, ICSI.6.S2, ICSI.6.S4, IGC.6.K1, IGC.6.K2, IGC.6.K3; InTASC 10(h); MC1, MC2, MC4; COE 5.4]
Reflection convincingly relates how foundational knowledge developed relating to providing professional, ethical and legal educational services will be used in future professional practice.
5.0 %Research
Research strongly supports the information presented. Sources are timely, distinctive and clearly address all of the criteria stated in the assignment.
10.0 %Organization
The content is well-organized and logical. There is a sequential progression of ideas that relate to each other. The content is presented as a cohesive unit and provides the audience with a clear sense of the main idea.
10.0 %Mechanics of Writing (includes spelling, punctuation, grammar, language use)
Submission is virtually free of mechanical errors. Word choice reflects well-developed use of practice and content-related language. Sentence structures are varied and engaging.
5.0 %Documentation of Sources (citations, footnotes, references, bibliography, etc., as appropriate to assignment and style)
Sources are documented completely and correctly, as appropria.
102120151De-Myth-tifying Grading in Sp.docxtamicawaysmith
10/21/2015
1
De-Myth-tifying Grading
in Special Education
1980 2015
10/21/2015
2
Primary Purpose
• “the primary purpose of…grades…
(is) to communicate student
achievement to students, parents,
school administrators,
post-secondary institutions and
employers.” and
• To provide teachers with information
for instructional planning.
Taken from “Reporting Achievement at the Secondary School Level: What and How?”, in Communicating Student
Learning: ASCD Yearbook 1996, p. 120.
What makes grading so
hard?
• Teacher preparation programs seldom include course work or
even discussions of recommended practices for grading
students in general, much less for students who may be
struggling learners. As a result, teachers at all grade levels
grapple with issues of fairness in grading.
• Despite the magnitude of this problem, few recommendations
for grading struggling learners can be found in the research
literature or in education policy.
• Urban Grading Legends
10/21/2015
3
Urban Legends:
Bigfoot/Sasquatch
Urban Legends
• I can’t fail a special education
student.
• I give all my Life Skills students an
85.
• The report card grade does not really
mean anything.
10/21/2015
4
Urban Legends
• The grade on the report card can’t be less
than the IEP mastery level (default 70%)
• I teach a lot in my classroom, but I can
only grade the things that are on the IEP.
• I don’t do the grades for my special
education students in my classroom, the
special education teacher does that for
me.
What’s the
problem??
• Some students are not getting REAL
grades.
• Multiple court cases regarding failing
students who are not receiving
appropriate specially designed instruction
or students only get “A’s” and it doesn’t
truly reflect how he/she really performs in
relation to the curriculum
10/21/2015
5
What does the law really
say?
• Neither the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(IDEA) nor any other federal education laws contain
requirements for grading. Therefore, each state has
discretion on the issue.
• The TEC is the set of state laws our state legislators have
passed that relate to education. ARD committees do not
have the authority to override state laws. The Texas
Administrative Code (TAC) is the set of rules that the State
Legislature has authorized Texas Education Agency (TEA)
or the State Board to write. ARD committees must also
follow these rules.
• The state statutes apply to all public school students in
Texas regardless of special education eligibility.
Local Grading Policies
TEC §28.0216
(1) “must require a classroom teacher to assign a grade that
reflects the students’ relative mastery of an assignment;
[and]
(2) may not require a classroom teacher to assign a
minimum grade for an assignment without regard to the
student’s quality of work.”
(3) may allow a student a reasonable opportunity to make up
or redo a class .
100.0 %Criteria
30.0 %Flowchart Content
The flowchart skillfully depicts the two possible discipline paths following the manifestation determination. In addition, there are two comprehensively aligned IEP goals for each determination.
40.0 %Legal Issues Analysis
A compelling analysis is included regarding any legal issues raised by the change in Carrie's transportation, proficiently incorporating relevant statutes, regulations, and case decisions.
5.0 %Research
Research strongly supports the information presented. Sources are timely, distinctive and clearly address all of the criteria stated in the assignment.
5.0 %Rationale Organization
The content is well organized and logical. There is a sequential progression of ideas related to each other. The content is presented as a cohesive unit and the audience is provided with a clear sense of the main idea.
5.0 %Overall Flowchart Presentation
The work is well presented. The overall appearance is neat and professional. Work would be highly desirable for public dissemination.
10.0 %Mechanics of Writing (includes spelling, punctuation, grammar, language use)
Submission is virtually free of mechanical errors. Word choice reflects well-developed use of practice and content-related language. Sentence structures are varied and engaging.
5.0 %Documentation of Sources (citations, footnotes, references, bibliography, etc., as appropriate to assignment and style)
Sources are documented completely and correctly, as appropriate to assignment and style, and format is free of error.
100 %Total Weightage
.
100 words agree or disagree to eac questions Q 1.As her .docxtamicawaysmith
100 words agree or disagree to eac questions
Q 1.
As her defense attorney, I will argue that the officer did not only not read Sally's Miranda rights; he also did not respect her right to consul. After Sally made her allegedly verbal utterance, the Officer should have known to read Sally her rights. I will bring up that during New Jersey v. James P. Kucinski, Oct 26, 2016, the defendant was arrested for the bludgeoning death of his brother. The defendant was taken to police headquarters for questioning after the defendant was advised of his Miranda rights; he requested an attorney. The law enforcement officers terminated the interrogation, spoked with their supervisor, and approximately eight minutes later, the officers returned into the room and advised the defendant that he was being charged with murder. The scare tactic worked, and the defendant asked to speak with the officers. The defendant reluctantly answered a series of questions. Before trial, the defendant moved for suppression motion because the officers did not honor his request for counsel. The court denied the motion, during further questioning the defendant claimed to have acted in self-defense, the defense counsel moved for a mistrial. The trial court denied the motion for mistrial but instructed the jury that the defendant's right to remain silent should be limited to assessing his credibility. The defendant was charged with first-degree murder and third-degree possession of a weapon for unlawful purposes The Appellate Division reversed the defendant's conviction and motion for a new trial due to the prosecutor's question doing cross-examination was improper. The panel concluded that the defendant invoked his right to remain silent by telling law enforcement officers that he did not want to talk or answer questions. The Appellate Division found that the trial court instructions to the jury were flaws, and the supreme court agreed and affirmed. The officers should have stopped all questioning and contacted the defendant's attorney.
New Jersey v. Kucinski (2017). https://law.justia.com/cases/new-jersey/supreme-court/2017/a-58-15.html
Q 2.
My last name begins with a K. so I am answering in the role of prosecutor. Sally was originally pulled over because she had shown probable cause of drunk driving. Upon her traffic stop, Sally was then searched after being arrested and the handgun and drugs were found on her body. The police asked about the two items but did not “interrogate” her. Sally voluntarily answered the arresting officers’ questions and in doing so piled new charges onto her initial arrest charge. I believe that the judge will deny the request to suppress the admission of Sally’s statements. Sally does have rights under the Fifth Amendment, but her statements to the police officers were not coerced out of her. The Cornell Law School website states that the Fifth Amendment, under the self-incrimination clause, if an individual makes a spo.
101118, 4(36 PMCollection – MSA 603 Strategic Planning for t.docxtamicawaysmith
10/11/18, 4(36 PMCollection – MSA 603 Strategic Planning for the Admin ...
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reading. A Collection must be created to tag posts. More Help
Thread: dis 4
Post: dis 4
Author:
Posted Date: October 9, 2018 8:50 PM
Status: Published
Overall Rating:
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(Post is Read)
Brian Mcleod
I would say that for them to move the work and still be ethical defensible are work conditions,
respect for labor laws of the parent company, and job opportunities for the long-term
employees.
To expand on this would be the work conditions. The conditions that the workers have to work
under should be the same conditions that workers in the US have to work under. This involves
safety and environmental protection for the workers.
Labor laws of the host country and “most” of the internally recognized laws must be observed.
Overtime and child labor are a couple of items.
The long-term employees should be given the opportunity to move to another US based plant if
possible or to the new country.
Sometimes because of the state of the industry companies do have to make these decisions or
face possible bankruptcy. This alternative may not be the perfect solution but better than
bankrupting a company that still has operation in the US.
← OK
�
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10/11/18, 4(38 PMCollection – MSA 603 Strategic Planning for the Admin ...
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Thread: DB4
Post: DB4
Author:
Posted Date: October 10, 2018 8:51 PM
Status: Published
Overall Rating:
Tags: None
(Post is Read)
Christina Lacroix
It is ethically defensible to outsource production when the outcome of not outsourcing
would negatively impact stakeholders. Organizations define their most important
stakeholders, often the shareholders, as they invested capital. While some risk is
assumed by shareholders as a fiduciary managers have an obligation to the
shareholders to protect their interest when possible. A company risks shareholder
investment (access to capital) and jeopardizes all other stakeholders such as
employees, suppliers, and creditors. An organization cannot risk itself and the other
stakeholders depending upon in order to save employees.
The organization should do its due diligence in securing its outso.
100 words per question, no references needed or quotations. Only a g.docxtamicawaysmith
100 words per question, no references needed or quotations. Only a general idea or opinion.
A.
· Compare and contrast two works from the Italian Baroque period with two works from the Renaissance. Be sure to note the appearance in the works of the defining characteristics from each period.
· Discuss why artistic expression shifted from the restrained stoicism of the Renaissance to that of the heightened emotion in the religious and other works of the Baroque.
B. From video
Goya -
The Third of May
- If you cannot see this video, click here -
https://youtu.be/e7piV4ocukg
Respond in writing to the following questions after reading Chapter 12, watching the video, and exploring the sites above.
1. Heroism, nationalism, and passion are themes associated with Romanticism. Which
three
landmarks of the nineteenth century are most representative of these themes? You can discuss art, philosophy, or literature.
2. Compare Neoclassicism and Romanticism as styles and sensibilities. What do their differences reflect about patronage, popular taste, and historical change? Provide specific examples from the chapters.
C.
1. From the arts of West Africa, what are some characteristics of African cultural heritage?
2. How did their religious beliefs influence their art and music.
D.
Watch video below
Manet -
Déjeuner
sur
l’herbe -
If you cannot see this video, click
https://youtu.be/3xBGF8H3bQ4
1. Viewers of Manet’s
Déjeuner sur l’herbe
initially responded to its public display by attacking the canvas with their umbrellas. Why?
2. What kind of art has evoked a comparable response in our own time? Do some research online. Find a recent work of art that caused controversy. Summarize the reasons for the controversy and your reaction to it. Try not post the same article as someone else. (This board is not POST FIRST, so you will be able to see what others have posted right away.) If you can, attach a picture of the image you are describing to your posting.
E.
Watch the video below. If you cannot see the video, click here:
https://youtu.be/XyLNPumMMTs
George Braque, Violin and Pitcher, (1909)
•
Pablo Picasso, Guernica, (1937)
•
Marcel Duchamp, Nude Descending a Staircase, (1912)
Respond in writing to the following question after reading Chapter 14 in your text, watching the video above, viewing the Web Assignments, and the sites above.
1. Describe how they three have departed from styles such as symbolism and impressionism of the late nineteenth century.
F.
Take some time to reflect on all we have covered in this course. Then, respond in writing to the following question.
1. After your experience in this course, describe why you feel the humanities are important.
.
100A 2
2 4 4
5
1A 1034 5
1B 1000 10
1C 1100 1
1D 1123 20
1E 1210 5
20 10 10
7
1A 2180 20
1B 1283 20
1C 3629 5
1D 3649 3
1E 4051 15
1F 4211 1
1G 5318 5
100B 1
2 4 1
3
1A 2180 10
1B 1283 10
1C 3629 5
100C 2
0 0 0
3
1A 6774 5
1B 6869 5
1C 6879 2
0 0 0
4
1A 6774 2
1B 6869 5
1C 6879 1
1D 7555 10
100D 1
10 5 3
3
1A 2180 5
1B 3649 2
1C 4211 3
Self-care and Residency Reflection Paper Scoring Rubric -
Content
80 Points
Points Earned
Additional Comments:
All key elements of the assignment are covered in a substantive way.
Write a 700- to 1,050-word paper to reflect on your residency experience and outline your plan for self-care. Please use the self-care and residency reflection paper template posted in Student Materials for this assignment.
Consider the following questions when writing your reflection:
a) What have you learned about yourself during residency?
b) What have you learned about yourself as a counselor-in-training during residency?
c) What are aspects of residency that you enjoyed? Why did you enjoy these aspects?
d) What aspects of residency did you not enjoy? Why did you not enjoy these aspects?
e) What is counselor self-care? Why is it important? Include two separate in-text and end of work references.
f) What strategies for maintaining self-care did you try throughout this program? How can you implement these strategies?
g) How will you know when you are experiencing burnout? What can you do to prevent this?
The content is comprehensive, accurate, and /or persuasive.
The paper links theory to relevant examples of current experience and industry practice and uses the vocabulary of the theory correctly. This refers to the use of literary references. Generally you will need one separate literary reference for each main point (objective) of your paper.
Major points are stated clearly and are supported by specific details, examples, or analysis.
Organization / Development
35 Points
Points Earned
Additional Comments:
The paper has a structure that is clear, logical, and easy to follow.
The paper develops a central theme or idea, directed toward the appropriate audience.
The introduction provides sufficient background on the topic and previews major points.
The conclusion is logical, flows from the body of the paper, and reviews the major points.
Transitions between sentences/ paragraphs/sections aid in maintaining the flow of thought.
The tone is appropriate to the content and assignment.
Mechanics
35 Points
Points Earned
Additional Comments:
The paper, including the title page, reference page, tables, and appendices follow APA guidelines for format.
Citations of original works within the body of the paper follow APA guidelines.
The paper is laid out with effective use of headings, font styles, and white space.
Rules of grammar, usage, and punctuation are followed.
Sentences are complete, clear, concise, and varied.
Spelling is correct.
.
10122018Week 5 Required Reading and Supplementary Materials - .docxtamicawaysmith
10/12/2018
Week 5 Required Reading and Supplementary Materials - MGMT 670 9042 Strategic Management Capstone (2188)
https://learn.umuc.edu/d2l/le/content/333174/viewContent/13406413/View
/2
Required Readings:
From the UMUC library: (Note: You must search for these articles in the UMUC library. In the case of video links in the UMUC library, exact directions are given on how to find the video.)
Porter's Five-Forces model. (2009). In Encyclopedia of management (6th Ed., pp. 714-717).
From Other websites:
Evaluating the industry. (2012). In Mastering strategic management. Washington, DC: Saylor Academy. Retrieved from https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_mastering-strategic-management/s07-03-evaluating-the-industry.html
The impact of external and internal factors on strategy. (2016, 31 May). In Boundless Management. Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-management/chapter/strategic-management/
Mapping strategic groups. (2012). In Mastering strategic management. Washington, DC: Saylor Academy. Retrieved from https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_mastering-strategic-management/s07-04-mapping-strategic-groups.html
The PESTEL and SCP frameworks. (2016, 26 May). In Boundless management. Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-management/chapter/external-inputs-to-strategy/
The relationship between an organization and its environment. (2012). In Mastering strategic management. Washington, DC: Saylor Academy. Retrieved from https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_mastering-strategic-management/s07-01-the-relationship-between-an- or.html
Strategic group mapping. (2010, October 5). MBA lectures. Retrieved from http://mba-lectures.com/management/strategic- management/1000/strategic-group-mapping.html
Supplementary Materials:
From the UMUC library: (Note: You must search for these articles in the UMUC library. In the case of video links in the UMUC library, exact directions are given on how to find the video.)
Anand, B. N. (2006). Crafting business strategy and environmental scanning [Video]. Harvard Business School Faculty Seminar Series.
Follow these steps to find this video:
Go to http://sites.umuc.edu/library/index.cfm
Type in the entire name of the article: "Crafting business strategy and environmental scanning," into the search box and click on "search."
Click on "multimedia" in the upper left hand corner of the webpage (under "Ask a Librarian.)
Type in the entire name of the article: "Crafting business strategy and environmental scanning," in the box at the top of the page to the left of the word, "Search."
Make sure only "Business Videos" and "Find all my search term" are the only boxes that are checked. Uncheck both "Image Collection" and "Apply equivalent
subjects"
Click on "Search" at the bottom right hand corner of the webpage. It is a small word in a box. The next page shows the article. Click on the article.
Dahab, S. (2008). Five forces. In S. R. Clegg & J. R. Bailey (Eds.), International en.
101416 526 PMAfter September 11 Our State of Exception by .docxtamicawaysmith
10/14/16 5:26 PMAfter September 11: Our State of Exception by Mark Danner | The New York Review of Books
Page 1 of 11http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2011/10/13/after-september-11-our-state-exception/?printpage=true
After September 11: Our State of Exception
Mark Danner OCTOBER 13, 2011 ISSUE
We are in a fight for our principles, and our first responsibility is to live by them.
—George W. Bush, September 20, 2001
1.
We are living in the State of Exception. We don’t know when it will end, as we don’t know when the War on Terror will
end. But we all know when it began. We can no longer quite “remember” that moment, for the images have long since
been refitted into a present-day fable of innocence and apocalypse: the perfect blue of that late summer sky stained by acrid
black smoke. The jetliner appearing, tilting, then disappearing into the skin of the second tower, to emerge on the other
side as a great eruption of red and yellow flame. The showers of debris, the falling bodies, and then that great blossoming
flower of white dust, roiling and churning upward, enveloping and consuming the mighty skyscraper as it collapses into the
whirlwind.
To Americans, those terrible moments stand as a brightly lit portal through which we were all compelled to step, together,
into a different world. Since that day ten years ago we have lived in a subtly different country, and though we have grown
accustomed to these changes and think little of them now, certain words still appear often enough in the news—
Guantánamo, indefinite detention, torture—to remind us that ours remains a strange America. The contours of this
strangeness are not unknown in our history—the country has lived through broadly similar periods, at least half a dozen or
so, depending on how you count; but we have no proper name for them. State of siege? Martial law? State of emergency?
None of these expressions, familiar as they may be to other peoples, falls naturally from American lips.
What are we to call this subtly altered America? Clinton Rossiter, the great American scholar of “crisis government,”
writing in the shadow of World War II, called such times “constitutional dictatorship.” Others, more recently, have spoken
of a “9/11 Constitution” or an “Emergency Constitution.” Vivid terms all; and yet perhaps too narrowly drawn, placing as
they do the definitional weight entirely on law when this state of ours seems to have as much, or more, to do with politics
—with how we live now and who we are as a polity. This is in part why I prefer “the state of exception,” an umbrella term
that gathers beneath it those emergency categories while emphasizing that this state has as its defining characteristic that it
transcends the borders of the strictly legal—that it occupies, in the words of the philosopher Giorgio Agamben, “a position
at the limit between politics and law…an ambiguous, uncertain, borderline fringe, at the intersection of the legal and the
political.”
Call it, then, the s.
100 words per question, no references needed or quotations. Only.docxtamicawaysmith
100 words per question, no references needed or quotations. Only a general idea or opinion.
A.
· Compare and contrast two works from the Italian Baroque period with two works from the Renaissance. Be sure to note the appearance in the works of the defining characteristics from each period.
· Discuss why artistic expression shifted from the restrained stoicism of the Renaissance to that of the heightened emotion in the religious and other works of the Baroque.
B. From video
Goya -
The Third of May
- If you cannot see this video, click here -
https://youtu.be/e7piV4ocukg
Respond in writing to the following questions after reading Chapter 12, watching the video, and exploring the sites above.
1. Heroism, nationalism, and passion are themes associated with Romanticism. Which
three
landmarks of the nineteenth century are most representative of these themes? You can discuss art, philosophy, or literature.
2. Compare Neoclassicism and Romanticism as styles and sensibilities. What do their differences reflect about patronage, popular taste, and historical change? Provide specific examples from the chapters.
C.
1. From the arts of West Africa, what are some characteristics of African cultural heritage?
2. How did their religious beliefs influence their art and music.
D.
Watch video below
Manet -
Déjeuner
sur
l’herbe -
If you cannot see this video, click
https://youtu.be/3xBGF8H3bQ4
1. Viewers of Manet’s
Déjeuner sur l’herbe
initially responded to its public display by attacking the canvas with their umbrellas. Why?
2. What kind of art has evoked a comparable response in our own time? Do some research online. Find a recent work of art that caused controversy. Summarize the reasons for the controversy and your reaction to it. Try not post the same article as someone else. (This board is not POST FIRST, so you will be able to see what others have posted right away.) If you can, attach a picture of the image you are describing to your posting.
E.
Watch the video below. If you cannot see the video, click here:
https://youtu.be/XyLNPumMMTs
George Braque, Violin and Pitcher, (1909)
•
Pablo Picasso, Guernica, (1937)
•
Marcel Duchamp, Nude Descending a Staircase, (1912)
Respond in writing to the following question after reading Chapter 14 in your text, watching the video above, viewing the Web Assignments, and the sites above.
1. Describe how they three have departed from styles such as symbolism and impressionism of the late nineteenth century.
F.
Take some time to reflect on all we have covered in this course. Then, respond in writing to the following question.
1. After your experience in this course, describe why you feel the humanities are important.
Edit question's body
.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
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311 AFFECTIV TEMPERAMENTS AND PERSONALIY TRAITS IN A.docx
1. 311
AFFECTIV TEMPERAMENTS AND PERSONALIY TRAITS
IN
ADDICT SUBJECTS
Alexander KELEMEN 1
Maria PUSCHITA
Delia PODEA
ABSTRACT
Drug abuse is a phenomenon that can be found in almost all
studied societies from
antiquity to nowadays. Much of the designed literature has
described personality disorder
constructs for addict subjects (Vincent, 2009).
Building on previous work, and after reviewing the theory of
affective temperaments of
Akiskal and Mallya, we examined the relevance of affective
temperament and personality
measures in patients with alcohol and heroin addictions.
The patients were compared, regarding affective temperaments
and personality lines,
according to the Akiskal formulation and EPQ questionnaire, in
2. which 50 were heroin addicts
and 50 were alcohol addict people, both of them sharing similar
backgrounds.
As a result no differences were observed between heroin
addicts and alcohol users on
either cyclothymic or hyperthymic scales. Significant
discrepancies were noted in depressive
and irritability scales, on which heroin addicts scored higher.
In a multivariate discriminant analysis, mainly depressive and
irritable traits show a
distinction between heroin addicts and alcohol users. Our data
suggest a new hypothesis,
stating that some of hyperthymic and irritable traits, could
represent the temperamental profile
of heroin addicts. Personality traits are also associated with
heroin and alcohol use and
extroversion and psycho-emotional instability are common
features; the motivation for testing is
higher in heroin users and alcohol abusers tend to dissimulate
more frequently.
KEY WORDS: alcohol abusers, heroin addicts, affective
temperaments and
personality
JEL: I10
INTRODUCTION
The temperament and personality characteristics of alcoholics
and drug addicts
have been a major issue in the field of substance abuse research,
but the results reported
3. are seldom comparable, on account of the differences in the
means of assessment and
the conceptualizations used (Basiaux et al, (2001) ).
Difficult temperament, antisocial personality disorder and
borderline, or
affectively unstable profiles have been associated with alcohol
abuse (De Jong et al,
(1993) ).
Alcohol abuse has also been linked to axis I mood instability
while the role of
axis II mood instability remained unclear and defined along
different constructs.
More recently, some authors have been building on the concept
of an affective
spectrum, meaning by tha, that a group of syndromes varying in
severity and symptom
quality, but all representing degrees, stages, or variants of the
same basic biological
1 PhD. Faculty of Medicine, Vasile Goldis Western University
of Arad, Romania, e-mail:
[email protected]
312
substrate (Perugi et al, (2002) ). The study of temperaments can
play a crucial role in
identifying predictors of affective instability in healthy
individuals. Temperamental
traits also appear to be important as putative prognostic and
therapeutic variables in
4. patients with full-blown affective disorders (Cassano et al,
(1992) ).
The International Consortium of Psychiatric Epidemiology has
confirmed the
high comorbidity in community-drawn samples between
substance use disorders and
affective temperaments lines. In the same way, associations
between substance use and
specific personality traits (such as novelty seeking, harm
avoidance or
antisocial personality) have also been extensively documented
(Chakroun, 2004). Much
of the designed literature has described personality disorder
constructs for addict
subjects (Vincent, (2009) ).
The present paper is design to be a psychological study, which
consists in
examine the relevance of affective temperament and personality
measures in alcohol
and heroin use subjects.
Temperament is defined as a biological disposition,
corresponding to a
constitutional substrate. Temperament is expressed through a
series of signs and
features usually manifested by a certain stability of mood,
attitudes towards the
environment, sensitivity to external stimulus and characteristic
modes of reaction
(Vincent, (2013) ).
Most clinicians agree that early-age experiences account for a
wide variability of
adult individual personality traits, so the development of
personality traits is usually
considered to be primarily through crucial environmental
challenges and experiences.
Nevertheless, since the '80s several authors have maintained
5. that some early and stable
personality traits exist, which can be described as features of
premorbid phases of major
Psychiatric Illnesses (Maremmani et al, (2009) ).
Consistent with the concept of an affective spectrum, the study
of temperaments
is crucial, in the context of identify early predictors of future
affective instability even in
healthy individuals. Temperamental traits of personality, also
prove important as
putative prognostic and therapeutic variables in patients with
alcohol and heroin
addiction.
OBJECTIVES:
Our study first objective is the evaluation of the affective
temperamental traits
and the personality traits in alcohol and heroin addicted
patients; the second objective is
the evaluation of differences between alcohol addicted patients
and heroin users.
METHODS:
The sample is composed of 100 adult patients (50 with a alcohol
and 50 heroin
addiction diagnosis), enrolled at the Department of Psychiatry
of the Municipal Clinic
Hospital, Cluj.
Patients have fill out the TEMPS-A (Temperament Evaluation
of Memphis,
Pisa, Paris and San Diego - autoquestionnaire version) and the
EPQ questionnaire, so
we compared, regarding affective temperaments and personality
lines, according to the
Akiskal formulation and Eysenck personality questionnaire
formulation.
All patients included in the study signed informed consent.
6. Both the consent
form and the experimental procedures were approved by the
competent ethics
committees in accordance with internationally accepted criteria
for ethical research. The
research was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards
of the Declaration of
Helsinki (1964). The study was conducted with the approval of
the Ethics and Research
313
Committee of the Vasile Goldis Western University of Arad and
Cluj Municipal
Hospital.
All patients were evaluated during the stabilization phase to
avoid possible
interferences due to the acute phase of their illness in the
temperament and personality
questionnaires (TEMPS-A and EPQ).
To achieve the research objectives, subjects were evaluated
once during the 12
months. Each subject was interviewed and completed all scales
above, as paper and
pencil, so were assessed personality traits in terms of the
psychometrics scale,
respectively affective temperament types by Akiskal scale.
Data Analysis:
Analyzes based on scores E, N, L and P (EPQ questionnaire's
dimensions)
indicates the fact that the majority of respondents can be
7. classified as extroverted
persons, highly unstable psycho-emotional and almost the lack
of some schizoid
tendencies from the sample.
Out of the 100 individuals, more then half (64 %) have
obtained an E score of 9
points, denoting that they can be characterized as persons with
more accelerate
processes of excitement and inhibitions of the SNC, who tend to
adopt easier risky and
scandalous behavior, with a lower control of the emotional
reactions and a lower
tolerance to frustration, which they associate as their lifestyle.
The following table consist of the exacts distribution of the 100
respondents
involved in the study and highlights that the majority obtain a 9
points score, meanwhile
only 16 subjects obtained higher scores.
Table 1.
Distribution of individuals according to the score E
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid 3 10 10.0 10.0 10.0
5 1 1.0 1.0 11.0
6 9 9.0 9.0 20.0
9 64 64.0 64.0 84.0
8. 11 1 1.0 1.0 85.0
12 2 2.0 2.0 87.0
13 7 7.0 7.0 94.0
14 1 1.0 1.0 95.0
15 2 2.0 2.0 97.0
16 2 2.0 2.0 99.0
17 1 1.0 1.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0
Source: Carried out by the Author, Own calculation, 2013
Histogram corresponding variable gives us an image regarding
the respondents
distribution according to the score obtained for E category,
being easy to observe that
the majority of the respondents s
9. Source: Carried out by the Author, Own calculation, 2013
Regarding this research, is noticeable that the most common
value for dimension
N was 12 points, 25 % of the re
We find that the distribution of one variable is abnormal, 25 %
of the subjects
are placed in the middle range (at the value of 23 points), but
more than half of all
(52%) stand near the maximum value of the range (getting sc
also noted a tremendous difference between the range’s limits,
the minimum value
being 4 points and the maximum 23 points.
The existing data reveal that most subjects are supra
react strongly to stimulus
various emotional experiences.
314
Histogram corresponding variable gives us an image regarding
the respondents
distribution according to the score obtained for E category,
being easy to observe that
the majority of the respondents stand around the value of 9
points.
Respondents distribution for E scale
Source: Carried out by the Author, Own calculation, 2013
Regarding this research, is noticeable that the most common
value for dimension
10. N was 12 points, 25 % of the respondents getting that value.
We find that the distribution of one variable is abnormal, 25 %
of the subjects
are placed in the middle range (at the value of 23 points), but
more than half of all
(52%) stand near the maximum value of the range (getting
scores of over 20 points). Is
also noted a tremendous difference between the range’s limits,
the minimum value
being 4 points and the maximum 23 points.
The existing data reveal that most subjects are supra-emotional
persons, who
and who find it hard to come back to their balance after
various emotional experiences.
Histogram corresponding variable gives us an image regarding
the respondents
distribution according to the score obtained for E category,
being easy to observe that
Figure 1.
Respondents distribution for E scale
Source: Carried out by the Author, Own calculation, 2013
Regarding this research, is noticeable that the most common
value for dimension
We find that the distribution of one variable is abnormal, 25 %
of the subjects
are placed in the middle range (at the value of 23 points), but
more than half of all
11. ores of over 20 points). Is
also noted a tremendous difference between the range’s limits,
the minimum value
emotional persons, who
and who find it hard to come back to their balance after
315
Table 2.
Distribution of individuals according to the score N
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid 4 2 2.0 2.0 2.0
6 1 1.0 1.0 3.0
7 10 10.0 10.0 13.0
9 1 1.0 1.0 14.0
10 2 2.0 2.0 16.0
12 25 25.0 25.0 41.0
14 2 2.0 2.0 43.0
12. 16 5 5.0 5.0 48.0
21 20 20.0 20.0 68.0
22 22 22.0 22.0 90.0
23 10 10.0 10.0 100.0
Total
100 100.0 100.0
Source: Carried out by the Author, Own calculation, 2013
Histogram corresponding variable provides us an image
regarding the
distribution of respondents according the score obtained for N
category.
Figure 2.
Respondents distribution for N scale
Source: Carried out by the Author, Own calcula
In a multivariate discriminant analysis, mainly depressive and
irritable traits
show a distinction between heroin addicts and alcohol users .
respondents 78 % have offered positive answers to questions
13. which give a profile with
saddest mood, ruminative and willing to apprehension. Out of
these, 55% are part of
the alcohol consumers category and 45% are part of the heroin
consumers category. We
can state that alcoholic respondents tend to be in a sad mood.
In terms of frequenc
irritable-choleric disposition, measured trough the confession of
the respondents
regarding on how often they get irritable, choleric, we notice
that 84% of the subjects
have given us answers positive rated as irritable
than half belong to the alcohol consumers category, therefore
we conclude that alcohol
consumers category tend to be more often choleric than the
heroin consumers category.
Conclusions:
Our data suggest a new hypothesis:
• some of hyperthymic
profile of heroin addicts.
• some of depressive and irritable traits, could represent the
temperamental
profile of heroin addicts.
• personality traits are associated with heroin and alcohol use.
• extroversion and psycho
• the motivation for testing is higher in heroin users, alcohol
abusers tend to
dissimulate more frequently.
Considerations:
14. The scientific community has recently examined whether
correlations
between affective temperaments and substance abuse disorders.
We try to summarized some of these correlations, comparing
two groups of
addict subjects (heroin vs alcohol).
316
Source: Carried out by the Author, Own calculation, 2013
In a multivariate discriminant analysis, mainly depressive and
irritable traits
show a distinction between heroin addicts and alcohol users .
Out of the 100
respondents 78 % have offered positive answers to questions
which give a profile with
saddest mood, ruminative and willing to apprehension. Out of
these, 55% are part of
the alcohol consumers category and 45% are part of the heroin
consumers category. We
can state that alcoholic respondents tend to be in a sad mood.
In terms of frequenc
choleric disposition, measured trough the confession of the
respondents
regarding on how often they get irritable, choleric, we notice
that 84% of the subjects
have given us answers positive rated as irritable-choleric
disposition. Out of
than half belong to the alcohol consumers category, therefore
we conclude that alcohol
consumers category tend to be more often choleric than the
heroin consumers category.
Our data suggest a new hypothesis:
15. some of hyperthymic and irritable traits, could represent the
temperamental
profile of heroin addicts.
some of depressive and irritable traits, could represent the
temperamental
profile of heroin addicts.
personality traits are associated with heroin and alcohol use.
roversion and psycho-emotional instability are common features
the motivation for testing is higher in heroin users, alcohol
abusers tend to
dissimulate more frequently.
The scientific community has recently examined whether
correlations
between affective temperaments and substance abuse disorders.
We try to summarized some of these correlations, comparing
two groups of
addict subjects (heroin vs alcohol).
tion, 2013
In a multivariate discriminant analysis, mainly depressive and
irritable traits
Out of the 100
respondents 78 % have offered positive answers to questions
which give a profile with a
saddest mood, ruminative and willing to apprehension. Out of
these, 55% are part of
the alcohol consumers category and 45% are part of the heroin
consumers category. We
can state that alcoholic respondents tend to be in a sad mood.
In terms of frequency of
16. choleric disposition, measured trough the confession of the
respondents
regarding on how often they get irritable, choleric, we notice
that 84% of the subjects
choleric disposition. Out of these more
than half belong to the alcohol consumers category, therefore
we conclude that alcohol
consumers category tend to be more often choleric than the
heroin consumers category.
and irritable traits, could represent the temperamental
some of depressive and irritable traits, could represent the
temperamental
emotional instability are common features
the motivation for testing is higher in heroin users, alcohol
abusers tend to
The scientific community has recently examined whether
correlations exist
We try to summarized some of these correlations, comparing
two groups of
317
The correlation between affective temperaments line,
personality traits and
substance abuse disorders is generally accepted. Some of these
17. can be considered
expressions of the heroin and alcohol use.
In heroin addicts and alcoholics the role of “these traited” can
be extended from
the area of full-blown affective disorders to that of affective
temperaments
(Maremmani, 2005). What emerges is the central role of
cyclothymia, with irritable
traits discovered in a group of heroin addicts, and depressive
traits in alcoholics. While
the cyclothymic temperament qualifies as a real temperamental
risk factor for the
development of these diseases, irritable and depressive traits,
which differentiated these
two groups of subjects, may be considered not so much a
premorbid condition, but,
rather, as a simple association (Vincent, 2013).
After reviewing the theory of affective temperaments of
Akiskal and Mallya, we
will discuss affective temperaments in heroin addicts and
alcoholics, with the aim of
providing an “at-risk temperamental profile” for the
development of substance abuse
disorders. A working hypothesis is then formulated to help
explain how temperamental
profile may promote the initiation of substance use and
contribute to the development of
addiction.
REFERENCES
Akiskal H.S., Placidi G.F., Signoretta S., Liguori A., Gervasi
R., Maremmani I., Mallya
18. G., Puzantian V.R. (1998). TEMPS-I: -delineating the most
discriminant traits of the
cyclothymic, depressive, hyperthymic and irritable
temperaments in a nonpatient population. J.
Affect. Disorders. 51, 7–19.
Akiskal H.S., Akiskal K.K., Haykal R.F., Manning J.S., Connor
P. (2005). TEMPS-A:
progress towards validation of a self-rated clinical version of
the Temperament Evaluation of
the Memphis, Pisa, Paris, and San Diego Autoquestionnaire. J.
Affect. Disorders. 85, 3-16.
Hagop S. Akiskal MD; Robert M. A. Hirschfeld MD; Boghos I.
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(2005) "The Relationship of Personality to Affective
Disorders." N.p., n.d. Web.
Kaplan H., Sadock B.J. (2000) “Substance Related Disorders”,
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Textbook of Psychiatry, Seventh Edition, Vol. I, Ed. Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins,
Philadelphia, USA, 11: 924-1095.
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Francesco Lamanna, Silvia Bacciardi, Giulio Perugi, Joseph
Deltito, Liliana Dell'Osso, and Icro
Maremmani, (2012), “National Center for Biotechnology
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AG, Perugi G, Deltito J,
Akiskal K, Akiskal H. (2009) "Affective Temperaments in
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Ceccanti M. (2009).
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Perez-Rios M., Santiago-Perez M.I., Alsonso B., Malvar A.,
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(2009). Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence vs heavy
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Perugi G., Toni C., Travierso M.C., Akiskal H.S. (2003). The
role of cyclothymia in
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Umee, "Affective Temperaments in Alcoholic Patients." Scribd.
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Http://lib.bioinfo.pl/pmid:20414155. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Sept.
2013.
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1)The text lists five psychological factors that can influence
purchase decisions. List and give an example of each.
Motives coupled with MASLOW’s hierarchy of needs: love and
belonging, safety, physiological, esteem, and self-actualization.
An example would be Nutrament, which was a fitness drink
targeted to customers for additional energy, suggestive to
esteem or even love and belonging in the MASLOW’s hierarchy
of needs. The product wasn’t selling well, it was discovered
that sales mainly consisted of inner city convenience stores,
neighborhoods associated with high drug use. Instead of the
product being used by fitness minded individuals, it was mainly
being used by drug users as a means of supplemental diet.
Attitudes can be tied to a product in either a positive or
negative manner. An example that comes to mind is when
Honda first mass introduction to the American motorcycle
market by stating “You meet the nicest people on a Honda
motorcycle”. This was to combat the previous negative
stereotype of individuals who own a motorcycle.
21. Perceptions could be deceiving at times. A prime example
comes to mind with Florida. Most individuals think of Florida
as a state that produces all sorts of citrus. Yes, Florida’s
license plate has “the sunshine state” and a picture of two
oranges, but Florida is a big producer of corn and sugar cane –
something that tends to be either unknown or ignored.
Learning is often thought in an educational setting. However,
one could argue that the simple act of shopping for a car falls
within this category. Individuals usually read reviews on their
desired car, talk with friends, visit dealerships etc. – all in an
effort to learn what is the best car that suits their needs in terms
of practicality, price, and safety etc.
Lifestyle could consist of eating right for a healthy lifestyle,
which suggests by eating correctly one will achieve a healthy
and reduced chronic disease.
2)
Growing in California, In N Out Burgers was just starting up in
the fast food industry. Suddenly, In N Out Burgers becomes the
place to get the best and freshest burgers in the area. This chain
began to grow rapidly due to their simple philosophy, which
also became their mission statement. With their philosophy, the
fast food restaurant has been able to maintain their core values
in their burgers. Due to their core values, every new restaurant
provides the freshest and high-quality ingredients while their
associates deliver friendly customer service and spotless
restaurant. So the philosophy carries this regionally fast food
chain to give their customers the freshest and made-to-order
foods prepared quickly.
Due their simplicity, the chain has not changed their
menu options, which has aided in keeping up a fast pace
22. service. Just having hamburgers, cheeseburgers, and double
double, the chain has focused its energy on ensuring high
quality and fresh ingredients to their customers. Furthermore,
the company kept itself within certain parts of the United States
such as the west coast. This decision keeps to the company’s
mentality about simplicity.
Within their philosophy, the company has been able to
further add value to their products by exploiting the needs of
their customers. Besides their menu options, the chain has found
a unique selling point which is their special menu. Their secret
menu is open to the public via their webpage or word of mouth.
Some options in the secret menu are Animal Styles Fries or 4X4
or 3X3. Aside from their secret menu, In N Out Burgers has
special options in turn means tailored orders. One example is
burger mustard grilled which the burger has mustard seeping
into it when being cooked. Or something simpler like a grilled
cheese, which has two buns with cheese in the middle. These
options are exclusive at In N Out Burgers so far. Providing their
customers with these specials, the customers can customize
their order however they like.
From their philosophy, the corporation has been able to
maintain its value via simplistic advertisement. In N Out
Burgers is known for creating bumper stickers that has only the
logo of the chain. Furthermore, the restaurant has made t-shirts
and hats that have only the In N Out logo. Combine these
marketing skills with just word of mouth has kept the company
going for many years. Word of mouth may be the oldest trick in
marketing but it has worked quite well for this business. In
other to keep this system, In N Out has a unique customer
service during rush hours for lunch and dinner. During these
times, four workers will come out to take orders for drive thru
customers. This process aids in keeping up a speedy pace, which
keeps the customer happy. Having live testimonies and simple
marketing truly sticks to the value of their product: simple,
23. fresh, and fast.
Even though In N Out Burgers’ value proposition is its
philosophy, this technique has been able to uphold constituency
of quality in food and customer service in all of its locations.
Simplicity has led to concentrate their efforts to deliver good
meat and ingredients to every customer. Plus, they have been
able to provide their customers with options to modify their
burgers according to individual liking without changing its
actual menu. In N Out Burgers will continue to be a competitor
in the fast food industry due to their high quality yet simple
burgers.
References:
Daniels, W. (2010). In-N-out burger. Nation's Restaurant News,
44(2), 32.
Duerr, C. (2015). In-N-out burger. Nation's Restaurant News,
49(5), 12.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
2000, Vol. 78, No. 1, 173-186
In the public domain
DOI: 1O.1037//O022-3514.7S.1.173
Nature Over Nurture: Temperament, Personality, and
Life Span Development
Robert R. McCrae and Paul T. Costa, Jr.
National Institute on Aging
24. Fritz Ostendorf and Alois Angleitner
Universitat Bielefeld
Martina Hrebickova
Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic
Maria D. Avia, Jesiis Sanz, and
Maria L. Sanchez-Bernardos
Universidad Complutense de Madrid
M. Ersin Kusdil, Ruth Woodfield, Peter R. Saunders, and Peter
B. Smith
University of Sussex
Temperaments arc often regarded as biologically based
psychological tendencies with intrinsic paths of
development. It is argued that this definition applies to the
personality traits of the five-factor model.
Evidence for the endogenous nature of traits is summarized
from studies of behavior genetics, parent-
child relations, personality structure, animal personality, and
the longitudinal stability of individual
differences. New evidence for intrinsic maturation is offered
from analyses of NEO Five-Factor
Inventory scores for men and women age 14 and over in
German, British, Spanish, Czech, and Turkish
samples (N = 5,085). These data support strong conceptual links
to child temperament despite modest
empirical associations. The intrinsic maturation of personality
is complemented by the culturally
conditioned development of characteristic adaptations that
express personality; interventions in human
development are best addressed to these.
25. There are both empirical and conceptual links between child
temperaments and adult personality traits. The empirical
associa-
tions are modest, but the conceptual relations are profound. Ex-
plaining how this is so requires a complicated chain of
arguments
and evidence. For example, we report cross-sectional data
showing
(among other things) that adolescents are lower in
Conscientious-
ness than are middle-aged and older adults in Germany, the
United
Kingdom, Spain, the Czech Republic, and Turkey. The
relevance
of such data may not be immediately obvious, but in fact they
speak to the transcontextual nature of personality traits and thus
to
the fundamental issue of nature versus nurture.
Robert R. McCrae and Paul T. Costa, Jr., Personality, Stress,
and
Coping Section, Gerontology Research Center, National
Institute on Ag-
ing, National Institutes of Health; Fritz Ostendorf and Alois
Angleitner,
Department of Psychology, Universitat Bielefeld, Bielefeld,
Germany;
Martina HrebfEkova", Institute of Psychology, Academy of
Sciences of the
Czech Republic, Brno, Czech Republic; Maria D. Avia, Jesus
Sanz, and
Maria L. Sanchez-Bernardos, Department of Psychology,
Universidad
Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain; M. Ersin Kusdil, Ruth
Woodfield,
Peter R. Saunders, and Peter B. Smith, School of Social
26. Sciences, Univer-
sity of Sussex, Sussex, England.
Portions of this article were presented at the 106th Annual
Convention
of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco,
August 1998.
Czech data collection was supported by Grant 406/99/1155 from
the Grant
Agency of the Czech Republic.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Robert R.
McCrae, Box 3, National Institute on Aging Gerontology
Research Center,
5600 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, Maryland 21224-6825.
Electronic
mail may be sent to [email protected]
The gist of our argument is easily stated: Personality traits, like
temperaments, are endogenous dispositions that follow intrinsic
paths of development essentially independent of environmental
influences. That idea is simple, but it is so foreign to the
thinking
of most psychologists that it requires a detailed exposition and
defense. Once grasped, however, it offers a new and fruitful
perspective on personality and its development.
A Theoretical Perspective on Temperament
There is no hard and fast distinction between temperament and
personality. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English
Language defines temperament as "the manner of thinking, be-
having, or reacting characteristic of a specific individual"
(Morris,
1976, p. 1324), a definition which might serve equally well for
personality trait. One of the first omnibus personality
27. inventories,
measuring such traits as ascendance, emotional stability, and
thoughtfulness, was designated by J. P. Guilford and his
colleagues
(Guilford, Zimmerman, & Guilford, 1976) as a "temperament
survey." In some respects, then, there is a long tradition of
equat-
ing these two sets of individual differences variables.
There is also a long tradition of distinguishing them. Tempera-
ment is frequently regarded as a constitutional predisposition,
observable in preverbal infants and animals, and tied, at least
theoretically, to basic psychological processes. Personality
traits,
in contrast, are often assumed to be acquired patterns of thought
and behavior that might be found only in organisms with sophis-
ticated cognitive systems. Constructs like authoritarianism, self-
173
174 McCRAE ET AL.
monitoring, and narcissism do not appear to be directly
applicable
to chimpanzees or human infants.
Some theorists divide personality traits into two categories,
corresponding to innate and acquired characteristics. For
example,
Cloninger and his colleagues (Cloninger, Przybeck, Svrakic, &
Wetzel, 1994) classified Novelty Seeking, Harm Avoidance, Re-
ward Dependence, and Persistence as temperaments, and Self-
Directedness, Cooperativeness, and Self-Transcendence as
aspects
28. of character. Other theorists assume that temperament provides
the
starting place for personality development, a tabula that is not
quite
rasa. All those personality theorists who nod to "constitutional
factors" (e.g., Kluckhohn & Murray, 1953) adopt some such
position. An appealing version of this constitutional perspective
would distinguish between broad factors, like Extraversion, that
might correspond to basic temperamental influences, and
specific
traits, like sociability or dominance, that might be interpreted as
acquired personality traits.
There is, however, a completely different way to conceptualize
these important distinctions. McAdams (1996) has offered a for-
mulation of the personality system as a whole in terms of three
levels. Personality traits are assigned to Level 1 in McAdams's
scheme, whereas "constructs that are contextualized in time,
place
or role" (p. 301), such as coping strategies, skills, and values,
occupy Level 2. (Level 3 includes life narratives that give unity
and purpose to the self.) A related system has been proposed by
McCrae and Costa (1996, 1999) in a five-factor theory (FFT) of
personality. As shown schematically in Figure 1, the FFT high-
lights the distinction between biologically based basic
tendencies
and culturally conditioned characteristic adaptations (which in-
clude the important subcategory of self-concepts). Basic tenden-
cies comprise abstract potentials and dispositions (including the
traits in McAdams's Level 1), whereas characteristic adaptations
include acquired skills, habits, beliefs, roles, and relationships
(constructs from McAdams's Level 2).
In the terminology of FFT, Cloninger and colleagues (Cloninger
et a l , 1994) would presumably place Novelty Seeking and
29. Harm
Avoidance in the category of basic tendencies, and Self-
Directedness and Cooperativeness in the category of
characteristic
adaptations. The alternative, constitutional view would perhaps
hold that the temperamental basis of personality—including the
five factors listed in Figure 1—is a part of basic tendencies,
whereas personality traits like sociability and dominance are
char-
acteristic adaptations.
According to FFT, however, both broad personality factors and
the specific traits that define them are best understood not as
characteristic adaptations, but rather as endogenous basic
tenden-
cies. FFT has returned, as it were, to Guilford's (Guilford et al.,
1976) view that the attributes measured by personality question-
naires can be identified as temperaments (Costa & McCrae,
in press).
Some readers will be surprised by the claim that the whole
range
of personality traits can be subsumed by temperament. In
support
of that claim, most of the findings summarized in this article are
taken from research on the five-factor model of personality,
which
is intended to provide a comprehensive taxomomy of traits
(Gold-
berg, 1993). It should be noted, however, that the basic ideas
are
Basic
Tendencies
Neurottcism,
31. Personal myths
Figure 1. A model of the personality system according to five-
factor theory, with examples of specific content
in each category and arrows indicating paths of causal
influence. Adapted from "A Five-Factor Theory of
Personality," by R. R. McCrae and P. T. Costa, Jr., 1999, in
Handbook of Personality (2nd ed., p. 142), edited
by L. Pervin and O. P. John, New York: Guilford Press.
SPECIAL SECTION: PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT 175
likely to be applicable to many alternative models as well. For
example, there is evidence of cross-cultural invariance for
three-
and seven-factor models (Benet-Martfnez & Waller, 1997; S. B.
G.
Eysenck, 1983), and the pattern of adult age differences
reported
here can also be seen in California Psychological Inventory
scales
(Gough, 1987; Labouvie-Vief, Diehl, Tarnowski, & Shen, in
press;
Yang, McCrae, & Costa, 1998).
Most readers will probably be startled by the conspicuous ab-
sence in Figure 1 of an arrow from external influences to basic
tendencies. This is not an oversight; FFT deliberately asserts
that
personality traits are endogenous dispositions, influenced not at
all
by the environment. That assertion is, of course, an
oversimplifi-
cation, but we believe it is a heuristically valuable one and a
32. useful
corrective to what Asendorpf and Wilpers (1998) recently called
"the naive environmentalism that has for a long time dominated
the literature on personality development" (p. 1543). In this
arti-
cle we hope to show that FFT provides a useful framework
for understanding child temperament and adult personality
development.
The Roles of the Environment
First, however, we must reassure the reader that environmental
influences play crucial roles in the functioning of the
personality
system in several different respects: They define the conditions
under which human personality evolved; they shape a vast array
of
skills, values, attitudes, and identities; they provide the
concrete
forms in which personality traits are expressed; and they supply
the trait indicators from which personality traits are inferred
and
trait levels are assessed.
At one level, all psychological characteristics must be under-
stood as end results of evolutionary processes by which
organisms
have adapted to their environment (D. M. Buss, 1991).
Evolution-
ary principles are most easily applied to explain characteristics
that
distinguish different species, and their application to the
explana-
tion of individual differences within species is controversial (D.
M.
Buss & Greiling, 1999). Indeed, Tooby and Cosmides (1990)
33. argued that differences among human beings in personality
traits
are best regarded as noise of no evolutionary significance. At a
minimum, however, that implies that personality variations are
compatible with the usual human environment: We know from
their continued presence among us that both introverts and
extra-
verts can survive in the human world.
The environment also operates at a much more direct level. A
recent book on the limited influences of parenting (Harris,
1998)
was greeted with alarm by many psychologists, who interpreted
it
to imply that the way parents treat their children does not matter
(Begley, 1998). In contrast, FFT explicitly recognizes that
The influence of parents on their children is surely incalculable:
they
nourish and protect them, teach them to walk and talk, instill
habits,
aversions, and values, and provide some of the earliest models
for
social interaction and emotional regulation (McCrae & Costa,
1994,
p. 107).
In short, parenting has important long-term consequences for
the
development of characteristic adaptations, including, of course,
the
lifelong relationship between parent and child. Many other
aspects
of the environment are also significant influences on
characteristic
adaptations, including peers (Harris, 1998), the media,
34. educational
systems, and so on. Vocational interests, religious beliefs, food
preferences, tactics of interpersonal manipulation, and group
loy-
alties are some of the products of these influences, and it is
possible to view and study psychological development as the
creation and integration of these characteristic adaptations. This
approach may be particularly appealing in collectivistic
cultures, in
which the individual's evolving place in social networks is of
more
concern than are autonomous features of the individual
(Kagitci-
ba§i, 1996). But important as this form of development may be,
FFT asserts that it is not what personality psychologists get at
when they administer personality questionnaires to assess such
characteristics as assertiveness, curiosity, or shyness.
However, the environment also has a direct relation to person-
ality traits, because characteristic adaptations are always
involved
in their expression. To take a simple example, interpersonal
traits
are most often inferred from communication with others, and
that
normally requires a common acquired language such as English,
Shona, or Hindi. At what is perhaps a more psychologically
meaningful level, trait manifestations must fit within a cultural
context. An expression of sympathy for the deceased could be
insulting in a culture in which the dead are never mentioned by
name; thus, an agreeable person must learn how to be polite in
terms of the culture's rules of etiquette. Even apparently direct
manifestations of personality, such as the chronic anxiety of an
individual high in Neuroticism, are usually contextualized:
Anx-
35. ious Americans worry about computer viruses and the future of
Social Security; anxious Navahos—at least when they were
stud-
ied by Clyde Kluckhohn (1944)—worried about ghosts and
witches (cf. Kitayama & Markus, 1994).
According to FFT, traits cannot be directly observed, but rather
must be inferred from patterns of behavior and experience that
are
known to be valid trait indicators (Tellegen, 1988). Personality
scales rely on these indicators and need to be sensitive to
variations
introduced by culture, age, and other contexts. But although
they
may ask respondents about their values, habits, or concerns,
per-
sonality inventories are designed to allow the inference of
deeper
psychological constructs.
Personality Traits as Endogenous Basic Tendencies
If the environment has such obvious and pervasive effects on
characteristic adaptations and the expression of personality
traits,
why not presume that it also affects traits themselves?
According
to FFT, personality is biologically based, but it is well
established
that perceptual and learning experiences can reshape the
develop-
ing brain (Kolb & Whishaw, 1998), and recent studies suggest
that
traumatic stress may contribute to atrophy in the hippocampus
(Bremner, 1998). Thus, life experience might affect personality
through its effects on the brain (Nelson, 1999). There is cross-
36. sectional evidence that the experience of acculturation can
change
personality profiles (McCrae, Yik, Trapnell, Bond, & Paulhus,
1998), and some longitudinal research has shown that
personality
change is associated with life events (Agrbnick & Duncan,
1998).
All of these findings are useful reminders that the theoretical
generalizations represented in Figure 1 certainly have
exceptions.
However, the generalization that personality traits are more or
less
immune to environmental influences is supported by multiple,
converging lines of empirical evidence that significant
variations
in life experience have little or no effect on measured
personality
176 McCRAE ET AL.
traits. Any one of these lines of evidence is subject to many
alternative interpretations, but taken together, they make a
strong
case for regarding personality traits as fundamentally
temperament-
like. That assumption makes sense of many findings that would
remain puzzling from the perspective of naive
environmentalism.
In the following section, we review some research consistent
with
this premise of FFT.
Heritability of personality. The study of behavior genetics has
37. flourished in the past 20 years, and the results of many twin and
adoption studies have shown remarkable unanimity (Loehlin,
1992): Personality traits have a substantial genetic component,
little or no component that can be attributed to shared environ-
mental effects (e.g., attending the same school or having the
same
parents), and a residual component about which little is yet
known.
Heritability is virtually a sine qua non of biologically based the-
ories of personality, so it is crucial to note that it is not limited
to
Neuroticism and Extraversion, which are often conceded to be
temperamental traits (H. J. Eysenck, 1990). All five factors are
heritable; in fact, some estimates find the strongest evidence of
heritability for Openness to Experience (Loehlin, 1992).
Further, people inherit more than the global dispositions sum-
marized by the five major personality factors; specific traits
such
as self-consciousness, gregariousness, and openness to ideas are
also specifically heritable (Jang, McCrae, Angleitner, Riemann,
&
Livesley, 1998), and in this regard can better be considered
basic
tendencies than characteristic adaptations.
But behavior-genetic studies also speak to the importance of
environmental effects, although what they say is subject to
differ-
ent interpretations. The sheer weight of evidence has by now
convinced most psychologists familiar with that literature that
environmental influences shared by children in the same family
have little or no effect on adult personality (Plomin & Daniels,
1987). If the environment is to have any effect, it must be
through
what is typically labeled the nonshared environment, the set of
38. experiences unique to different children in the same family
(e.g.,
having different first-grade teachers or being a parent's
favorite).
However, this term is not measured directly, but rather it is
calculated as a residual, and as such it includes far more than
experience; in particular, it includes both random error of mea-
surement and systematic method bias. When Riemann,
Angleitner,
and Strelau (1997) reduced method variance by combining self-
reports and observer ratings from two peers, their heritability
estimates for the five factors, ranging from .66 to .79, were
considerably higher than the .50 usually cited. The remaining
21%
to 34% of the variance might include nonshared influences from
the psychological environment, such as peer groups, but it
might
instead reflect wholly biological sources, such as the prenatal
hormonal environment (Resnick, Gottesman, & McGue, 1993),
minor brain damage or infection, or simply the imperfect
operation
of genetic mechanisms. Behavior-genetic studies still allow for
the possibility of some kinds of environmental influences on
traits,
but they do not as yet offer a compelling reason to modify
Figure 1.
Studies of parental influences. Behavior-genetic designs infer
effects indirectly from the phenotypic similarity of people with
different kinds and degrees of relatedness; they do not directly
measure any putative cause of personality traits. There are,
how-
ever, studies that have linked child-rearing behaviors or parent-
child relations to adult personality traits (e.g., Rapee, 1997).
Most
39. of these studies were retrospective, and many found some
associ-
ation. McCrae and Costa (1988), for example, previously
reported
that men and women who recalled their parents as being
especially
loving described themselves as being better adjusted and more
agreeable. Although this appears to provide direct support for
parental influences on personality, there are many alternative
in-
terpretations. Perhaps parents had been more loving because
these
adjusted and agreeable children had been more lovable. Perhaps
the same genes that made the parents loving made the children
adjusted. Perhaps retrospective bias made kind children recall
their
childhood with exaggerated fondness. Despite the possible
opera-
tion of all these artifacts, the observed correlations were only in
the
range from .10 to .30, accounting for at most 10% of the
variance
in adult personality traits (cf. Rapee, 1997).
It is possible that the effects of parenting are more focused,
affecting specific personality traits rather than broad factors.
But
when the 30 facet scales of the Revised NEO Personality
Inventory
(NEO-PI-R; Costa & McCrae, 1992a) were correlated with Lov-
ing/Rejecting, Casual/Demanding, and Attention scales for
father
and for mother, none of the 180 correlations reached .30 (Mdn
r
= .08; McCrae & Costa, 1994).
40. The results of the rare prospective-longitudinal studies are more
informative. In one of the first and best of these, Kagan and
Moss
(1962) examined maternal characteristics during three age
periods
from infancy to age 10 and assessed the child's personality at
ages
19-29. Of 552 relevant correlations, only 35 (6%) reached
statis-
tical significance at thep < .05 level. If parenting has an effect
on
personality, it is subtle indeed (Harris, 1998).
All these findings are consistent with the results of adoption
studies (e.g., Plomin, Corley, Caspi, Fulker, & DeFries, 1998),
which showed that children bear little resemblance to either
their
adoptive parents or their adoptive siblings. Neither parental role
modeling nor the parenting practices that would affect all
children
in a family seem to have much influence on personality traits.
Cross-cultural studies of personality structure. It is possible
that environmental influences relevant to personality
development
lie outside the family, in the broader institutions that are collec-
tively called culture. As a biologically based phenomenon com-
mon to the human species, the fundamental structure of infant
and
child temperament ought to transcend culture, and there is some
evidence that it does (Ahadi, Rothbart, & Ye, 1993). But over
time,
many psychologists would find it reasonable to argue that the
pervasive forces of culture can arbitrarily redefine the
parameters
of personality—indeed, that was a central premise of the school
41. of
culture and personality that flourished in the first half of this
century (Singer, 1961). Some contemporary social scientists
still
find this a plausible argument. Juni (1996) challenged the idea
that
the five-factor model would apply cross-culturally: "Different
cul-
tures and different languages should give rise to other models
that
have little chance of being five in number nor of having any of
the
factors resemble those . . . of middle-class Americans" (p. 864).
However, studies using the Personality Research Form
(Paunonen, Jackson, Trzebinski, & Forsterling, 1992; Stumpf,
1993) and the NEO-PI-R (e.g., Martin et al., 1997; McCrae &
Costa, 1997; McCrae, Costa, del Pilar, Rolland, & Parker, 1998)
have reported clear and detailed replication of the five-factor
model in cultures ranging from Malaysia to Estonia. The traits
that
define the five factors in American samples define the same
factors
around the world. In this respect, the structure of individual dif-
SPECIAL SECTION: PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT 177
ferences appears to be a universal feature of human groups,
rela-
tively impervious to cultural variation.
Some authors have argued that there are additional personality
factors, such as Chinese Tradition (Cheung et al., 1996) and
(Filipino) Temperamentalness (Church, Katigbak, & Reyes,
42. 1998)
that are indigenous to specific cultures. Such culture-based
factors
would constitute evidence against a purely endogenous theory
of
the origins of personality. As yet, however, we know too little
about indigenous factors to understand how to evaluate this evi-
dence. Perhaps they are measurement artifacts or social
attitudes
that should be distinguished from personality traits per se;
perhaps
they really are universal factors that have so far gone unnoticed
in
other cultures. Because of their importance in the nature-nurture
controversy, such proposed factors merit intensive longitudinal,
cross-observer, and behavior-genetic research.
Comparative studies. The five-factor model may be found in
every culture because it is a product of human biology; recent
research on animals suggests that at least some of the five
factors
may also be shared by nonhuman species. Gosling and John
(1998)
asked cat and dog owners to describe their pets, with terms
taken
from the five-factor model or from a list intended to describe
temperament in animals. In both instruments and in both
species,
they found four factors: three corresponding to Neuroticism,
Ex-
traversion, and Agreeableness, and the fourth combining
features
of Openness to Experience and Conscientiousness in a kind of
animal Intellect factor. King and Figueredo (1997) analyzed
zookeeper ratings of chimpanzees and found six factors, which
corresponded to the five-factor model plus a large dominance
43. factor.
It has been known for many years that the five-factor structure
of personality can be approximated even in ratings of strangers
(Passini & Norman, 1966), so it might be suspected that these
ratings of animals were merely projections of implicit
personality
theory. But Gosling and John (1998) could not replicate a five-
factor structure of personality in cats or dogs, even when they
used
Procrustes rotation, suggesting that something other than sheer
implicit personality theory was at work. King and Figueredo
(1997) demonstrated substantial agreement between observers
on
chimpanzee personality ratings—the same kind of evidence that
Norman and Goldberg (1966) had used to rebut the claim that
personality ratings of humans were mere cognitive fictions.
The use of personality ratings in the description of nonhuman
species may seem odd—is it meaningful to assess a dog's effi-
ciency, harshness, or creativity?—but there is by now
substantial
scientific literature on the topic (A. H. Buss, 1997; Gosling,
1998).
It seems much less odd to speak about temperament in animals;
if
traits are temperaments, then the literature on individual differ-
ences in animals can be more easily understood.
Temporal stability of adult personality. Beginning in the
1970s, several independent longitudinal studies (e.g., Block,
1981;
Siegler, George, & Okun, 1979) began to address Ihe stability
of
individual differences in personality traits. Results, with
research-
44. ers using a variety of samples, instruments, and methods of
mea-
surement, showed a consistent pattern of stability. Retest
correla-
tions over 6, 12, or 20 years were not much smaller than short-
term
retest reliabilities; personality in 70-year-olds could be
predicted
with remarkable accuracy from assessments made 30 years
earlier
(Costa & McCrae, 1992b; Finn, 1986).
On the one hand, these findings pointed to the existence of
something in the individual that endured over long periods of
time—a key piece of evidence for the reality of personality
traits.
On the other hand, it cast into doubt the influence of
intervening
events. Over the course of a 30-year study, many participants
would have had major life changes in occupation, marital status,
family stage, physical health, and place of residence. They
would
have shared their cohort's experience of assassinations, wars,
and
recessions; read dozens of books; watched thousands of hours of
television. But the cumulative force of all these external
influences
on personality test scores is barely detectable.
Again, it is possible that life events and experiences affect some
specific traits even if they do not have a major impact on broad
factors. However, in a study of 2,274 men and women traced
from
about age 40 to age 50, retest correlations for the 30 eight-item
NEO-PI-R facet scales were uniformly high, ranging from .64
for
45. Vulnerability to .80 for Assertiveness and Openness to
Aesthetics
(Siegler & Costa, 1999).
The Intrinsic Maturation of Personality
Studies of heritability, limited parental influence, structural in-
variance across cultures and species, and temporal stability all
point to the notion that personality traits are more expressions
of
human biology than products of life experience. Another more
recent line of evidence concerns maturation and personality
change. Here we present the latest findings from a series of
studies
that have examined age differences in the mean levels of
person-
ality traits across cultures. The basic argument is
straightforward:
If personality development reflects environmental influences,
then
groups whose histories have led them through different environ-
ments should show different developmental outcomes. Con-
versely, if personality development proceeds independently of
life
experiences, then similar trends should be seen everywhere.
The data reviewed above on the temporal stability of personality
traits were retest correlations that reflect the consistency of
rank
order across two occasions. High stability of individual
differences
does not mean that personality trait scores are unchanging, only
that people retain their relative standing across any changes that
occur. If the trait score of every individual in a sample
increased
by exactly the same amount over an interval, the retest
46. correlation
would be 1.0, no matter how large or small the increase. The
personality changes of interest here must be examined by
compar-
ing mean levels.
Initial work in studies of adults conducted in the United States
found very modest mean level effects after age 30. For example,
in
a large and representative sample of men and women between
ages 35 and 84, the correlations of age with Neuroticism, Extra-
version, and Openness to Experience were - . 1 2 , —.16, and —
.19,
respectively (Costa et al., 1986). Later comparisons of college
students with older adults showed larger effects, albeit in the
same
direction: Students scored about one-half standard deviation
higher
than adults on Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness to
Expe-
rience (Costa & McCrae, 1994). They also scored consistently
lower than adults on Agreeableness and Conscientiousness.
In themselves, these data are powerfully ambiguous. Perhaps
they represent the effects of intrinsic maturation, but there are
many other possibilities as well. This pattern of maturation may
be
purely American, a response to an educational and economic
178 McCRAE ET AL.
system that encourages an extended adolescence. Or it may
reflect
cohort differences, the effects of coming of age at specific times
47. in
history. Perhaps present-day adolescents are Less conscientious
than their grandparents are because they have grown up in an
era
of affluence, or of easily available drugs, or of rock music.
The usual suggestion for a research design to help untangle such
confounds is the longitudinal study. Because comparisons are
made between the same individuals tested on two (or more)
occasions, birth cohort effects are controlled in longitudinal de-
signs. If increases in Conscientiousness were documented in a
group of college students as they grew into middle adulthood,
that
would provide more direct evidence of a true maturational
effect.
In fact, some studies have reported just such longitudinal
changes
in variables related to Conscientiousness (lessor, 1983; McGue,
Bacon, & Lykken, 1993).
Longitudinal studies take time to conduct, however, and longi-
tudinal studies of Americans tell us nothing directly about age
changes in different cultural and historical contexts. Cross-
sectional studies of age differences conducted in other cultures,
however, provide a simple way to circumvent some limitations
of
both cohort and culture, because different cultures have usually
had differing recent histories.
Consider Turkey and the Czech Republic. Turkey is an Islamic
country, and its citizens speak an Altaic language. Following
the
disintegration of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War L
a new and radically secular society was established, modeled on
the West. Institutions from the alphabet to style of dress were
reformed; most significantly, women were given unprecedented
48. opportunities for education and occupations outside the home.
Turkey was not directly involved in World War II and has pro-
gressed slowly toward multiparty democracy. Throughout the
cen-
tury it has grown in prosperity and urbanization, with a concom-
itant decline in strong kinship systems.
The Czech Republic, a traditionally Christian nation whose
citizens speak a language from the Slavic branch of the Indo-
European family, began the century as part of the Austro-
Hungarian Empire. Between world wars it functioned as a
democ-
racy with a highly industrialized economy. In 1938, Germany
began an occupation of Czechoslovakia that was ended by
Soviet
troops in 1945; Soviet dominance continued thereafter, with na-
tionalization of industry and collectivization of agriculture. At-
tempted reform in 1968 led to a military response from the War-
saw Pact, and political repression continued until the collapse
of
Communist control in 1989.
The life experiences of Turks and Czechs have thus been radi-
cally different in this century, and both have differed from those
of
Americans. If experiences shape personality, then cohorts born
at
the same time in these three countries would presumably differ
in
mean levels. Czech adolescents, for example, who have spent
much of their lives in a democratic society, might be better
adjusted than their politically traumatized parents and grandpar-
ents. In contrast, American adolescents are known to be higher
in
Neuroticism than their parents' generation (Costa & McCrae,
1994).
49. Two previous studies have compared age differences on NEO-
PI-R scale scores across cultures (Costa et al., in press; McCrae
et
al., 1999). In each, data were standardized within culture (to
eliminate translation effects) and means were calculated for the
age groups of 18-21, 22-29, 30-49, and 50+. Data were avail-
able for secondary analysis from Germany, Italy, Portugal,
Croatia, South Korea, Russia, Estonia, and Japan. In four of the
cultures (Italy, Croatia, Russia, and Estonia), there were no sig-
nificant age effects for Neuroticism. In the other four cultures,
Neuroticism was higher in younger respondents—just as it had
been in American studies. Results for the remaining factors are
easily summarized; In every culture, the American pattern was
replicated. Extraversion and Openness to Experience declined
and
Agreeableness and Conscientiousness increased with age in
Ger-
many, Italy, Portugal, Croatia, South Korea, Russia, Estonia,
and
Japan.
Xiu, Wu, Wu, and Shui (1996) examined age differences on a
Chinese version of the short form of the NEO-PI-R, the NEO
Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI; Costa & McCrae, 1992a). In a
sample of 593 men and women between ages 20 and 84, small
but
significant age effects were found for Neuroticism and
Openness
to Experience, which declined with age, and Agreeableness,
which
increased with age. Thus, this study offers a partial replication
of
American effects (see also Yang, McCrae, & Costa, 1998).
50. New Data From Five Cultures
In this article we report analyses of the NEO-FFI administered
in Germany, the United Kingdom, Spain, the Czech Republic,
and
Turkey. The American version was adapted for use in the U.K.,
and translations were made into the other languages and
checked
by review of a back-translation. Internal consistency for the five
12-item scales ranged from .48 (for Agreeableness in the
Turkish
sample) to .85, with a median of .76; in every sample, internal
consistency was lowest for the Agreeableness and Openness to
Experience scales, suggesting that results with these two scales
should be viewed with some caution.
Previous cross-cultural studies using the NEO-PI-R have exam-
ined only adult development, in part because American
normative
data have been published only for college-age and older adults.
The present article includes data from adolescents between ages
14
and 17 from four of the samples. The NEO-FFI has
demonstrated
validity when used in samples of intellectually gifted American
sixth graders (Parker & Stumpf, 1998); internal consistencies in
the four adolescent subsamples studied here ranged from .57 to
.86, with a median of .75, values which are comparable to those
seen in adults.
Data were originally collected for a variety of purposes, and as
Table 1 shows, the distribution by age group is not optimal in
several instances. Nevertheless, there appear to be sufficient
cases
in most age groups to make secondary analyses worthwhile. The
German sample consists of mono- and dizygotic twins, on whom
51. both self-reports and mean peer ratings of personality are
available
(Riemann et al., 1997). These respondents are part of a large
German sample whose full NEO-PI-R scale scores were previ-
ously analyzed (McCrae et al., 1999). They are included here
not
as an independent replication, but rather as a check on the
consis-
tency of results from the long and short versions of the NEO-PI-
R.
Data from the U.K. were obtained in three studies that involved
adolescent school children, their parents, and university
students.
An effort was made to include respondents from all
occupational
groups; most respondents were from the southern part of the
U.K.
The Turkish sample consisted of adolescents from many regions
in
Turkey that attended a summer camp, and families in the city of
SPECIAL SECTION: PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT 179
Table 1
Composition of the Samples by Age Group and Gender
Sample
German
British
Spanish
Czech
Turkish
55. were both recruited by undergraduate psychology students who
invited friends, relatives, and partners to join the study. None of
these samples is either random or nationally representative, but
it
seems unlikely that they share any systematic sampling bias that
might explain common age trends.
As in previous studies, T scores were computed within each
culture using means and standard deviations from the adults
over
age 21 (following the American convention). The only
meaningful
comparisons are thus among age groups within each culture.
Analyses of variance (ANOVAs) with age group and gender as
classifying variables showed generally similar patterns in men
and
women: Of the 25 ANOVAs, only 5 showed significant
interaction
terms, with no pattern replicated across cultures. Four of the
interactions were quite small, accounting for less than 2% of the
variance. A somewhat larger effect was seen for Openness to
Experience in the Turkish sample, in which age differences
were
found only in women.
Results for the total sample are summarized in Figures 2 - 6 .
The
ANOVAs confirm that there are significant cross-sectional de-
clines in Neuroticism and Extraversion and increases in Consci-
entiousness in all five samples. There are significant increases
in
Agreeableness in the German, Czech, and Turkish samples, but
these trends do not reach significance in the British and Spanish
samples. The hypothesized decline in Openness to Experience is
seen clearly in the Spanish sample, and is significant in the
56. Czech
and Turkish samples. In contrast, German and British samples
show significantly lower levels of Openness to Experience in
the
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6 0 -
5 5 -
5 0 -
4 5 -
O 40H
57. 35
] 14-17 | | 18-21 f ^ | 22-29
•M 30-49 ^ 5 0 +
German British Spanish Czech Turkish
Figure 2. Mean levels of Neuroticism in five cultures. T scores
are based on the mean and standard deviation
of all respondents over age 21 within each culture. Error bars
represent standard errors of the means.
180 McCRAE ET AL
s
o
o
K JS
c
re
35
German British Spanish Czech Turkish
Figure 3. Mean levels of Extraversion in five cultures. T scores
are based on the mean and standard deviation
of all respondents over age 21 within each culture. Error bars
represent standard errors of the means.
65 -|
58. 2!
o
o
w
c
CO
Q 14-17 | | 18-21 ^ 22-29
fe:1 30-49 ^ 5 0 +
German British Spanish Czech Turkish
Figure 4. Mean levels of Openness to Experience in five
cultures. T scores are based on the mean and standard
deviation of all respondents over age 21 within each culture.
Error bars represent standard errors of the means.
SPECIAL SECTION: PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT 181
o
o
C/)
c
ro
German British Spanish Czech Turkish
Figure 5. Mean levels of Agreeableness in five cultures. r scores
are based on the mean and standard deviation
of all respondents over age 21 within each culture. Age groups
do not differ significantly in the British and
59. Spanish samples. Error bars represent standard errors of the
means.
youngest group than in the group of 18- to 21-year-olds. (The
same
pattern was seen when mean peer ratings were examined in the
German sample.) It is not clear whether this reflects a true de-
velopmental trend, a sampling bias, or some culture-specific
phenomenon.
Although the pattern of results across these samples conforms
very closely to hypotheses, it is important to recall that most of
the
effects are quite small in magnitude. Across cultures, the
median
correlations of age with Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to
Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness scales are
- . 1 7 , - . 2 1 , - . 0 8 , .09, and .23, respectively. Thus,
previous
reviews of the literature that concluded that mean levels of per-
sonality traits are generally stable in adulthood (McCrae &
Costa,
1990) are only modestly qualified by the present findings.
To date, most information on adult age differences in personal-
ity has been based on analyses of self-reports. Comparison of
peer
ratings of college-age men (Costa, McCrae, & Dembroski,
1989)
with older adult men (see Costa & McCrae, 1989) on the
original
NEO Personality Inventory showed significant effects in the ex-
pected direction for all five domains, which were substantial in
magnitude (greater than one-half standard deviation) for
Neuroti-
cism and Conscientiousness. However, in the German sample
60. examined here, mean peer ratings showed significant
correlations
with age only for Neuroticism (-.05), Agreeableness (.06), and
Conscientiousness (.21). Research using the full NEO-PI-R in
other cultures would be helpful in clarifying the nature and
extent
of age differences and changes in observer-rated personality
traits.
The NEO-FFI used in the present study does not assess specific
facets of the five factors. Earlier research, however, has shown
that
individual facet scales of the NEO-PI-R show distinctive age
trends across cultures. For example, the Excitement-Seeking
facet
of Extroversion declined markedly in nine out of nine cultures,
whereas the Assertiveness facet showed significant (and small)
declines in only four of them. Additional analyses on the
specific
variance in facet scales (net of the five factors) also showed
generalizable, albeit very small, effects (Costa et ah, in press).
Intrinsic Maturation and Adult Temperament
The data in Figures 2-6 are largely consistent with earlier
observations that the same pattern of age differences in
personality
traits can be seen across different cultures with different recent
histories. There appear to be three possible explanations for this
phenomenon. The first is that age differences are cohort effects,
reflecting the influence of historical forces common to all these
cultures, such as the rise of the mass media or the near-
universal
improvement in health care. Although this possibility cannot be
excluded, it would seem to be a remarkable coincidence that
61. common historical forces affect all five factors, whereas
historical
experiences unique to each culture affect none of the factors
enough to reverse the usual pattern.
One way to test this hypothesis would be to assess the effect
within cultures of variables that might plausibly account for
com-
mon cohort differences. For example, higher levels of Openness
to
Experience in younger cohorts might be due to increasing levels
of
formal education over the course of this century in most
cultures.
If so, covarying years of education would reduce or eliminate
age
differences in Openness to Experience. We tested that
hypothesis
182 McCRAE ET AL.
65-i
a>
ou
c
(0
German British Spanish Czech Turkish
Figure 6. Mean levels of Conscientiousness in five cultures. T
scores are based on the mean and standard
deviation of all respondents over age 21 within each culture.
Error bars represent standard errors of the means.
62. in the Spanish, German, and Turkish samples, in which data on
education were available, but found that significant age
differences
in Openness to Experience remained.
A second possibility is that societies everywhere (or perhaps
modern industrial societies everywhere) spontaneously develop
parallel institutions that encourage the same trends in
personality
development. Adult responsibilities may make adults more
respon-
sible; caring for children may make them more caring. This pos-
sibility cannot be easily dismissed, but it is not yet proven.
Even if
there is an association between age-role demands and
personality
traits, it is possible that the causal order is reversed, and that
social
norms have been crafted to accommodate intrinsic maturational
trends in personality. This is quite clear in the case of laws
defining
a minimum age for driving, voting, and drinking.
A third possibility is that there are natural progressions of
personality development that occur without regard to cultural
and
historical context. Just as children leara to talk, count, and
reason
in a fixed order and time course, so too may adults become
more
agreeable and less extraverted as a natural consequence of
aging.
This notion of intrinsic maturation is consistent with the other
lines
of evidence—heritability, stability, and cross-cultural univer-
63. sality—that point to the interpretation of traits as endogenous
basic
tendencies.
It is also supported more directly by behavior-genetic and
comparative evidence on age changes in personality. Changes in
personality traits between adolescence and young adulthood
have
been shown to be modestly to moderately heritable (McGue et a
l ,
1993), and developmental trends in chimpanzees (King, Landau,
& Guggenheim, 1998) and rhesus monkeys (Suomi, Novak, &
Well, 1996) have shown some intriguing parallels to adult
human
development.
Whether age grading in the social structure shapes personality
development or vice-versa—or whether both processes are at
work—cannot be determined from available data. Future
research
might test these alternative hypotheses in third-world nations
where adult responsibilities are assumed at an earlier age or
among
people with different relevant life experiences, such as
.parenting.
But viewing personality as temperament at least has the virtue
of
making intrinsic maturation a plausible hypothesis that merits
testing.
Linking Child Temperament and Adult Personality
The intent of the whole preceding argument was to demonstrate
that if by temperament we mean biologically based
psychological
64. tendencies with intrinsic paths of development, then standard
personality inventories assess temperament, and traits such as
aesthetic sensitivity, achievement striving, and modesty are as
much temperaments as are activity level and behavioral
inhibition.
From this perspective it is perhaps not surprising that when
Ang-
leitner and Ostendorf (1994) factored adult temperament
measures
(A. H. Buss & Plomin, 1975; Strelau, Angleitner, Bantelmann,
&
Ruth, 1990) along with other markers they found the familiar
structure of the five-factor model.
SPECIAL SECTION: PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT 183
But if the individual differences identified by temperament
researchers and personality trait psychologists are much the
same,
the goals and methods of these two research traditions are not.
Researchers within the temperament tradition often emphasize
basic processes and mechanisms. Ahadi and Rothbart (1994),
for
example, have examined psychological systems such as
Approach
and Effortful Control, and Strelau and colleagues (Strelau et al.,
1990) have developed a set of constructs based on hypothesized
Pavlovian properties of the central nervous system. In contrast,
trait psychologists more often focus on outcomes and other
corre-
lates of traits. For example, Barrick and Mount (1991) showed
that
Conscientiousness is associated with superior job performance.
By
65. identifying personality traits with temperaments, researchers
may
begin to integrate these different emphases on causes and
effects
and come to a better understanding of both the origins and the
expressions of basic tendencies (Costa & McCrae, in press).
The Structure and Stability of Individual Differences
It cannot be assumed that the adult structure of temperament
will appear in analyses of temperament variables in children,
but
there is evidence that something similar to the five factors can
be
found in adult ratings of school children (Digman & Shmelyov,
1996; Kohnstamm, Halverson, Mervielde, & Havill, 1998) and
in
self-reports from children as young as 5 years old (Measelle &
John, 1997). Ahadi and Rothbart (1994) have offered conceptual
analyses that link child temperament constructs to adult
personal-
ity factors: Approach to Extraversion, Anxiety to Neuroticism,
and
Effortful Control to Conscientiousness and Agreeableness.
Classic
efforts at understanding infant temperament (Thomas, Chess, &
Birch, 1968) were not informed by the five-factor model; if
inves-
tigators looked for these factors, they might find them even in
neonates, just as they have been found in nonhuman animals
(King
& Figueredo, 1997).
Even if identical factors were found in infants and adults, it
would not imply that infant temperament is a good predictor of
adult personality. Reviews of the longitudinal literature have re-
66. ported that temperament variables in fact show limited stability
across relatively short intervals, especially among infants (e.g.,
Lemery, Goldsmith, Klinnert, & Mrazek, 1999), and very
modest
prediction of adult traits (Wachs, 1994). Block (1993), for
exam-
ple, examined retest correlations for ego undercontrol and ego
resiliency at age 3 and age 23 in boys and girls; only one of
these
four correlations reached significance (although all were
positive).
In a recent review of the longitudinal attachment literature,
Fraley
(1998) reported an average correlation of .19 between
attachment
at age 1 and age 19. Kagan and Zentner (1996) found only
modest
associations between characteristics of early childhood and
adult
psy chopathology.
Even modest associations can be meaningful if the outcomes are
socially significant. Caspi and colleagues (Caspi, Elder, & Her-
bener, 1990) have shown that childhood personality traits
(includ-
ing shyness and ill-temperedness) can predict important life
out-
comes such as delayed marriage and downward mobility.
Undercontrol at age 3 predicts health-risk behaviors in young
adults through the mediation of personality traits in adolescence
(Caspi et al., 1997).
With shorter intervals and older children, stronger associations
are found. For example, ego control showed a retest correlation
of
67. .70 between age 3 and age 4, and .67 between age 14 and age 23
(Block, 1993). Siegler and colleagues (Siegler et al., 1990) esti-
mated that half of the variance in personality dimensions is
stable
from late adolescence to middle adulthood, and Helson and
Moane
(1987) reported greater stability between age 27 and age 43 (a
16-year interval) than between age 21 and age 27 (a 6-year
interval). When adults initially over age 30 are studied, uncor-
rected retest coefficients near .70 are not uncommon over 30-
year
periods (Costa & McCrae, 1992b).
One very general principle of life span personality development
thus appears to be that the stability of individual differences
over
a fixed time interval increases steadily from infancy up to at
least
age 30. Environmentalists might assume that this phenomenon
is
attributable to the accumulation of life experiences: Any single
new experience should affect more change when it occurs in the
context of the limited experience of early life than when it com-
petes with a lifetime of other experiences.
In contrast, FFT suggests another answer: Endogenous disposi-
tions develop over time in ways that redistribute rank orderings.
The functioning of genes, after all, is not fixed at birth; they
switch
on and off across the life span and contribute to individual
patterns
of aging. The brain itself continues to grow and develop until at
least the mid-20s (Pujol, Vendrell, Junque", Marti-Vilalta, &
Cap-
devila, 1993), so it is hardly surprising that personality traits
would
68. also change in this period.
Developmental Trends for Five Factors
At the aggregate level, it is possible to describe general devel-
opmental trends for the five factors (and the specific traits that
define them; see McCrae et al., 1999). From age 18 to age 30
there
are declines in Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness to
Expe-
rience, and increases in Agreeableness and Conscientiousness;
after age 30 the same trends are found, although the rate of
change
seems to decrease.
In this article we presented some of the first data tracing the
five
factors backward from age 18, with German, British, Czech, and
Turkish samples. For the most part, high-school-age boys and
girls
appeared to continue the same trends: They were even higher in
Neuroticism and Extraversion and lower in Agreeableness and
Conscientiousness than were college-age students. No clear
trend
could be discerned for Openness to Experience, as lower instead
of
higher scores were found in the German and British samples.
The present data do support the use of instruments like the
NEO-FFI in younger adolescents, and it would be a relatively
simple matter to conduct cross-sectional studies on
representative
samples of this age group. Research with even younger samples
is
possible, but would require new instruments. Measelle and John
(1997), for example, used a puppet interview to assess
69. personality
in young children and reported increases in Conscientiousness
between ages 5 and 7. Calibrating puppet interviews and NEO-
FFIs would be difficult, so it is likely that developmental trends
will have to be pieced together from studies of overlapping seg-
ments of childhood.
What could account for these developmental trends? Evolution-
ary arguments might be offered. High levels of Extraversion and
Openness to Experience might be useful in finding a mate,
whereas
higher Agreeableness and Conscientiousness might be more im-
portant for raising a family. Comparative studies of personality
184 McCRAE ET AL.
development in other primates (King et al., 1998) with different
patterns of mating and child rearing might be used to test such
evolutionary hypotheses.
The Development of Characteristic Adaptations
Finally, it is worth recalling that FFT postulates developments
on two separate tracks: Basic tendencies follow a pattern of in-
trinsic maturation, whereas characteristic adaptations respond to
the opportunities and incentives of the social environment. To
the
extent that the theory is correct, psychologists, educators, and
parents will have relatively little impact on the long-term devel-
opment of personality traits, but they can have an influence on
characteristic adaptations (cf. Harkness & Lilienfeld, 1997).
Traits
can be channeled even if they cannot be changed. What kinds of
habits, skills, beliefs, and social networks are optimal for shy or
70. ill-tempered children? These are likely to be the most
productive
questions for those concerned about shaping human
development.
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