Asymmetry in the atmosphere of the ultra-hot Jupiter WASP-76 b
2 -C8f4.pptx
1. Cell division can be divided into two stage….
a) nuclear division
b) cytoplasmic division
mitosis
meiosis
cytokinesis
2. The significance of mitosis
• The number of chromosomes present in
the nucleus of each cell is constant for the
the species concerned.
• The two daughter cells produced by
mitosis are genetically identical to each
other and two the parent cell.
6. INTERPHASE (G1)
• Synthesis of proteins & cytoplasmic
organelles (mitochondrion & chloroplast)
• High in metabolic rate.
• Chromosomes are not condensed &
appear as thread-like structure
(Chromatin)
7. INTERPHASE (S)
• Synthesis & replication of DNA
• Each duplicated chromosome are called
sister chromatids.
8. INTERPHASE (G2)
• The cell continues grow & remain the
active metabolic rate.
• The cell accumulates energy for mitosis
process.
16. PROPHASE
• Chromatin in the nucleus
begins to condense and
becomes visible in the
light microscope as
chromosomes.
• The nucleolus
disappears. Centrioles
begin moving to opposite
ends of the cell and fibers
extend from the
centromeres.
• Some fibers cross the cell
to form the mitotic
spindle.
1) Chromosome
- Condense
- Tightly coiled
- Shorter & thicker
- Visible under the light microscope
2) Spindle Fibres:
- Begin to form & extend
3) Centrioles:
- Migrates to opposite poles
- The chromatids are attached at centromeres.
4) The nucleolus disappears & nuclear
membrane disintegrates.
18. METAPHASE
• Proteins attach to the centromeres
creating the kinetochores.
Microtubules attach at the
kinetochores and the
chromosomes begin moving.
• Spindle fibers align the
chromosomes along the middle of
the cell nucleus. This line is
referred to as the metaphase plate.
This organization helps to ensure
that in the next phase, when the
chromosomes are separated, each
new nucleus will receive one copy
of each chromosome.
1) Chromosome
- Lined up on the metaphase plate.
2) Spindle Fibres:
- Fully formed.
3) Centrioles:
- At opposite poles.
- The chromatids are attached
at centromeres.
20. ANAPHASE
• The paired chromosomes
separate at the
kinetochores and move to
opposite sides of the cell.
Motion results from a
combination of
kinetochore movement
along the spindle
microtubules and through
the physical interaction of
polar microtubules.
1) Chromosome
- 2 sister chromatids separate at centromere
- Once separated, the chromatids are called
daughter chromosomes
2) Spindle Fibres:
- Become shorter and pull the sister chromatids
22. TELOPHASE
• Chromatids arrive at
opposite poles of cell,
and new membranes
form around the daughter
nuclei. The
chromosomes disperse
and are no longer visible
under the light
microscope. The spindle
fibers disperse, and
cytokinesis or the
partitioning of the cell
may also begin during
this stage
1) Chromosome
- 2 sets of chromosomes reach at opposite poles.
- Start to uncoil.
- Less visible under microscope.
2) Spindle Fibres:
- Disappears.
3) The nucleolus & nuclear membrane are reform.
39. CYTOKINESIS (ANIMAL CELL)
• By the formation of
CLEAVAGE
FURROW. A fiber
ring composed of a
protein called actin
around the center of
the cell contracts
pinching the cell into
two daughter cells,
each with one
nucleus.
40. CYTOKINESIS (PLANT CELL)
- By the formation
of CELL PLATE.
The rigid wall
synthesised
between the two
daughter cells and
grows outwards
until its edge.
42. A
B
C
Somatic Cell
Transfer of nucleus
from a somatic cell
Ovum cell
with the
nucleus
remove
Implantation of
the embryo into
the surrogate
mothers
The surrogate mothers
give birth baby same
genetic as A
Electric Shock
Cloning process
43. Advantages
Cloning
1.Many clones
2.Not Involve pollination
3.Good genetic material can
be passed to the off spring
Disadvantages
1.No genetic variation
2.Avoid natural selection
3.High risk mutation
4.Clones have same immunity
45. MEIOSIS
• All individuals of the same
species have the same
chromosomal number.
• In order for the offspring to
have the same
chromosomal number as
their parents, the cell must
undergo meiosis.
46. MEIOSIS
• Meiosis is the process of
nuclear division.
• It reduces the number of
chromosomes in new cell to
half the number of
chromosome in the parent
cell.
47. MEIOSIS
• Meiosis ensures that
the diploid number of
chromosomes is
maintained from one
generation to the
next.
49. Meiosis occur
ii. At testis
iii. At anther
i. At ovary
Importance of meiosis :
i. Produce ovum
ii. Produce sperm
iii. Produce pollen
Crossing over between
homologous chromosome
50. ONE parent cell
will produce
mpat daughter cells.
The number of chromosome
In daughter cells are
eparuh(half) from parent cell.
51. MEIOSIS
The type of cell that undergoes meiosis in human,
animals & plants
Human/Animals Plants
Cell
♂ ♀ ♂ ♀
sperm ovum pollen ovule
Organ testes ovaries anthers ovaries
52. MEIOSIS I : Prophase I
• The chromosomes begin to
condense.
• They become shorter, thicker and
clearly visible.
• The homologous chromosomes come
together to form bivalents through a
process called synapsis.
53.
54. MEIOSIS I : Prophase I
• Each bivalent is
visible under the
microscope as a four-
part structure called a
tetrad.
• A tetrad consists of
two homologous
chromosomes, each
made up of two sister
chromatids.
SYNAPSIS
TETRAD
55. MEIOSIS I : Prophase I
• Non- sister
chromatids exchange
segments of DNA in a
process known as
crossing over.
• The points at which
segments of
chromatids cross over
are called chiasmata
(plural)
CROSSING OVER
CHIASMA
56. MEIOSIS I : Prophase I
• Crossing over
results in a new
combination of
genes on a
chromosome.
New combination
of genes
57.
58. MEIOSIS I : Metaphase I
• The homologous chromosomes are lined
up side by side as tetrads on the
metaphase plate.
• The centromere does not divide.
59.
60. MEIOSIS I : Anaphase I
• The spindle fibres pull the homologous
chromosomes away from one another and
move them to the opposites poles of the
cell.
61.
62. MEIOSIS I : Telophase I
• The chromosomes arrive at the poles.
• Cytokinesis occurs .
• The spindle fibres disappear.
• The nuclear membrane reappears to
surround each set of chromosomes which is
haploid.
63.
64. MEIOSIS II : Prophase II
• The nuclear membranes of the daughter
cells disintegrate again.
• The spindle fibres re-form in each
daughter cell.
65.
66. MEIOSIS II : Metaphase II
• The chromosomes are lined up
randomly on the metaphase plate with
the sister chromatids of each
chromosome pointing towards the
opposite poles.
67.
68. MEIOSIS II : Anaphase II
• The centromere of the sister chromatids
finally separated.
• The sister chromatids of each
chromosome are now individual
chromosomes.
• The chromosomes move towards the
opposite poles of the cell.
69.
70. MEIOSIS II : Telophase II
• The nucleoli and nuclear membranes
re-form.
• Cytokinesis follows and formed four
haploid daughter cell.
• These haploid cells will develop into
gametes.
78. Crossing over
Numbers of daughter
Numbers of chromosome
in the daughter cells
Genetic contains of
daughter cells
Genetic variation
Occur at the end
of prophase
Not occur
4
Haploid (n)
Different from
parent cell
Has variation
genetic
2
Diploid (2n)
Same as
parent cells
No variation
79. COMPARE AND CONTRAST
MEIOSIS I & MEIOSIS II
Meiosis I Phase Meiosis II
Replication of
chromosomes Early
Prophase
No replication of
chromosomes
Synapsis between
homologous
chromosomes
No synapsis
80. COMPARE AND CONTRAST MEIOSIS I &
MEIOSIS II
Meiosis I Phase Meiosis II
Chromosomes seen as
tetrad (4 chromatid)
which are attach at
chiasmata
End
prophase
Chromosomes
seen as two
chromatid tied by
centromere
2n chromosomes n chromosomes
81. Meiosis I Phase Meiosis II
Tetrad are lined up on the
metaphase plate
Metaphase Individual
chromosome
( two chromatids )
lined up on the
metaphase plate
Chromosomes
homologous are pulled
away from one another
and move to the opposite
poles of the cell
Anaphase Chromatids are
separated at the
centromere and
moved to the
opposite poles
82. Meiosis I Phase Meiosis II
Only one cytokinesis
occur Telophase
Two cytokinesis
occur
Two non-identical
nucleus/cells are formed
Four non- identical
nucleus/cells are
formed
84. Definition
• Nutrition refers to the process by
which organisms obtain energy and
nutrients from food, for growth,
maintenance and repair of damaged
tissues.
• Nutrients are the substances
required for the nourishment of an
organism
86. Autotrophs
• This group of organism synthesize
complex organic compounds from raw,
simple inorganic substances
• They are able to make their own food,
either by photosynthesis or by
chemosynthesis.
87. Photosynthesis
• Photos : light
• Process through which green plants
produce organic molecules from carbon
dioxide and water using light as a source
of energy
• These green plants are called
photoautotroph.
88. Chemosynthesis
• Chemo : chemical
• Process by which certain types of bacteria
synthesize organic compounds using
energy obtain from oxidized inorganic
substances such as hydrogen sulphide and
ammonia
89. Heterotrophs
• Heteros : other
• Are organisms that cannot synthesise their own
nutrients
• This organism obtains energy through the intake
and digestion of organic substances, normally
plant and animal tissues.
• This type of nutrition is called heterotrophic
nutrition
• May practice holozoic nutrition, saprophytism or
parasitism
90. Holozoic nutrition
• Holo : like ; Zoon : animal
• Holozoic animals feed on solid organic
material which is then digested and
absorbed into their bodies.
• They can be split into
1. Herbivors – plant eaters
2. Carnivores – animal eaters
3. Omnivores – both plant and animal
eaters
91. Saprophytism
• Saprophytes feed on dead and decaying
organic matter.
• These organisms release digestive
enzymes to digest the food externally
before the nutrients are absorbed.
• Saprophytes are very important because
they act as the decomposers allowing
nutrients to be recycled.
92. Parasitism
• A parasite is an organism which obtains
food material from living body of another
organism, called the host.
• The parasite absorbs readily digested food
from its host.
• Examples of parasites include fleas and
lice, and the tapeworms (2) which infest
the human alimentary canal.
94. Factors that affect total calories
required by an individual
• Sex :
– Man need ………energy than women
because the metabolic rate in ………is higher
than ………….
• Body size :
– A big-sized person need ………energy than
small-sized person because the rate of heat
loss is higher in smaller-sized person.
95. • Physical activity/Occupation :
– A person who is very active and does heavy
work needs ……energy than a person who is
moderately active.
• Pregnancy and lactation:
– Pregnant women needs ………..energy to
support the growing foetuses.
– Breast-feeding mothers need …………..energy
to produce milk for their ……………….
96. • Surrounding temperature/Climate :
– People who lives in cold climate need ………energy
than people in hot climate because to maintain their
body ……………….
• Age :
– Growing children and teenagers need ………energy
than adult.
97. Daily energy requirement
• The energy content of a particular type of food
can be determined by burning as known mass
of the food in presence of oxygen in a bomb
calorimeter.
• The unit of energy value is
joule per gram (J g-1)
98. Calculation
The energy value is calculated using the following formula
Energy value = mass of water (g) x specific latent heat of water (J g-1 oC-1) x difference of temperature (oC)
mass of food (g)
• 4.2 joules of energy are needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water
by 1oC
99. VITAMINS
2 groups:
(i) Water-soluble
- Cannot be stored in the body.
- Have to be supplied in daily diet.
(ii) Fat-soluble (ADEK)
- Can be stored in the body (in fat).
- Are dangerous if too much stored in the body.
100. Functions and Sources of Roughage
Roughage (dietary fibre) refers to the indigestible
fibrous material (cellulose) that are present in our diet.
Roughage is important in helping the process of
peristalsis.
Taking enough fibre and drinking sufficient water can
prevent constipation.
Good sources of fibre include fruits and vegetables,
cereals and wholegrain bread.
101. Functions of Water in the body
Function of water:
Medium for various chemical reactions
Component of blood, lubricants in our joints and
digestive juices.
Transporting agent – for digested food, excretory
products, hormones.
Regulates body temperature.
Solvent for inorganic salts and organic compounds.
102. MALNUTRITION
• Malnutrition is a result of dietary condition when a
person eats less, more or wrong proportions than
the body requires.
103. Effect of deficiency
Classes of
food
Effect of
deficiency
Symptoms
Protein Kwashiorkor,
marasmus
Very thin and Distended
stomach.
Calcium Osteoporosis Porous bones.
Vitamin C Scurvy Swollen, bleeding gums, tooth
loss.
Ferum/iron Anaemia Pale and weak body.
Vitamin D,
calcium and
phosphorus
Rickets Soften and weak bones in
children.
104. Effects of excessive food intake
Classes of food Health problem Symptoms
Carbohydrates
and lipids
Obesity Fat body
Sugar Diabetes
mellitus
Blood glucose
level raise
106. Complex substances that need to be digested:
CARBOHYDRATES
PROTEIN
LIPIDS
All these complex organic molecules are too large to
pass through plasma membranes and enter body
cells. Therefore, they have to be broken down into
simpler and soluble molecules that are small enough
to be absorb by the cells. This process is called
DIGESTION.
107. Recall Activity
Substance End Products
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
G, F, Gal
Amino acids
Fatty acids and
Glycerol
112. Location Glands/
organs
Digestion
juice
Substrates & Products pH
SMALL
INTESTINAL
Intestinal
juice -Peptides amino
acids
-maltose glucose
-Sucrose g + f
-Lactose g + gal
Alkaline
peptidase/Erepsin
maltase
sucrase
lactase
113. HYDROCHLORIC
ACID
• To provide acidic medium (pH 2.0)
- optimal for the action of the
stomach enzyme.
• To kill microorganisms.
• To stop the activity of salivary amylase.
BILE ~Emulsion of lipids/fats.
~To break lipids into small droplets.
Other substances that aid the process of digestion:
118. Digestion of cellulose in
Ruminants & Rodents
CELLULOSE SUGAR
Bacteria & Protozoa
Cellulase
RUMINANTS
IN RUMEN
CELLULOSE SUGAR
Bacteria & Protozoa
Cellulase
RODENTS
IN CAECUM
119. Compare and contrast
Human Rodent
Ruminant
SIMILARITY
• Enzymes are needed
• Digestion occurred in alimentary canal
120. Ruminant Rodent
Human
CONTRAST
1.Without cellulase
enzyme
2. Omnivores
3. True Stomach
1. Mutualism with
Microorganisms
which can produce
cellulase enzyme
2. Herbivores
3. Abomasums
1. Mutualism with
microorganisms
which can produce
cellulase enzyme
2. Herbivores
3. True stomach
121. Junk food
(Low in nutritional value)
High salt High sugar High fat
Unhealthy Diet
Effects of a defective digestive system on health
Such as
High blood pressure
- Diabetes
- arteriosclerosis
-Obesity
- arteriosclerosis
- Heart diseases
effect effects effects
123. Elements required by plants
Macronutrients Micronutrients
Elements needed in
large quantities
Elements needed in smaller
or trace amount
- Nitrogen (N)
- Phosphorus (P)
- Potassium (K)
- Calcium (Ca)
- Magnesium (Mg)
- Sulphur (S)
- Boron (B)
- Copper (Cu)
- Ferum (Fe)
- Manganese (Mn)
- Molybdenum (Mo)
- Zinc (Zn)
Definition Definition
Examples Examples
124. The functions of other macronutrients
Macronutrients Functions
Phosphorus Synthesis of nucleic acids, adenosine
triphosphates (ATP) and phospholipids of
plasma membranes. Acts as a coenzyme in
photosynthesis and respiration.
Potassium Protein synthesis, carbohydrate
metabolism and as a cofactors for many
enzymes. Maintains turgidity in plants.
Calcium A major constituent of the middle lamella of
cell walls. Formations of spindle fibers
during cell divisions.
Magnesium The main structural components of
chlorophyll. Activates many plant enzymes.
Involved in carbohydrate metabolism.
sulphur A components of certain amino acids, a
constituent of vitamin B and some
coenzymes.
125. The effects of deficiency of other macronutrients
Macronutrients Effects of deficiency
Phosphorus Poor root growth and formation of dull,
dark green leaves. Red or purple spots
on old leaves.
Potassium Reduced protein synthesis, yellow-
edged leaves and premature death of
plants.
Calcium Stunted growth, leaves become distorted
and cupped, areas between leaf veins
become yellow.
Magnesium Yellowing in the regions between the
veins of mature leaves. Red spots on
leaf surface, leaves become cupped.
sulphur General yellowing of the affected leaves
or the entire plant.
126. The functions of other micronutrients
Micronutrient Functions
Boron Aids in Calcium ions uptake by roots and
translocation of sugars. Involved in
carbohydrate metabolism and aids in the
germination of pollen grains. Required for
normal mitotic division in the meristems
and act as a cofactor in chlorophyll
synthesis.
copper An important component of enzymes.
Involved in nitrogen metabolism and
photosynthesis. Important for reproductive
growth and flower formation in plants.
Ferum A cofactor in the synthesis of chlorophyll.
Essential for young growing parts of plants.
Manganese An activator of enzymes in photosynthesis,
respiration and also nitrogen metabolism.
127. The functions of other micronutrients
Molybdenum involved in nitrogen fixation and
reduction of nitrates during protein
synthesis.
Zinc Formation of leaves, synthesis of
auxin (growth hormone ) and a
cofactor in carbohydrate metabolism.
128. The effects of deficiency of other micronutrients
Micronutrient Functions
Boron Death of terminal buds and abnormal plant
growth. Leaves become thick, curled and
brittle.
copper Death of tips of young shoots, brown spots
appear on terminal leaves. Plants become
stunted.
Ferum Yellowing of young leaves
Manganese A network of green veins on a light green
background. Brown or grey spots between
the veins.
129. The effects of deficiency of other micronutrients
Molybdenum Sclerosis in the areas between the
veins of mature leaves. Pale green
leaves. Reduction in crop yield.
Zinc Mottled leaves with irregular areas
of chlorosis and retarded growth.
131. PHOTOSYNTHESIS
A brief history of the discovery of photosynthesis
Jean Baptisle Van
Helmount ( 1640)
The plant had grown mainly from the water
which was added regularly and not the soil
Joseph Priestly (1772) The green plants could restive oxygen
Jen Ingenhousz The importance of sunlight and chlorophyll
in photosynthesis
Jean Senebier (1780) Carbon Dioxide was taken by plants during
photosynthesis
Robert Mayer (1845) Plants convert solar energy into chemical
energy during photosynthesis
Robert Hill (1937) Chloroplasts produce oxygen by splitting
water molecules in the absence of carbon
dioxide
132. Plants require water (from
the soil) and carbon
dioxide (from the air) to
synthesis food in the
presence of light energy
They also concluded that
plants synthesis
carbohydrates (glucose)
and release oxygen during
photosynthesis.
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
H2O
H2O
H2O
133. Structure Function
Leaf mosaic Enable leaves to receive as much light
as possible.
Lamina
(flat, thin)
Has a large surface area to trap
sunlight.
Easy for light to penetrate.
Allows diffusion of photosynthesis
gases.
LEAF STRUCTURE & FUNCTION
134. Structure Function
Xylem Transport water from roots to the
leaf.
Phloem Transport organic products of
photosynthesis away from the
leaf.
Epidermis
-Cuticle
(waterproof layer)
Prevent excessive water loss.
135. Structure Function
Stomata Allowing the exchange of
gases between the internal
part of the leaf and the
environment.
Mesophyll
-Palisade mesophyll
-Spongy mesophyll
Receive the maximum amount
of light (high density of
chloroplasts)
Allow easy diffusion of water
and carbon dioxide through the
leaf to the palisade cells.
136. Adaptation of plants from different habitats
to carry out photosynthesis
• Land Plants
- Have large numbers of stomata on the lower surface of the leaf which allow
maximum absorption of carbon dioxide.
- The chloroplasts are found in the palisade cells and spongy mesophyll cells
• Water Plants
- Chloroplasts are found in the leaves and stems.
Float plants - The stomata are mostly distributed on the upper
surface of the leaves.
Aquatic plants - Submerged generally do not have stomata.
• Desert Plants
- Reduce leaves with sunken stomata
137. The mechanism of Photosynthesis
• Two main stages
(i) The light reaction
- occurs in the presence of light, involve
photolysis of water.
(ii) The dark reaction
- happen both when there is light and
dark, take place in stroma.
138. • Chloroplasts contain membranous
structures which are piled up into stacks
called grana.
• Grana contain a light-trapping pigment
chlorophyll.
• Grana are embedded in a gel-like matrix
called stroma.
139. The Mechanism of Photosynthesis
24 OH
24 e¯
Oxygen
6O2
12 H2O
(a) Light reaction
6 H2O
6CO2
6(CH2O)
C6H12O6
Glucose
Water
Carbon
dioxide
(b) Dark reaction
24 e¯
24 H
Sunlight
Chlorophyll
24 H2O 24 OH¯
Water
24 H+
Photolysis of
water
140. The chemical equation of photosynthesis
6H2O + 6CO2 C6H12O6 + 6O2
Water Carbon Glucose Oxygen
dioxide
Light
Chlorophyll
141. Comparison between light reaction and dark reaction
Light reaction Dark reaction
1. Take place in grana 1. Take place in stroma
2. Requires light 2. Does not require light
3. Involves photolysis of
water
3. Does not involve
photolysis of water
4. Does not use carbon
dioxide
4. Use carbon dioxide
5. Gives out oxygen 5. Does not give out
oxygen
6. No glucose is formed 6. Glucose is formed
142. 6.12 The Factors Affecting
Photosynthesis
The factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis :
i. Light intensity
ii. Concentration of carbon dioxide
iii. Temperature
143. P graph I Q
graph II 0.13% CO2 at 30ْ C
0.03% CO2 at 30ْ C
Rate
of
photosynthesis
Light intensity
The effect of light intensity on
the rate of photosynthesis
144. ● Concentration of CO2 and temperature are
controlled at constant levels, the rate of
photosynthesis is directly proportional to light
intensity up to a certain point.
● The light intensity increases, the rate of
photosynthesis increases until it reaches
point P.
The effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis
145. ● Up to point P, the rate of photosynthesis is
limited by light intensity.
● Beyond point P, light intensity is no longer a
limiting factor.
● Along PQ, the rate of photosynthesis will not
increase even if light intensity is increased.
146. 30oC at high light intensity
30oC at low light intensity
Rate
of
photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide concentration
The effect of carbon dioxide concentration
on the rate of photosynthesis
147. Increase in the carbon dioxide concentration
will increase the rate of photosynthesis and
will constant at a certain point.
After a certain point when the concentration of
carbon dioxide increases, the rate of
photosynthesis will not increase because light
intensity acts as a limiting factor.
149. • The dark reaction of photosynthesis is catalysed by
enzymes and therefore changes in temperature will
affect the rate of photosynthesis.
• An increase of 10% in surrounding temperature will
double the rate of photosynthesis.
• Optimum temperature are between 25ْ C to 30ْ C.
• If the temperature is too high, the photosynthesis
enzymes are destroyed and photosynthesis process
stops.
150. The difference in the rate of photosynthesis in
plants throughout the day
• Rate of photosynthesis is high when light intensity and
temperature are high.
• Photosynthesis stops at night – no light.
Light
Intensity
Temperature Rate of
photosynthesis
Morning Low Low Low
Midday High High High
Evening Low Low Low
152. The Need for Improving
the Quality & Quantity of Food
The rapid increase in the country population
imposes greater demand on food supply
because
Ministry as also given priority to the production of food
such as rice, fruits, vegetables, fishes and poultry.
and
153. The Effort by Various Agencies
to Diversify Food Production
ULAM
Fresh leaves, fruits
and other plant parts
which are eaten raw
MAIN SOURCES
OF PROTEIN
Examples:
-Chicken
-Rabbit meat
-Ostrich meat
-Prawn
-Quail meat
-fish
Examples:
-Pegaga (Centella asiatica)
-Shoot of papaya
Kacang botor
Petai (Parkia speciosa)
MUSHROOM
Examples:
-Button mushroom
-Shittake mushroom
-Aballone mushroom
154. METHODS USED TO IMPROVE
THE QUALITY & QUANTITY
OF FOOD PRODUCTION
1) Direct
seeding
3) Aeroponics
4) Breeding
of plants
5) Animal
breeding
6) Tissue
culture
7) Genetic
engineering
8) Soil
management
9) Crop
rotation
10) Biological
control
2) Hydroponics
155. 1) Direct Seeding
Seeds are sown directly into the soil by using
special machine
Eg: planting of paddy
2) Hydroponics
The roots of the plants are immersed in a solution
Which contain all the macronutrients & micronutrients
METHODS USED TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY &
QUANTITY OF FOOD PRODUCTION
156. 4) Breeding of plants
3) Aeroponics
The plants are suspended in a special chamber
with the roots exposed to the air
Nutrient solutions are sprayed on to the roots of the
plants at suitable intervals.
Eg: lettuce
definition
definition
Different plant varieties with certain beneficial
characteristics are selectively bred from both parent plants.
157. Example for breeding of plants
Tenera sp.
Dura sp. X Pisifera sp.
5) Animal Breeding
definition
Involved the cross breeding of two
different breeds of animal
Examples:
hybrid cattle Mafriwal is bred
in farms for its milk Mafriwal
Friesien cow x Sahiwal bull
158. 6) Tissue culture
An entire plant can be regenerated from the cells or tissue of a parent plant
and sterile in culture medium or culture solution.
Eg: papayas, pineapples, starfruits
7) Genetic engineering
It involves the transfer of beneficial genes from one organism to
another organism.
This technique enables the characteristics of an organism to be altered
by changing the genetic composition of the organism.
Genes from plants inserted DNA of animal cell and vise versa.
The genetically modified organism (GMO) is called transgenic organism.
159. 8) Soil management
definition
Addition of organic or inorganic fertilizers returns the nutrients to the soil.
9) Crop rotation
Different plant are cultivated in succession on the same plot
of land over a period of time
10) Biological control
The control of pests by biological means and achieved by introducing
a natural enemy of the pest such as a predator or a parasite.
Examples: snakes and owls are control the rat population in oil palm plantation
161. Food processing :
• To make it more attractive.
• To make it more palatable.
• To last longer.
• To kill microorganisms that can cause food
poisoning.
162. Food Technology Used in
Food Processing
Methods Description Example
Pasteurisation - Heating at 63ºC for 30
minutes or heating at
72ºC for 15 seconds
followed by rapid cooling
below -10ºC
-Milk
-Juice
-Yoghurt
Dehydration
(Drying)
- Drying uses heat.
- Sun drying.
-Raisins.
-Peas.
-Mushroom.
-Salted fish.
163. Freezing - Store at -18ºC or
below.
-Meat
-Fish
-Juices
Cooking - Heating with high
temperature can kill
microorganisms.
-Meat
-Poultry
Cooling/
refrigeration
- Store at 0ºC – 10ºC. -Fish
-Meat
-Eggs
-Milk
-Fruits/vegetables
164. Fermentation - Fermented by adding
yeast.
-Pulut rice
-Tapioca
Canning - Sealed in airtight and
heated
-Fruits
-Fish
-Meat
-Poultry
Pickling - Treating food with salt
or sugar cause the
microorganisms to lose
water through osmosis.
-Chilies
-Fruits
166. Understanding the respiratory process
in energy production
Energy Requirement
Muscle contraction
Formation of
new protoplasm
for growth
Cell division
Active transport
of
biochemical
substances
Synthesis of
proteins
Transmission
of
nerve impulses
167. The main substrate required in
cellular respiration for producing
energy is
169. CELL RESPIRATION
( Internal Respiration )
“ The biochemical process
in which energy is made
available to all living cell “
170. ENERGY PRODUCTION
IN AEROBIC RESPIRATION
OXIDATION
OF
GLUCOSE
MOLECULES
O2
FOOD
-CARBOHYDRATES
Releases
Energy, Water, CO2
171. AEROBIC RESPIRATION
• Requires oxygen gas
• In the cells, glucose molecules are oxidised
by oxygen.
• Chemical equation?
• Large amount of energy is produced (38 ATP)
• Waste products are water and carbon dioxide
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 2898
kJ
172. ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
• Does not requires oxygen gas
• In the cells, glucose molecules are oxidised
without oxygen.
• Less amount of energy is produced (2 ATP)
174. • During vigorous activities, the blood cannot
supply enough oxygen to all tissues.
• The muscles are in state of oxygen deficiency
(oxygen debt)
• The muscles get an extra energy from
anaerobic respiration.
Anaerobic respiration
in human muscle
176. …continue
• Much of the energy is still trapped in lactic
acid molecules.
• The high level of lactic acid may cause
muscular cramps and fatigue.
• Fast and deep breathing can oxidised the
lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water.
• Oxidation of lactic acid occurs in the liver.
177. In yeast
• Chemical equation?
• This process is called Fermentation.
• Catalysed by the enzyme Zymase
• Waste products are ethanol and carbon
dioxide.
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 210 kJ
178. Comparison between Aerobic and
Anaerobic respiration in Human
Aerobic Differences Anaerobic
Yes Oxygen need No
High Amount of energy Less
Glucose and
oxygen
Substrate Glucose
Carbon
dioxide and
water
Product lactic acid
180. air moves in air moves out
Rib cage
moves
downwards
as the
external
intercostal
muscles
relax
Rib cage
moves
upwards as
the external
intercostal
muscles
contract
diaphragm
contracts, moves
down and flattens
diaphragm
relaxes and
curves upwards
lungs
ribs
diaphragms
The human breathing mechanism
181.
182. THE PROCESS OF GASEOUS EXCHANGE
ACROSS THE SURFACE OF THE ALVEOLUS
AND THE BLOOD CELLS
• Diffusion of a gas depends on
differences in partial pressure between
the two regions.
• The greater the gradient of concentration
across the respiratory surface, the
greater the rate of diffusion
183. • The partial pressure of oxygen in the air
of the alveoli is higher compared to the
partial pressure of oxygen in the blood
capillaries.
• Therefore, oxygen diffuses across the
surface of the alveolus and blood
capillaries into the blood.
184. • The partial pressure of the carbon
dioxide is lower in the alveoli compared
to that of the blood capillaries.
• Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood
capillaries into the alveoli and is expelled
through the nose or mouth into the
atmosphere.
185. inhaled air exhaled air
alveolus
Carbon dioxide
diffuses out of
blood plasma
Blood entering the
blood capillary has
higher partial
presure of carbon
dioxide and a
lower partial
pressure of oxygen
capillary wall
blood capillary
deoxygenated
red blood cell
Oxygen
diffuses into
red blood cells
High partial
pressure of oxygen,
low partial pressure
of carbon dioxide.
Blood leaving the
blood capillary has
a higher partial
pressure of oxygen
and a lower partial
pressure of carbon
dioxide
Gaseous exchange across the surface of the alveolus
and blood capillaries in the lungs
186. TRANSPORTATION OF OXYGEN
O2 IN THE ALVEOLI
BLOOD
HAEMOGLOBIN + OXYGEN OXYHAEMOGLOBIN
BODY CELLS
- FOR CELLULAR RESPIRATION
LUNGS
BODY CELLS
187. TRANSPORTATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE
7 % OF CO2 DISSOLVED IN
THE BLOOD PLASMA
70%
CO2 + H20 H 2CO3 H+ + HCO-
3
23%
CARBON DIOXIDE + HAEMOGLOBIN
CARBAMINOHAEMOGLOBIN
Occurs in 3 ways
188. GASEOUS EXCHANGE BETWEEN THE BLOOD
AND BODY CELL
GASEOUS PARTIAL PRESSURE EFFECTS
ALVEOLAR
AIR
BLOOD
CAPILARY OF
LUNG
O2 ↑ ↓ The O2 in
alveolus diffuses
into the blood
capillary
CO2 ↓ ↑ CO2 in the blood
capillary diffuses
into the alveolus
189. The exchange of respiratory
gases between the blood and
body cells
Page 162
190. In the capillaries, the partial pressure of
oxygen in the blood is higher than the
partial pressure of oxygen in the cells.
Oxyhaemoglobin breaks down and release
oxygen to be used for cellular respiration.
Cellular respiration depletes the oxygen
content in the cells.
191. Cellular respiration produces carbon dioxide
(partial pressure of carbon dioxide is higher in
the cells than the partial pressure of carbon
dioxide in the capillaries)
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the cells into the
tissue capillaries before being transported
back to the lungs
193. Carbon dioxide reacts with water to
form carbonic acid.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen carbonate
ion and hydrogen ion
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3
-
decreased the blood pH
Stimulate the peripheral chemoreceptor in the aorta
and carotid bodies
Stimulate the central chemoreceptor in brain
Stimulate increased breathing (rate of respiration)
Act to eliminate the extra carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide content back to than
normal
Blood pH back to normal
Regulate respiratory control centre in Medulla
oblongata.
The content of carbon dioxide in the
body higher than normal value
194. The regulatory mechanism of
oxygen and carbon dioxide contents in the body
How the body react to maintain
oxygen and carbon dioxide at normal value
196. Carbon dioxide reacts with water to
form carbonic acid.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen carbonate
ion and hydrogen ion
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3
-
decreased the blood pH
Stimulate the peripheral chemoreceptors in the
aorta and carotid bodies
Stimulate the central chemoreceptors in brain.
Stimulate increased breathing (rate of respiration)
Act to eliminate the extra carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide content back to than
normal .
Blood pH back to normal
Regulate respiratory control centre in Medulla
oblongata.
The content of carbon dioxide in the
body higher than normal value
197. The content of oxygen in the body is
lower than normal value
Stimulate the peripheral chemoreceptors in the
aorta and carotid bodies
Stimulate increased breathing (rate of respiration)
Act to eliminate the extra
carbon dioxide to alveoli
faster
Carbon dioxide content back to normal
.
Increased oxygen and carbon dioxide
transportation
Regulate respiratory control centre in Medulla
oblongata.
Stimulate increased the rate of heart beat
Act to supply more oxygen to
the tissues faster
Regulate cardiovascular control centre in Medulla
oblongata.
Oxygen content back to normal
198. Regulate cardiovascular control
Centre in Medulla oblongata.
Stimulate the central chemoreceptors
in brain
The content of carbon dioxide in the
body is higher than normal value
Carbon dioxide react with
water to form carbonic acid
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
The content of oxygen in the body is
lower than normal value
Stimulate the peripheral chemoreceptors in the
aorta and carotid bodies
Increased oxygen and carbon dioxide
transportation
Stimulate increase in the rate of heart beat
Act to supply more oxygen
to the tissues faster
Carbonic acid disassociates into ion
hydrogen carbonate and ion hydrogen
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3
-
decreased the blood pH
Stimulate increase in breathing (rate of respiration)
Act to eliminate extra carbon dioxide to the alveoli faster
The carbon dioxide back
to normal .
Blood pH back to normal
Regulate respiratory control centre in
Medulla oblongata.
Oxygen content back to normal
199. Emergency conditions such as
fear. fight, excited
Stimulate adrenal glands to
secrets the adrenaline hormone
into the bloodstream.
Increase the rate
of heat beat
Increase the rate of
respiration
Increase glucose in
blood
Increase production of
energy (ATP)
To prepare the body to react
during in emergencies
203. • Lenticels are raised pores found on the stems and
roots. The cells around the lenticels are arranged loosely
to allow the diffusion of gases into and out of the plant
tissues
• Stomata connect the air spaces inside a leaf with the
atmosphere. The air spaces in the leaves are connected
to those of the stems and roots.
• Oxygen from the atmosphere diffuses quickly into the
air spaces and then into the mesophyll cells.
• During aerobic respiration, oxygen concentration in the
cells is lower than concentration of oxygen in the air
spaces
• The differences in concentration gradient allows oxygen
into diffuse continuously from the air spaces into the
atmosphere.
204. Energy requirement in plants
During cellular respiration – plant cells take in
oxygen and produce carbon dioxide.
Plants cannot photosynthesis in darkness,
respiration still occurs because plants need
energy continuously to sustain their living
processes.
The energy requirement for living processes in
plants is much lower than animals because plants
do not move.
205. The intake of oxygen by plants
for respiration
• Do you know that plants also undergo
respiration process?
• Most plants take in oxygen through leaves,
stems and roots.
• Gaseous exchange between plant cells
and the environment occurs by diffusion,
mainly through stomata and lenticels.
206. Continue…
• Each stomata consists of a pore
surrounded by two guard cells.
• The guards cells contain the chloroplast in
which photosynthesis takes places.
• The stomata of most plants open when
there is light and they close in the dark.
(Figure: refer text book 167)
207. Aerobic and anaerobic respiration in plants
• Aerobic respiration
usually carried out by plants in the present of
oxygen
• Anaerobic respiration
during flooding,
the initial stages of germination
when the embryo is completely enclosed within
an airtight seed coat
208. Respiration and photosynthesis
• Dependent on each other.
• The compensation point is at which the
rate of carbon dioxide production during
respiration is equal to that of carbon
dioxide consumption during
photosynthesis at certain light intensity.
• (Figure 7.17:refer text book pg.168)
209. • As light intensity increase, the rate of
photosynthesis becomes faster than the
rate of respiration
• So the plant need for a higher carbon
dioxide meanwhile the plant release
excess oxygen into atmosphere
210. • For growth, reproduction and seed
production to be possible in plants, the
rate of photosynthesis must exceed the
rate of respiration
• This enables the rate of sugar production
to exceed the rate of sugar consumption
• So the excess sugar can be used for
growth and other vital living processes in
plants
213. RESPIRATORY
STRUCTURE
Various
adaptation
Total
surface
Each of the org.
has
- Moist
- One cell thick
- Premeable
- Large surface area
Respiratory
surface
Gesseous
exchanage
Difference in
partial pressure
Characteristics
Need
Increase the
effiency of
CO2
O2
Respiratory
gasseous
Carbonic
acid
Transport
Hydrogen
Carbonate ions
Carbamino
haemoglobin
Oxyhaemoglobin
Such as
Blood
Blood In
In the form of
Tissues
body
In the form of
In
from
to
Is
Is
Consist of
For
The higher
214. RESPIRATORY
MECHANISM
Scientific
method
Inhale
Difference of composition
of air and heat content
Consist of
Exhale
Difference
rate of respiration
Has Has
Investigated by
using
Situation
Fear
Vigorous
exercise
Relaxing
Regulatory mechanism
in respiration
Changes in O2 &CO2 contents
caused
stimulate
Rate of
heartbeat
223. Food chain, food web and
trophic levels
• Food chains – shows a sequence of
organisms through which energy is
transferred.
• Examples :
Grass grasshoppers frogs snake
Producers Tertiary
consumers
Secondary
consumers
Primary
consumers
224. • Food web – the series of interrelated food chain which
provides a more accurate picture of the feeding
relationship in an ecosystem.
plant
grasshopper
frog
snake
bird
caterpillars
Energy loss
Energy loss
Energy loss
Energy loss
Energy loss
The source of energy is sunlight. Plant convert solar energy into
chemical energy. During photosynthesis energy flows through a
food web, however some is loss as heat during it transferred to the
next trophic level in a food web.
226. The interaction between biotic
components in relation to feeding
commensalism
mutualism
parasitsm
saprophytism Prey - predator
INTERACTION
symbiosis
227. Commensalism
• the commensal benefits
• the host neither derives any
benefit nor is harmed.
• Example :
– Epiphytes such as pigeon
orchids grow on trees.
– Epizoit such as remora fish and
shark.
Epiphytes
Epizoit
228. Mutualism
Relationship between two species of
organisms in which both benefit.
Example:
Lichen (alga produces food for itself and also
for fungus. The fungus supplies carbon
dioxide and nitrogenous product for the alga to
produce its food)
229. Parasitism
• Relationship between two organisms in
which one organism (the parasite) benefits
and the other (the host) is harmed.
• Example:
– Ectoparasites (ticks and fleas)
– Endoparasites (tapeworms)
230. Prey-predator
• Relationship where organisms
which is smaller called the prey,
is hunted and eaten by the
stronger animal (the predator).
• Example:
– A deer eaten by a lion.
231. Saprophytism
• The type of interaction in which living
organisms obtain food from dead and
decaying matter.
• Example:
–Saprophytic bacteria and fungi. (Mucor
sp.)
232. The interaction between biotic
components in relation to competition
• Competition is an interaction between
organisms livings together in a habitat
and competing for the same resources
that are in limited supply.
237. AN ECOSYSTEM :
Is a community of organisms which interact with
their non-living environment and function as a unit.
It is a dynamic system where the biotic
components are well balanced with one another and
with the biotic components.
Ecosystems vary in size.
238.
239. :
A HABITAT:
Is a natural environment where organisms
live.
Provides an organisms with the basic resources
of life such as –food
- shelter
- living space
- nesting sites
- mates
Example: The natural habitat of a mudskipper
is the mud in mangrove swamps.
240. A SPECIES :
Is a group of organisms that look alike
and have similar characteristics, share the
same roles in an ecosystem and are
capable of interbreeding to produce
fertilize offspring.
241. A POPULATION :
Is a group of organisms of the same
species living in the
same time .
Example: A population of elephants living in
the jungle.
242. A COMMUNITY:
Several populations of different
species living in the same habitat in an
ecosystem.
The members of the community are
interdependent and interact with one
another in order to survive.
A change in any of the populations
will affect the distribution of other
populations.
243. A NICHE :
The niche of a population includes
- the range of temperatures at which it
lives.
-the type of food it eats
-and the space it occupies
Two species cannot share the same ecological
niche.
Individuals of the same species may have
different niches.
244. Animals that undergo metamorphosis in their life
cycle occupy different niches.
Example: A tadpole lives entirely in water and
uses different resources while an adult
frog lives mainly on the land.
249. THE PIONEER SPECIES (The first colonisers)
The adaptive characteristic:
- they have special adaptations that enable to survive on dry
and nutrient-poor soil.
- they have dense root systems to bind the sand particles and
hold water and humus.
- they have a short life cycle.
When the pioneer species die, they add the humus content of
the soil.
Hence, the pioneer species modify the environment, eventually
creating conditions which are less favourable to themselves.
They establish conditions that are more conducive to other
species which are called successor species.
252. SUCCESSION:
The process which pioneer changes its environment so that it is
replaced by another community.
Succession is a very slow and continuous process which occurs
in stages.
Ecological succession leads to a relatively stable community
which is in equilibrium with its environment. This is called a
climax community (The tropical rainforest)
A climax community is a stable community that undergoes little
or no change in its species composition.
253. THE SUCCESSOR SPECIES:
The adaptive characteristics:
-these plants grow bigger than the pioneer species, thus
reducing the amount of sunlight that reaches them and
gradually replacing them.
-most of these plants have small wind-dispersable seeds
which are able to spread and grow rapidly.
The changes in habitat that caused by successor:
-they change the structure and quality of the soil, making it
more conducive for larger plants to grow.
-these plants then become the new dominant species.
260. -The species that inhabit seaward zone include Avicennia sp. and
Sonneratia sp. (The pioneer species)
-The middle zone is inhabited by Rhizophora sp.
-The inland zone is less frequently covered by sea water. This is
where Bruguiera sp. grows.
AS RhiB
262. THE COLONISATION & SUSSESSION
OF MANGROVE SWAMPS:
1. Avicennia sp. and Sonneratia sp
Adaptation:
-have long underground cable roots that support them in
the soft and muddy soil.
-protect them from strong coastal winds.
-produce vertical breathing roots called Pneumatophores
(REFER your text book PAGE 184)
263.
264. 2. Rhizophora sp.
Adaptation:
-have prop roots that not only anchor the plants to the mud
but also for aeration. (text book page 184)
-the leaves have thick cuticles that help them reduce
transpiration.
-the root cells have a higher osmotic pressure than the
surrounding salt water. Thus, the cell sap of the roots does not
lose water by osmosis.
-instead, salt water that enter the root cells is excreted through
hydathodes.
-the seeds are able to germinate while still being attached to the
parent tree. This phenomenon is called vivipary.
267. 3. Rhizophora sp.
-Rhizophora sp. replaces the pioneer species.
-The arching roots of Rhizophora sp. trap slit and mud, creating
firmer soil structure over time.
-The ground become higher and the soil becomes drier.
-The condition now becomes more suitable for other species of
mangroves such as Bruguiera sp. which replaces Rhizophora sp.
268. 4. Bruguiera sp
-The buttress roots of Bruguiera sp. form loops which protrude
from the soil to trap more silt and mud.
-This modifies the soil structure gradually.
-Over time, terrestrial plants such as Nypa fruticants and
Pandanus sp. begin to replace Bruguiera sp.
-The transition from a mangrove swamp to a terrestrial forest and
eventually to a tropical rainforest which is a climax community
takes a long time.
269. Sampling technique to study the
population size of organism
1. Quadrat sampling technique used in
estimating the size of plants population and
immobile animals.
2. The capture, mark, release and recapture
technique used to estimate the population of
mobile animals such as small mammals,
butterflies and bird.
271. We can find:
A) Frequency : the number of times particular species is found.
= no of quadrat containing the species
number of quadrat
B) Density : the number of individuals of a species per unit area
= total number of individuals of a species in all quadrat
number of quadrats x quadrat area
C) % coverage : an indication of how much area of the quadrat is
occupied by a species.
= aerial coverage of all quadrats (m2)
number of quadrats x quadrats area
From the quadrat
X 100%
X 100 %
274. • Frequency =
Number of quadrats containing the species
Number of quadrats
X 100 %
F = X 100%
2
2
= 100 %
275. Density =
16 + 9
2 x 1 m2
= 25 / 2 m2
= 12. 5 plant over meter squared
Density = total number of individuals of a species in all quadrat
number of quadrats x quadrat area
278. Capture, mark, release and recapture technique
location
Total number of
rats in the first
capture (a)
Second capture Estimated
population
a x b
c
Total
number
of rats
(b)
Total
number of
marked
rats
(c)
A 120 80 20 480
B 200 150 50 600
C 500 250 100 1250
279. Exercise
• In the effort to estimate the population of rats
in a paddy field, a farmer set up some traps
and managed to capture 22 rats. The farmer
tagged the rats by putting a small metal ring
on the rats’ feet and then released them.
After 2 days, the farmer set up the trap again
and this time he managed to trap 20 rats.
Among the trapped rats, 16 of them were
found without the ring. What is the estimated
population of the rats in the paddy field?
281. Classification of organisms
• Taxonomy is a branch of Biology concerned
with identifying, describing and naming
organisms.
• It is a systematic method of classifying plants
and animals based on the similarities in their
characteristics.
• FIVE MAJOR KINGDOMS
–Monera - Protista
–Fungi - Plantae
–Animalia
282. MONERA
• Unicellular organisms, have cell walls but lack of both
membrane-bound nuclei and organelles.
• Example : Bacteria dan cynobakteria.
• Unicellular and multicellular organisms
• Their cell have nucleus and organelles and
surrounded by membrane
• Example : Paramecium & Euglena
PROTISTA
284. FUNGI
• Multicellular organisms but some fungi are unicellular.
• The cell walls of fungi contain a material call chitin.
• Saprotrophically
• Example: Mushroom , Mucor sp. and yeast
PLANTAE
• All land plants.
• Can produce their own food by photosynthesis.
• Their cell have a nucleus, cell wall, plasma
membrane, mitochondria, vacuols and other
organelles
• Example : Palm , Flowering plants, Mosses & Ferns
286. ANIMALIA
• All multicellular animals
• Their cell do not have cell walls
• Animals can move from place to place
• Example: Sponges, Barnacles Invetebrates, Fish,
Reptiles and Mammals
287. THE HIERARCHY IN THE CLASSIFICATION OF
ORGANISMS
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Genus
Species
Family
Order
288. Scientific Name
• Each organisms is given a scientific name according
to based on the Linnaeus Binomial System
• Each organisms has two names in Latin.
• The first name begins with a capital letter refers to the
genus. The second name begins with small letter
refers to the species.
• Example :
Humans are named Homo sapiens
Homo refers to the genus and sapiens refers to the
species. The word written in italic or can be underlined
Example : Homo sapiens
289. • Kingdom - Animala or Metazoa - Can
move around, specalized sense organs
• Phylum - Chordata - Hollow nerve cord
• Class - Mammalia - Hair, Mammary
glands for nursing young
• Order - Primate - (Monkeys) - Binocular
vision (forward eyes)
290. • Family - Hominidae - (Great apes) - Complex
social behaviors, larger body, Skeletal
modifications for semi-upright posture, 32 teeth
(SubFamily) - Homininae (hominines) - Gorilla,
Chimp, Human (Tribe) - Hominini or hominins -
canine tooth, which looks more like an incisor.
Toe bone improved for moving bipedally.
• Genus - Homo "man" - Larger brain
• Species - Sapien "wise" - Language, more
sophisticated tools.
