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14 Causes French Revolution
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- 2. 1st. What isthe third estate? Everything. 2nd. What has it been heretofore in the political order? Nothing. 3rd. What does it demand? To become something therein. ∼ Abbé Sieyès,(1789)
- 3. French Revolution 5 May:Calling Estates-General 20 June: Tennis Court Oath 14 July: Storming the Bastille 5-6 October: March on Versailles 10 August: Overthrow of the Monarchy 27 July: Execution of Robespierre 28 July: End of Reign of Terror 9-10 November: Coup de 18 Brumaire 20 June: Royal Family attempts to flee 17 July: Champs de mars massacre 21 January: Execution of the King 5 September: Reign of Terror Begins 16 October: Execution of the Queen 22 August: Constitution of Year III 31 October: 1st Directory formed 1789 1791 1792 1793 1794 1795 1799
- 4. The Ancien Régime Preludeto the Revolution
- 5. Ancien Régime • Franceduring the Ancien Régime • Paris in the 18th c. • 2nd largest city in Europe • 600,000 people • Construction of major buildings • Center of Enlightenment • Center of French Revolution • But also site of desperate poverty View of Paris from the Pont Neuf (1763)
- 6. Place Royale, oldestplanned square in France, 1709 Ancien Régime • Paris under Louis XIV • Moved palace to Versailles in 1671 • Court moved in 1682 • Continued the building projects • Wanted Paris to be “the new Rome” • Decorated Paris with • New squares • Monuments • Large buildings • Churches
- 7. Ancien Régime •Paris under Louis XIV • Demolished city walls, built celebratory gates Porte Saint-Denis
- 8. Ancien Régime • Parisunder Louis XIV • Monumental Squares to commemorate military victories
- 9. Ancien Régime • Parisunder Louis XIV • Built Hôtel des Invalides for wounded soldiers – a residence & hospital Louis XIV makes his last visit to Paris to see the new dome of Les Invalides (1706)
- 10. Ancien Régime • Paris underLouis XIV • Despite the grandeur of new buildings & monuments • Center of city was dark, overcrowded, unhealthy • Little light, air, or drinking water • Dangerous, despite precautions • Hanging street lanterns & enlarged police night watch to 400 "We blush with shame to see the public markets, set up in narrow streets, displaying their filth, spreading infection, and causing continual disorders… Immense neighborhoods need public places. The center of the city is dark, cramped, hideous, something from the time of the most shameful barbarism.” Voltaire, 1749
- 11. Ancien Régime • Parisunder Louis XIV • In 1692-93, bad harvest & famines • Building of large ovens to bake bread for the poor – bad distribution • In 1708-09, another bad harvest, severe winter • -4℉ in Paris, causing Seine to freeze for weeks • Government announced creation of workshops for the poor • 3 times as many applicants as jobs • Riots spread throughout Europe • Placards criticizing King appeared for 1st time • On city gates, churches, & main squares
- 12. Ancien Régime • Parisunder Louis XV • Came to the throne at age of 5 • Moved court from Paris to Versailles – 1722 • Built monuments in Paris, including: • École Militaire – a military school • Hôtel des Monnaies, Paris – a mint • Odéon-Théâtre de l'Europe – a theater • Constructed for Comédie-Française • Fontaine des Quatre-Saisons – a public fountain
- 13. Ancien Régime • PlaceLouis XV • Today: Place de la Concorde • Commissioned by Academy of Arts
- 14. Ancien Régime • Parisunder Louis XV • Fontaine des Quatre-Saisons • Huge, richly decorated fountain • With only two waterspouts • Purpose: • Provide water to Parisians • Advertise benevolence of Louis XV to the people of Paris • Critique by Voltaire: • … what kind of fountain has only two faucets where the water porters will come to fill their buckets? • Paris is … partly made of gold and partly made of muck.
- 15. Ancien Régime • TheParisians: Nobility • Strict class structure "There are in Paris eight distinct classes; the princes and great nobles (these are the least numerous); the Nobles of the Robe; the financiers; the traders and merchants; the artists; the craftsmen; the manual workers; the servants; and the bas peuple (lower class).” - Louis-Sébastien Mercier in the Le Tableau de Paris, 1783 Hotel de Brunoy, town house of the Duke de Brunoy, seen from the Champs-Élysées (1779)
- 16. Ancien Régime • TheParisians: Nobility • 3-4% of the population • Greatly expanded under Louis XIV • Noblesse d’epee (nobles of the sword) • Hereditary gentry & nobility • Noblesse de robe (nobles of the robe) • Appointed by the King for money or as reward for service to the crown
- 17. Ancien Régime • TheParisians: Nobility • Lived in “fashionable” neighborhoods • Often compelled to live at Versailles • What exactly did they do? • Often depicted as wealthy, non-productive • Leisure-loving, disconnected from realities of French society • Les Liaisons Dangereuses (1782) • Aristocratic elite obsessed with intrigues, manipulation, sexual conquest • Often decadent behavior to relieve boredom
- 18. Ancien Régime • TheParisians: Nobility • Industrious Nobles • Before 1700, considered demeaning to work • Any form of trade or commerce • Could even lose the title • By mid-1700s, many nobles engaged in business • Others struggled to survive: • Hobereaux – “old birds” • Frustrated: arrogance with privilege • Lacked wealth to live as they felt entitled • Same fundamental privileges
- 19. Ancien Régime • TheParisians: Wealthy & Middle Class • The Bourgeoisie • Financiers, merchants, shopkeepers, artisans • Professionals: lawyers, doctors, accountants, teachers, government officials • Specifically defined by law as • Persons who’d lived in city for a year • In their own residence • Earned enough money to pay taxes • About 14% of Paris households Pastel of François de Jullienne and His Wife, 1743
- 20. Ancien Régime • TheParisians: Wealthy & Middle Class • The Bourgeoisie • Played active role in each neighborhood • Organized charitable & religious activities • Ran corporations running local businesses • Managed finances of parish churches • 73% of middle class owned Paris property • This group lived in Paris, other urban centers • But not compelled to live at Versailles
- 21. Ancien Régime • TheParisians: Workers, Servants, & the Poor • Most Parisians were in this class • 40,000 domestic servants working largely for middle class • Most migrated from the provinces to Paris • Low wages, long hours, competitive job market • Many worked at home, sewing, making lace, embroidering, dolls, toys, other products for the shops A woman selling firewood, 1737
- 24. Ancien Régime • TheParisians: Workers, Servants, & the Poor • Indigents - unable to support themselves • Elderly, widows with children, sick, handicapped & injured • Relied on religious charity or public assistance, if available • At least 1/3 of Paris, more in times of hardship • Working class & poor lived in overcrowded regions • Narrow, winding streets of central Paris • Close to central market of Les Halles • Or around the workshops, businesses • When conditions worsened, the desperate flooded these areas from poorer regions of France
- 26. Ancien Régime • Peasants •82-88% of France’s population • Poorest social class • Vast majority tenant sharecroppers or dayworkers • Heavily taxed by the state • Owed an annual tithe to the Church • These charges never waived or reduced during hard times • Lived outside Paris
- 27. It was thebest of times, it was the worst of times The Three Estates: Understanding the French Revolution
- 28. French Revolution • Prelude toRevolution: • 1750s-1780s: Two state crises emerged • Constitutional • Financial • Also growth of the bourgeoisie • New wealth, new opinions, new demands for share in power • Undermining the older feudal social system in France
- 29. French Revolution • Ancien Régime:The Old Order in France • Social & political system • Out of date given 18th c. realities • Archaic patchwork of administration • Created over years, through wars & legislation & state-building • But not an effective centralized state • Frequent overlap of • Administrative (including taxation) • Legal, judicial & ecclesiastical divisions & prerogatives
- 30. French Revolution • Estates ofthe Realm • Systems for dividing society into separate groups • Existing across Europe from medieval period to early modern era • In France, three “estates” or orders determined: • Status & authority • Whether & how much taxation • Based on massive social injustices • One of the key factors leading to revolution
- 31. French Revolution • Three “Estates”or Orders • The Church, the Nobility, Everyone Else Since the people is a body with several heads, it is divided by orders, Estates, or particular occupations. Some are dedicated particularly to the service of God, others to protecting the state by their arms, others to nourishing and maintaining it through peaceful occupations. These are our three orders or Estates General of France: the clergy, the nobility, and the Third Estate Charles Loyseau, “Treatise on Orders and Plain Dignities” (1610)
- 32. The Three Estates 1st:the Clergy 2nd: the Nobility 3rd: Everyone else
- 33. French Revolution • TheThree Estates in Pre- Revolutionary France • Unjust Situation • 27 million people • Owned 2/3 of land • But paid all the taxes
- 34. French Revolution • TheFirst Estate • All clergy, divided into “high” and “low” clergy • Upper: effectively the nobility of the clergy, from families of the Second Estate • 10% of First Estate • Lower: divided among priests, monks, & nuns – commoner class • 90% of First Estate • Paid no taxes
- 35. French Revolution • TheSecond Estate • The French nobility, divided into two groups • Nobility of the Sword: oldest noble class in France • Traditionally had more power, inherited through generations • Held official positions at court, & in provincial & national govt. • Nobility of the Robe: • Originally given as rewards by King, then sold • Less prestige, couldn’t carry a sword
- 36. French Revolution • TheThird Estate • Considerable diversity – literally everyone outside clergy, nobility • Ranged from beggars & struggling peasants • To urban artisans & laborers • And shopkeepers, middle class, & prosperous merchants & capitalists • Played no role in government or decision-making • Leading to building frustration among huge % of population
- 37. French Revolution • SocialInjustice in the Ancien Régime • Population of France in 1780s – approx. 26 million • Of which 21 million lived in agriculture • Few owned enough land to support a family • Most forced to take on extra work on larger farms • Hunger a daily problem – poor conditions for peasants
- 38. French Revolution • Social Injusticein the Ancien Régime • Big part of the problem: taxation • Ancien Régime’s taxation regime was excessive, inefficient, unfair • Excessive: among highest taxes in Europe • Inefficient: “tax farmers” • Unfair: bulk of taxes paid by 3rd Estate
- 39. French Revolution • Taxes inthe Ancien Régime included • Taille: direct land tax on the peasantry • Based on amount of land they held, set by the King on a yearly basis • Major source of royal income • Exempted: city of Paris, clergy, nobility, magistrates, university professors & students • Assessment & collection varied
- 40. French Revolution • Othertaxes in the Ancien Régime included • Taillion: military tax • Gabelle: national salt tax, unequal, hated • Amount imposed varied from province to province • Capitation: tax on number of people in a household • Maltôte: used to raise needed money by taxing consumer goods • Dîme: Mandatory tithe with collected money going to the Church
- 41. French Revolution • Parlements •Provincial appellate courts with 12 or more members • NOT legislative bodies • Court of final appeal in the judicial system • Power over range of subject matter, especially taxes • Crown’s laws, edicts not effective in a province until published by the province’s parlement • Members – aristocrats inheriting or buying the position
- 42. French Revolution • Parlements •1789 – France had 13 parlements • Most important in Paris • Worked primarily to benefit their class • In resisting reform, ultimately contributed to revolution • Civil trials – parties paid for “advice” of judges • Out of reach for most French Palace of Parlement of Brittany
- 43. French Revolution • Parlements • Frequentlyblocked government’s attempts at reform • Including taxes on nobility • Conflict often with Louis XV; worse under Louis XVI • 1788 – attempt to centralize the government • Abolished the parlements • Which had refused to raise taxes requested by the monarchy
- 44. French Revolution • Dayof the Tiles – June, 1788 • In Grenoble, Parlement of Dauphiné • Declared laws abolishing parlements illegal • Regiments sent to banish magistrates from Grenoble • Townsfolk supported Parlement magistrates • Gathered to protest, many hurling tiles from rooftop at soldiers • Up to 10,000 rioters by end of day
- 45. French Revolution • Dayof the Tiles • Mob seized control of city • Magistrates asked to host special session of the parlement • Magistrates also disturbed by the chaos • As order restored, some older magistrates left the city • But younger ones used the event to pressure for an assembly – • First locally, then nationally
- 46. French Revolution • Dayof the Tiles • Importance of the day • First major breakdown of royal authority in France • First incident of mob violence & military failure to contain it • In many respects, “cradle of the revolution” • Spelling trouble for the government in the months ahead
- 47. The French Revolution TheRoyal Treasury is Empty
- 48. French Revolution • LouisXIV • During 72-year reign, transformed monarchy • Golden age of art and literature • Dazzling royal court at Versailles • France established as a dominant European power • But wars and extravagance drained its resources
- 49. French Revolution • France’sinvolvement in imperial wars placed strain on Treasury • By 1600, an imperial and European power • 2nd largest imperial power • Imperial rivalry meant bigger military • Borrowed money, raised taxes • To expand military • And launch numerous wars • By 1714, when Louis XIV died • National debt = 2 billion livres • Annual interest more than raised by taxes
- 50. French Revolution • LouisXV and fiscal reform • Cardinal Fleury: chief minister 1726-1743 • Period of recovery • Fleury stabilized French currency • Balanced the budget in 1738 • Focused on infrastructure • Communication, transportation • Most modern, extensive road network in world • After Fleury’s death, Louis XV failed to continue the policies
- 51. French Revolution • AfterFleury’s death, change in policies • Tried to impose taxes on privileged classes • Advice of Madame de Pompadour • Met with fierce resistance from nobility, and Louis XV backed off • At his death in 1774, suffering of the Third Estate growing worse
- 52. French Revolution • LouisXV • Ruled for 59 years • Loved at first, contempt toward end • Stubborn personality • Mistaken foreign policy decisions • Continued over-spending • Considered to be dominated by his mistresses • Especially Madame de Pompadour and Madame du Barry
- 53. French Revolution Deteriorating conditions 1770s& 1780s Poor harvests, drought, cattle disease, skyrocketing bread prices Financial troubles caused the Awakened by Enlightenment to demand more say in government Refused to solve those financial issues without a say And the popular of the monarchy Concerned with parties, hunting, luxury for themselves
- 54. French Revolution • Problem withthe Monarchy • In face of severe suffering by French people • French monarchy increasingly devoted more time to personal interests • At the expense of the ceremonial feature of their position • The rituals that embodied their power • Little contact with subjects, and Versailles less the center of intellectual life
- 55. French Revolution • LouisXVI • In 1774, inherited a throne with serious problems • Just 20 years old – educated, not too bright • Interested in mechanics & the applied sciences • Ill-prepared to be king – and he knew it • Lacked firmness or decisiveness • Appointed officials to address financial problems
- 56. French Revolution • Louis XVI •As King, focused on religious freedom & foreign policy • Edict of Tolerance in 1787 (aka Edict of Versailles) • Non-Catholics granted legal right to practice their faiths • Granted civil and legal status • Radical financial reforms angered aristocracy • Parlements declared monarchy had no right to levy taxes
- 57. French Revolution • LouisXVI • Budget continued to suffer • Supported American colonists during Revolution against Britain • Expensive maintaining court at Versailles
- 58. French Revolution • MarieAntoinette • Daughter of Austria’s Maria Theresa • Age 14 – married Louis XVI while still crown prince • France and Austria long-time enemies • Mixed reaction from the French people • As Queen, became the face of an enemy to the people • As an Austrian, as living in extravagance, for not giving France an heir for 8 years
- 59. The French Revolution TheLibelles
- 60. French Revolution • Enlightenment &Challenging the Monarchy • Weakened hold of traditional religion • Particularly role of Catholic Church as a public institution in France • Moral code of ethics to guide behavior • Separate from Church-taught morality • And engaged with humanity, not focused on next life
- 61. French Revolution • Enlightenment &Challenging the Monarchy • Critical spirit of analysis, not just tradition • Truths passed down for generations no longer enough • Including routine hierarchies or religious “truths” • Convinced that France had a role to play • In leading Europe to progress & improvement
- 62. French Revolution • Enlightenment &Challenging the Monarchy • Distinction between absolutism & despotism • Once the belief sets in the monarchs are despots • Respect for the monarchy is lost • Critical of unearned, unjustified privilege • Disrespected monarchy, idle nobility • Prepared the way for authority, transfer of power to the people
- 63. French Revolution • EnlightenmentIdeas • Had to be circulated • To make an impact on broader society • Salons, academies, Masonic lodges • Generally limited to targeted audiences • But offered alternative arenas for learning, socializing French Masonic initiation ceremony
- 64. French Revolution • Lawyers’ Briefs,Scandal Sheets, & Pornographic Novels • Alternative channels for new ideas & criticisms • People aspiring to be philosophes • Or just wanting to make money off Enlightenment ideas • And lawyers making arguments in their legal papers • Arguing a new kind of sovereignty
- 65. French Revolution • GrubStreet Hacks • Literary hacks or mediocre writers • Who write for hire • Term came out of London, but unique significance in France • Group of struggling writers • Cobbled together a living via • Underground journalism, pamphlet-writing, education • Spying on other intellectuals for the police An English engraving depicting the gutter publishers of Grub Street
- 66. French Revolution • Grub StreetHacks • Hatred of French social hierarchies • Low social position meant exclusion from prestigious institutions • Difficult lives, alienation • Bred an active hatred of the hierarchies of the Ancien Régime • Fueled the radicalism of the French Revolution • Common French term for hack literature: libelle • Hack writer: libelliste
- 67. French Revolution • GrubStreet Hacks – Libelles • 1780s Paris – seedy short stories, plays, pamphlets • Contained vulgar & defamatory stories • Usually targeted royalty, aristocrats, political figures • Many were pornographic in tone, content • Use of crude humor, satire • Focused on appearance, personal habits, sexual proclivitiesThe King stumbles in on Marie Antoinette with his brother, Count of Artois
- 68. French Revolution • Libelles •Range of literary forms • Fliers or broadsheets • Pamphlets, dramatic scripts, essays • Collection of cartoons • But all shared one trait: • Slanderous & offensive subject matter The frontispiece of ‘The Austrian Bitch and the Royal Orgy’, a 1789 opera
- 69. French Revolution • Libelles • Essaycollections as “true story” • Compare to National Enquirer today • Topics: the monarchy, nobles, goings-on at Versailles • Most simply repeated gossip, and made up sources • Filling a void – no press at Versailles, no government reports • Public told little about royal family • These accounts went unchallenged
- 70. French Revolution • Libelles •State censorship in 18th c. France • Lettres de cachet – signed by the King • Could be used to imprison without a trial, not appealable • Ripe for abuse • Used for criminal activity, but also to suppress dissent • As in case of libellistes • Symbol of abuses of Ancien Régime monarchy 1759 Lettre de cachet signed by Louis XV and minister Louis Phélypeaux
- 71. French Revolution • Libelles • Statecensorship in 18th c. France • Smuggling – most libelles published in London • Rousseaus du ruisseau – “Rousseaus of the Gutter” • Libellistes who rented rooms, printing presses on Grub Street • More focused on making money, not revolution • And often more from blackmail than sales
- 72. French Revolution • Libelles •Charles de Morande (1741-1805) • One of the most notorious of the libellistes • Attacked women as vigorously as men • Alleged one aristocratic woman was having sex with her butler • Claimed women at Versailles were infected with syphilis, causing teeth, eyebrows to fall out • Common people – might not relate to philosophes, but this acceptable
- 73. French Revolution • Libelles •By 1789, majority focused on Marie Antoinette • Before 1789, maybe 10% were directed at her • Ridiculed by the Grub Street Hacks • Foreigner, fashion-focused, slow to deliver a royal heir • Depicted as having an insatiable sexual appetite • King said to be unable to satisfy her alleged nymphomania
- 74. French Revolution • Libelles &Marie Antoinette • One of the earliest: Essays on the Private Life of Marie Antoinette • Published 1781, appeared repeatedly • Accused Marie Antoinette of treacherous, immoral acts • Dalliances with the king’s own brother • Lesbianism, masturbation, wasteful spending for its own sake • Political intriguing against the king and the French people
- 75. French Revolution • Libelles& Marie Antoinette • Often pornographic & detailed • Orgies, lesbian scenes • Devastating to reputation • Humiliation of the royal family
- 76. French Revolution • Libelles andthe Revolution • Didn’t preach or incite revolution • No cogent political criticism of the old order • No outline for change • Libelles reflected, reinforced declining respect & affection • For the monarchy, by holding them up to ridicule • Louis XVI’s incompetence – couldn’t crush the gutter press
- 77. French Revolution • The Lawyers& the Revolution • Enlightenment ideas also spread by legal pleadings • Which couldn’t be censored or suppressed • The Jansenists • Religious minority within the Catholic Church • Perceived as a threat by Church & the government • Thousands of legal briefs published, defending Jansenists against attacks by government
- 78. French Revolution • The Lawyers& the Revolution • King’s attempts to close regional parlements • In midst of Seven Years’ War, parlements resisting increased taxes • Magistrates in the parlements could issue “remonstrances” • Expressing opposition to monarchy & policy • Pulling on tradition that king ruled by consent of parlements • Note – not accepted by the monarchy • Who claimed rule by Divine Right
- 79. French Revolution • The Lawyers& the Revolution • King’s attempts to close regional parlements • Conflict between king and Parlement of Brittany • Was monarch’s central government entitled to rule a province • That always had enjoyed substantial autonomy • Magistrates, members of press defended autonomy in local affairs through published arguments • Louis XV – dissolved all 13 Parlements in bid to centralize
- 80. French Revolution • The Lawyers •Royal attempts to close regional parlements • Louis XV – created new courts • Louis XVI – recalled the old magistrates • Though pledging support for the monarchy • Magistrates declared their traditional liberties against king’s reforms • And claimed king needed to rely on “publicity” – opinion of the public
- 81. French Revolution • TheLawyers • King’s response: beyond absolute divine monarchy • Voltaire: advocated for “enlightened” absolutism, that needed a strong, centralized government • Especially in a large, complex society such as France • Other supporters advocated for modernization • But modernization tarnished by the depictions of a monarchy out of control
- 82. French Revolution • The Lawyers •Lawyers’ petitions • Depicted a monarchy over-stepping lines of acceptability • Behaving in a despotic way • That there’s something called a nation with traditional rights • Not with individual liberties • But certain traditions in how France was governed • And these were being violated by the monarchy
- 83. The French Revolution TheAffair of the Necklace
- 84. French Revolution • Affairof the Necklace • Louis XV • Ordered an extravagant diamond necklace for his mistress • Madame du Barry • Cost of about $14-15 million in today’s value • Louis XVI • Refused to make the purchase for Marie Antoinette • Which left the jewelers hanging with a gaudy, costly necklace
- 85. French Revolution • Affairof the Necklace • Enter Jeanne de la Motte • Impoverished member of the nobility • Sought assistance of Marie Antoinette, but rejected • But met - & started affair with – Cardinal de Rohan • Among other lovers • De Rohan wanted nothing more than to win approval of Marie Antoinette
- 86. French Revolution • Affairof the Necklace • The Scam worked both ways • Against Cardinal and Marie Antoinette • Forged letters to the Cardinal • Secret night meeting with an imposter • All convinced the Cardinal to buy the necklace for the Queen • De la Motte, husband kept money paid by the Cardinal • And the necklace given by the jewelers
- 87. French Revolution • Affair ofthe Necklace • Jewelers complained of non-payment • Rohan, de la Motte & her husband, the prostitute, the forger • All tried and convicted in public courts • Rohan charged with lèse majesté, plotting against Queen • By identifying the prostitute as Marie Antoinette • Acquitted, and had the public’s sympathy
- 88. French Revolution • Affair ofthe Necklace • From trials & notoriety, monarchy takes a hit • Cardinal de Rohan portrayed as victim of the regime • Crossing the line between absolutism, despotism • Marie Antoinette, in particular, is vilified • Believed she used the fraudsters as a way to get even with a man she hated … de Rohan • Became even more unpopular, even despised
- 89. French Revolution • Libellesand the Affair of the Necklace • Jeanne de la Motte’s Memoirs • Blamed Marie Antoinette for the necklace affair • Included rumors of Marie Antoinette’s behavior • By 1789, libelles shaped public opinion • Of the royal family, but of monarchy in general
- 90. French Revolution • Affairof the Necklace • Erosion of Monarchial Prestige • Culmination of a century-long onslaught against the monarchy • Through a combination of • Enlightenment philosophy • Increased literacy rate • Printing, especially of the libelles