1. What roles does succession and phytoremediation play in ecology, evolution and the
ecosystems?
Succession plays a major role to change in environmental conditions that causes a pronounced
change in an ecosystem. Disturbances often act quickly and with great effect, to alter the
physical structure or arrangement of biotic and abiotic elements. Disturbance can also occur over
a long period of time and can impact the diversity within an ecosystem. Major ecological
disturbances may
include fires, flooding, windstorms, insect outbreaks and trampling. Earthquakes, various types
of volcanic eruptions, tsunami, firestorms, impact events, climate change, and the devastating
effects of human impact on the environment (anthropogenic disturbances) such as clear cutting,
forest clearing and the introduction of invasive species can be considered major disturbances.
This can be attributed to physical changes in the biotic and abiotic conditions of an ecosystem.
Because of this, a disturbance force can change an ecosystem for significantly longer than the
period over which the immediate effects persist. With the passage of time following a
disturbance, shifts in dominance, shifts in dominance may occur with ephemeral herbaceous life-
forms progressively becoming over topped by taller perennials herbs, shrubs and trees. However,
in the absence of further disturbance forces, many ecosystems will trend back toward pre-
disturbance conditions. Long lived species and those which can regenerate in the presence of
their own adults will finally become dominant. Such alteration, accompanied by changes in the
abundance of different species over time, is called ecological succession. Succession often leads
to conditions that will once again predispose an ecosystem to disturbance.
Phytoremediation play a major role to clean up contaminated environments including metals,
pesticides, explosives, and oil. Also help prevent wind, rain, and groundwater flow from carrying
contaminants away from the site to surrounding areas or deeper underground. Certain plants are
able to remove or break down harmful chemicals from the ground when their roots take in water
and nutrients from the contaminated soil, sediment, or groundwater. Plants can help clean up
contaminants as deep as their roots can reach using natural processes to:
• Store the contaminants in the roots, stems, or leaves.
• Convert them to less harmful chemicals within the plant or, more commonly, the root zone. •
Convert them to vapors, which are released into the air.
• Sorb (stick) contaminants onto their roots where very small organisms called “microbes” (such
as bacteria) that live in the soil break down the sorbed contaminants to less harmful chemicals.
2. Biogeochemical cycles, succession and phytoremediation. Explain how all three work together
for a positive outcome.
Biological diversity is dependent on natural disturbance. The success of a wide range of species
from all taxonomic groups is closely tied to na.
The document defines an ecosystem as a community of living organisms interacting with each other and their non-living environment. It discusses various components of an ecosystem like types of ecosystems, energy flow through food chains and food webs, and nutrient cycles of water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and other elements. Succession and how communities change over time is also covered. Pyramids of numbers, energy and biomass are explained as ways to represent trophic levels in an ecosystem.
This document discusses biogeochemical cycles, which involve the movement of elements through organisms and the environment. It provides examples of major biogeochemical cycles including the water cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, and oxygen cycle. It also discusses how these cycles are essential to ecosystems and influence human health, such as through nitrate accumulation in drinking water.
1) Carbon, water, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycle through ecosystems, with organisms using these elements and releasing them back into the nonliving environment through processes like respiration, decomposition, and erosion.
2) The water cycle involves water evaporating from plants and surfaces, condensing in the atmosphere, and falling as precipitation before infiltrating the ground and flowing into rivers and oceans.
3) In the carbon cycle, carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants and enters animals when they eat plants or each other, and it is released back through respiration and decomposition.
Explained in the presentation is Decomposition and the Biogeochemical cycles and its relation to real estate showing the effects of real estate development to the environment.
- Life on Earth depends on resources like soil, water, and air and energy from the sun. Uneven heating of air over land and water bodies causes winds, while evaporation and condensation lead to rainfall patterns.
- Various nutrients are used in cyclic fashions between biosphere components, maintaining balance. However, pollution affects air, water, and soil quality, harming biodiversity. Conservation and sustainable use of natural resources are needed.
Matter cycles through ecosystems in biogeochemical cycles. The water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles are especially important. In the water cycle, water moves between the atmosphere, land, and oceans through evaporation, condensation, and precipitation. In nutrient cycles, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are used by organisms and recycled through the environment. The availability of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus can limit primary productivity in ecosystems. Human activities like burning fossil fuels and excessive fertilizer use impact nutrient cycles globally.
The document summarizes several biogeochemical cycles including the water, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen cycles. It also discusses ecological succession, population growth, human impacts on ecosystems such as algal blooms, biological magnification, and global warming. Key elements like carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen are recycled through these natural processes.
The document provides an overview of natural resources and the environment. It discusses how life exists where the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere interact to form the biosphere. Natural resources include both biotic resources like plants and animals as well as abiotic resources like air, water, and soil. However, human population growth, urbanization, and industrialization have led to these resources being used unsustainably. The document then examines various natural resources in more depth, including the composition and layers of the atmosphere, the water and carbon cycles, nitrogen cycle, ozone layer, and the greenhouse effect.
The document defines an ecosystem as a community of living organisms interacting with each other and their non-living environment. It discusses various components of an ecosystem like types of ecosystems, energy flow through food chains and food webs, and nutrient cycles of water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and other elements. Succession and how communities change over time is also covered. Pyramids of numbers, energy and biomass are explained as ways to represent trophic levels in an ecosystem.
This document discusses biogeochemical cycles, which involve the movement of elements through organisms and the environment. It provides examples of major biogeochemical cycles including the water cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, and oxygen cycle. It also discusses how these cycles are essential to ecosystems and influence human health, such as through nitrate accumulation in drinking water.
1) Carbon, water, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycle through ecosystems, with organisms using these elements and releasing them back into the nonliving environment through processes like respiration, decomposition, and erosion.
2) The water cycle involves water evaporating from plants and surfaces, condensing in the atmosphere, and falling as precipitation before infiltrating the ground and flowing into rivers and oceans.
3) In the carbon cycle, carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants and enters animals when they eat plants or each other, and it is released back through respiration and decomposition.
Explained in the presentation is Decomposition and the Biogeochemical cycles and its relation to real estate showing the effects of real estate development to the environment.
- Life on Earth depends on resources like soil, water, and air and energy from the sun. Uneven heating of air over land and water bodies causes winds, while evaporation and condensation lead to rainfall patterns.
- Various nutrients are used in cyclic fashions between biosphere components, maintaining balance. However, pollution affects air, water, and soil quality, harming biodiversity. Conservation and sustainable use of natural resources are needed.
Matter cycles through ecosystems in biogeochemical cycles. The water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles are especially important. In the water cycle, water moves between the atmosphere, land, and oceans through evaporation, condensation, and precipitation. In nutrient cycles, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are used by organisms and recycled through the environment. The availability of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus can limit primary productivity in ecosystems. Human activities like burning fossil fuels and excessive fertilizer use impact nutrient cycles globally.
The document summarizes several biogeochemical cycles including the water, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen cycles. It also discusses ecological succession, population growth, human impacts on ecosystems such as algal blooms, biological magnification, and global warming. Key elements like carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen are recycled through these natural processes.
The document provides an overview of natural resources and the environment. It discusses how life exists where the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere interact to form the biosphere. Natural resources include both biotic resources like plants and animals as well as abiotic resources like air, water, and soil. However, human population growth, urbanization, and industrialization have led to these resources being used unsustainably. The document then examines various natural resources in more depth, including the composition and layers of the atmosphere, the water and carbon cycles, nitrogen cycle, ozone layer, and the greenhouse effect.
The document provides an overview of environmental management and the components that make up the environment. It discusses the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. It also summarizes several important biogeochemical cycles including the nitrogen cycle, water cycle, carbon cycle, and oxygen cycle. The cycles describe the circulation and recycling of key elements like nitrogen, water, carbon, and oxygen between living organisms and their surroundings.
power point presentation on natural resource by Keshav rawatKeshav Rawat
The document discusses the biosphere and its abiotic and biotic components. It describes how life on Earth depends on resources like water and energy from the sun. It then discusses several types of pollution including air pollution from burning fossil fuels and water pollution from waste. It also describes the importance of soil and its formation. The biotic components are producers like plants and consumers like animals. Several biogeochemical cycles are also summarized, including the water, nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon cycles which are essential for maintaining balance in the biosphere.
The document defines key terms like ecosystems, biodiversity, biotic and abiotic factors. It then summarizes several important biogeochemical cycles - carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, water and phosphorus. These cycles describe how each element moves through biotic and abiotic components of the biosphere. Human impacts like burning fossil fuels and agriculture are increasing the amounts of carbon and nitrogen in cycles and affecting global ecosystems.
This document provides an outline for a course on environmental chemistry and pollution. It covers 5 units: introduction and identification of environmental chemistry; atmospheric composition and gaseous pollutants; water pollution; soil pollutants; and medical pollutants. The introduction defines key terms like environment, atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, anthroposphere, flora and fauna. It also discusses factors like population growth, urbanization and industrialization that impact the environment. The document further describes the natural cycles of water, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen and how human activities place burdens on the environment.
This document discusses various topics relating to balance in nature and man's impact on the environment. It begins by defining key terms like biotic and abiotic factors, ecosystems, food chains, and the water and carbon cycles. It then discusses different types of pollution like air, water, land, and noise pollution. Specific human activities that can cause pollution and disrupt ecosystems are mentioned, such as deforestation, mining, improper waste disposal, and the use of pesticides. The document also covers population growth and its effects on resource demand. Throughout, it emphasizes the importance of maintaining balance in nature.
Human activities like burning fossil fuels and deforestation are increasing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and leading to global warming. Trees naturally absorb carbon dioxide from the air but deforestation is removing this natural carbon sink. Increased greenhouse gases trap more heat in the lower atmosphere, causing changes to weather patterns and threatening ecosystems. The human population has doubled in recent decades, increasing resource use and emissions without developing sustainable solutions.
B sc micro, biotech, biochem i es u 4 biogeochemicalcyclesRai University
The document discusses biogeochemical cycles, which describe the movement of chemical elements through the biosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. It specifically examines the carbon, water, nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, and sulfur cycles. Each cycle involves the movement of an element through various pools and fluxes between the biotic and abiotic components of Earth, driven by both physical and biological processes. Human activities have significantly impacted these natural cycles through activities like burning fossil fuels, agriculture, deforestation, and industrialization. Maintaining the natural biogeochemical cycles is essential for sustaining life on Earth.
Carbon cycle and global concerns on environmentRajat Nainwal
Carbon is the primary building block of life and cycles through different carbon pools in the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. The global carbon cycle involves fluxes of carbon between these pools through natural processes like photosynthesis, respiration, and geological processes. However, human activities like burning fossil fuels and deforestation have significantly increased carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, disrupting the natural carbon cycle and causing global climate change. Rising global temperatures will lead to problems like rising sea levels, food shortages, and threats to biodiversity.
The document discusses several key concepts related to ecosystems and biogeography:
1) It describes several important biogeochemical cycles (carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, water) that move key elements through ecosystems and influence plant and animal distributions.
2) It explains how solar energy flows through ecosystems via photosynthesis, primary production, and food chains/pyramids, with producers, primary consumers, and decomposers playing important roles.
3) It discusses factors that influence the natural distributions of plants and animals, such as evolutionary history, migration/dispersal abilities, and reproductive success within local environmental conditions.
1) Nutrient cycling involves the movement of elements like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and water through biotic and abiotic components of the biosphere.
2) There are two main types of nutrient cycles - gaseous cycles like carbon and nitrogen that occur globally in the atmosphere, and sedimentary cycles like phosphorus that tend to accumulate in sediments.
3) Nutrient cycles can operate globally, with gases circulating worldwide, or locally within ecosystems, with nutrients like phosphorus and calcium cycling within soils. Photosynthesis and respiration drive the global carbon cycle, while nitrogen is transformed between chemical forms by both biological and non-biological processes.
The document discusses several nutrient cycles that are important for plant growth. It focuses on the carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles. The carbon cycle describes how carbon is exchanged between the atmosphere, organisms, oceans, and geologic reservoirs through processes like photosynthesis, respiration, and rock weathering. The nitrogen cycle explains how nitrogen is fixed from the atmosphere into usable forms through lightning, industrial processes, and symbiotic bacteria. These fixed nitrogen sources are then incorporated into living tissues and recycled through the decomposition of organisms.
The document discusses several biogeochemical cycles, including the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles. These cycles describe the continuous movement and exchange of substances between living organisms and their inorganic environment. Specifically, it notes that the water cycle involves the processes that move water through the environment, the carbon cycle involves the exchange of carbon between the atmosphere, organisms, and carbon deposits, and the nitrogen cycle describes how nitrogen is converted between different forms and moves between organisms and the atmosphere.
The document discusses the carbon cycle, which is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth. Carbon circulates as carbon dioxide and other compounds between living organisms and their environment. Key aspects of the carbon cycle discussed include how carbon moves between the atmosphere, plants, animals, oceans, soil, and fossil fuels through processes like photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and combustion. The carbon cycle is essential to life on Earth and helps regulate climate by transporting carbon between carbon sinks like forests, oceans, and the atmosphere.
This document discusses cycles of matter and ecological succession. It describes the oxygen, carbon, and water cycles, explaining how photosynthesis and respiration drive the exchange of gases. It also outlines the process of primary and secondary ecological succession, where pioneer species establish communities that over time develop into a climax ecosystem. Human impacts like burning fossil fuels and deforestation disrupt these natural cycles.
The document discusses several key components of Earth's biosphere:
- The biosphere is the region where the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere interact to support life. It contains biotic components like living organisms and abiotic components like air, water, and soil.
- Key biogeochemical cycles include the water, nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen cycles which transfer matter and energy between biotic and abiotic parts of the biosphere.
- The greenhouse effect involves gases like carbon dioxide trapping heat in the lower atmosphere and influencing global temperatures. Depletion of the ozone layer allows more harmful UV radiation to reach the Earth's surface.
The document discusses the key topics of environment, types of environment, and factors of environmental change. It defines environment as everything that surrounds us, including natural components like air, water, soil, and biotic factors like plants, animals and decomposers. There are two main types of environment - natural environments where organisms live naturally, and man-made environments like cities, farms, and industries. Factors causing environmental changes include deforestation, pollution, climate change, and human activities that release greenhouse gases and increase ocean acidification.
Ecology and Environment- A Comprehensive RelationshipManav Mahajan
This document discusses ecology and the environment. It defines ecology as the relationship between organisms and their physical surroundings. The environment includes the physical world of abiotic and biotic factors, the social world of human activities and relations, and the built world of human constructions. Ecology and the environment are interrelated, as changes in environmental factors can affect entire ecosystems. Organisms and ecosystems are dependent on various physical environmental factors like radiation, temperature, water, gravity, pressure, wind, and soil conditions.
Particulars $Amount Direct materials 64452 Direct Labour (1332.pdfarakalamkah11
Particulars $Amount Direct materials 64452 Direct Labour (1332 * 14) 18648
Manufacturing Overheads (1490 * 15) 22350 Total cost 105450 Number of units produced
3700 Unit product cost = Total cost / Number of units produced 28.5
Solution
Particulars $Amount Direct materials 64452 Direct Labour (1332 * 14) 18648
Manufacturing Overheads (1490 * 15) 22350 Total cost 105450 Number of units produced
3700 Unit product cost = Total cost / Number of units produced 28.5.
Decrease in inventory Source of cash $ 440 Decrease in account.pdfarakalamkah11
The company's inventory decreased, providing $440 in cash. Accounts payable also decreased using $170 in cash while notes payable increased, providing $155 in cash. Accounts receivable increased, using $185 in cash. Overall, cash increased by $240 for the company.
More Related Content
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The document provides an overview of environmental management and the components that make up the environment. It discusses the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. It also summarizes several important biogeochemical cycles including the nitrogen cycle, water cycle, carbon cycle, and oxygen cycle. The cycles describe the circulation and recycling of key elements like nitrogen, water, carbon, and oxygen between living organisms and their surroundings.
power point presentation on natural resource by Keshav rawatKeshav Rawat
The document discusses the biosphere and its abiotic and biotic components. It describes how life on Earth depends on resources like water and energy from the sun. It then discusses several types of pollution including air pollution from burning fossil fuels and water pollution from waste. It also describes the importance of soil and its formation. The biotic components are producers like plants and consumers like animals. Several biogeochemical cycles are also summarized, including the water, nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon cycles which are essential for maintaining balance in the biosphere.
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This document provides an outline for a course on environmental chemistry and pollution. It covers 5 units: introduction and identification of environmental chemistry; atmospheric composition and gaseous pollutants; water pollution; soil pollutants; and medical pollutants. The introduction defines key terms like environment, atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, anthroposphere, flora and fauna. It also discusses factors like population growth, urbanization and industrialization that impact the environment. The document further describes the natural cycles of water, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen and how human activities place burdens on the environment.
This document discusses various topics relating to balance in nature and man's impact on the environment. It begins by defining key terms like biotic and abiotic factors, ecosystems, food chains, and the water and carbon cycles. It then discusses different types of pollution like air, water, land, and noise pollution. Specific human activities that can cause pollution and disrupt ecosystems are mentioned, such as deforestation, mining, improper waste disposal, and the use of pesticides. The document also covers population growth and its effects on resource demand. Throughout, it emphasizes the importance of maintaining balance in nature.
Human activities like burning fossil fuels and deforestation are increasing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and leading to global warming. Trees naturally absorb carbon dioxide from the air but deforestation is removing this natural carbon sink. Increased greenhouse gases trap more heat in the lower atmosphere, causing changes to weather patterns and threatening ecosystems. The human population has doubled in recent decades, increasing resource use and emissions without developing sustainable solutions.
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The document discusses biogeochemical cycles, which describe the movement of chemical elements through the biosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. It specifically examines the carbon, water, nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, and sulfur cycles. Each cycle involves the movement of an element through various pools and fluxes between the biotic and abiotic components of Earth, driven by both physical and biological processes. Human activities have significantly impacted these natural cycles through activities like burning fossil fuels, agriculture, deforestation, and industrialization. Maintaining the natural biogeochemical cycles is essential for sustaining life on Earth.
Carbon cycle and global concerns on environmentRajat Nainwal
Carbon is the primary building block of life and cycles through different carbon pools in the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. The global carbon cycle involves fluxes of carbon between these pools through natural processes like photosynthesis, respiration, and geological processes. However, human activities like burning fossil fuels and deforestation have significantly increased carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, disrupting the natural carbon cycle and causing global climate change. Rising global temperatures will lead to problems like rising sea levels, food shortages, and threats to biodiversity.
The document discusses several key concepts related to ecosystems and biogeography:
1) It describes several important biogeochemical cycles (carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, water) that move key elements through ecosystems and influence plant and animal distributions.
2) It explains how solar energy flows through ecosystems via photosynthesis, primary production, and food chains/pyramids, with producers, primary consumers, and decomposers playing important roles.
3) It discusses factors that influence the natural distributions of plants and animals, such as evolutionary history, migration/dispersal abilities, and reproductive success within local environmental conditions.
1) Nutrient cycling involves the movement of elements like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and water through biotic and abiotic components of the biosphere.
2) There are two main types of nutrient cycles - gaseous cycles like carbon and nitrogen that occur globally in the atmosphere, and sedimentary cycles like phosphorus that tend to accumulate in sediments.
3) Nutrient cycles can operate globally, with gases circulating worldwide, or locally within ecosystems, with nutrients like phosphorus and calcium cycling within soils. Photosynthesis and respiration drive the global carbon cycle, while nitrogen is transformed between chemical forms by both biological and non-biological processes.
The document discusses several nutrient cycles that are important for plant growth. It focuses on the carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles. The carbon cycle describes how carbon is exchanged between the atmosphere, organisms, oceans, and geologic reservoirs through processes like photosynthesis, respiration, and rock weathering. The nitrogen cycle explains how nitrogen is fixed from the atmosphere into usable forms through lightning, industrial processes, and symbiotic bacteria. These fixed nitrogen sources are then incorporated into living tissues and recycled through the decomposition of organisms.
The document discusses several biogeochemical cycles, including the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles. These cycles describe the continuous movement and exchange of substances between living organisms and their inorganic environment. Specifically, it notes that the water cycle involves the processes that move water through the environment, the carbon cycle involves the exchange of carbon between the atmosphere, organisms, and carbon deposits, and the nitrogen cycle describes how nitrogen is converted between different forms and moves between organisms and the atmosphere.
The document discusses the carbon cycle, which is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth. Carbon circulates as carbon dioxide and other compounds between living organisms and their environment. Key aspects of the carbon cycle discussed include how carbon moves between the atmosphere, plants, animals, oceans, soil, and fossil fuels through processes like photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and combustion. The carbon cycle is essential to life on Earth and helps regulate climate by transporting carbon between carbon sinks like forests, oceans, and the atmosphere.
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The document discusses several key components of Earth's biosphere:
- The biosphere is the region where the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere interact to support life. It contains biotic components like living organisms and abiotic components like air, water, and soil.
- Key biogeochemical cycles include the water, nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen cycles which transfer matter and energy between biotic and abiotic parts of the biosphere.
- The greenhouse effect involves gases like carbon dioxide trapping heat in the lower atmosphere and influencing global temperatures. Depletion of the ozone layer allows more harmful UV radiation to reach the Earth's surface.
The document discusses the key topics of environment, types of environment, and factors of environmental change. It defines environment as everything that surrounds us, including natural components like air, water, soil, and biotic factors like plants, animals and decomposers. There are two main types of environment - natural environments where organisms live naturally, and man-made environments like cities, farms, and industries. Factors causing environmental changes include deforestation, pollution, climate change, and human activities that release greenhouse gases and increase ocean acidification.
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This document discusses ecology and the environment. It defines ecology as the relationship between organisms and their physical surroundings. The environment includes the physical world of abiotic and biotic factors, the social world of human activities and relations, and the built world of human constructions. Ecology and the environment are interrelated, as changes in environmental factors can affect entire ecosystems. Organisms and ecosystems are dependent on various physical environmental factors like radiation, temperature, water, gravity, pressure, wind, and soil conditions.
Particulars $Amount Direct materials 64452 Direct Labour (1332.pdfarakalamkah11
Particulars $Amount Direct materials 64452 Direct Labour (1332 * 14) 18648
Manufacturing Overheads (1490 * 15) 22350 Total cost 105450 Number of units produced
3700 Unit product cost = Total cost / Number of units produced 28.5
Solution
Particulars $Amount Direct materials 64452 Direct Labour (1332 * 14) 18648
Manufacturing Overheads (1490 * 15) 22350 Total cost 105450 Number of units produced
3700 Unit product cost = Total cost / Number of units produced 28.5.
Decrease in inventory Source of cash $ 440 Decrease in account.pdfarakalamkah11
The company's inventory decreased, providing $440 in cash. Accounts payable also decreased using $170 in cash while notes payable increased, providing $155 in cash. Accounts receivable increased, using $185 in cash. Overall, cash increased by $240 for the company.
Diamond is sp3 covalent. It makes for bonds to ne.pdfarakalamkah11
Diamond is sp3 covalent. It makes for bonds to neighboring carbons. forming an
endless network of tetrahedrons Graphite is a delocalized sp2 hybridized carbon system. the
entire sheet is flat because all carbons are trigonal planar and sp2 hybridized. Fullerenes have
sp2 carbons in a ball shape. It is a mixture of hexagons and pentagons. Nanotubes it is one layer
of graphite, aka graphene rolled up.
Solution
Diamond is sp3 covalent. It makes for bonds to neighboring carbons. forming an
endless network of tetrahedrons Graphite is a delocalized sp2 hybridized carbon system. the
entire sheet is flat because all carbons are trigonal planar and sp2 hybridized. Fullerenes have
sp2 carbons in a ball shape. It is a mixture of hexagons and pentagons. Nanotubes it is one layer
of graphite, aka graphene rolled up..
Too low. If you do not dry the sodium thiosulfate.pdfarakalamkah11
Too low. If you do not dry the sodium thiosulfate the extra water molecules will
increase volume while decreasing your actual number of moles of the salt and therefore produce
a lower molar concentration.
Solution
Too low. If you do not dry the sodium thiosulfate the extra water molecules will
increase volume while decreasing your actual number of moles of the salt and therefore produce
a lower molar concentration..
1. A bus is a bunch of wires used to connect multiple subsystems. Bu.pdfarakalamkah11
1. A bus is a bunch of wires used to connect multiple subsystems. Bus is a shared
communication link for different devices. It allows easy addition of new devices and components
in a system. Bus lines are divided into two types a) Control lines and b) Data lines. Control lines
are used to control the information flow in the datalines between source and destination.
2. IO device Control unit is a unit responsible for handling the working of IO devices in a
system. IO Device Control Unit receives the input and output requests from the central processor
and send device-specific control signals to the device they control. The unit actually control the
IO devices and thus relieves the cpu from the burden of controlling each IO device. Another key
function of IO Device Control Unit is to convert the data which is read from input device or
which is to be transferred to output device in appropriate form (human readeable to machine
redeable and vice versa) .
3. IO Device Control Unit Buffer is a special kind of temporary storage for IO devices which is
used to store sufficient amount of data before it is transferred to CPU. In a system, CPU
communicates with the IO devices and vice versa and in order for a system to operate properly
the devices must be in synchronization with the CPU. IO devices are usually slower than CPU
e:g printer is slower than CPU and when CPU sends some data to be printed this data is stored in
the buffer and then transferred to the printer with a speed suitable for printer. Similarly a buffer
is used to temporarily store data being entered from a n input device like keyboard, which allows
a large block of data to be keyed. held, and then transferred all at once to the CPU and in during
the typing period CPU performs some other tasks. Benefits of IO Device Control Unit Buffer are
Flow Control. (Modules canbuffer data until the adjacent module is ready to receive it), Better
CPU utiization, BetterThroughput etc
Solution
1. A bus is a bunch of wires used to connect multiple subsystems. Bus is a shared
communication link for different devices. It allows easy addition of new devices and components
in a system. Bus lines are divided into two types a) Control lines and b) Data lines. Control lines
are used to control the information flow in the datalines between source and destination.
2. IO device Control unit is a unit responsible for handling the working of IO devices in a
system. IO Device Control Unit receives the input and output requests from the central processor
and send device-specific control signals to the device they control. The unit actually control the
IO devices and thus relieves the cpu from the burden of controlling each IO device. Another key
function of IO Device Control Unit is to convert the data which is read from input device or
which is to be transferred to output device in appropriate form (human readeable to machine
redeable and vice versa) .
3. IO Device Control Unit Buffer is a special kind of temporary .
1. E) The vapor pressure of a liquid.Increasing attractive intermo.pdfarakalamkah11
1. E) The vapor pressure of a liquid.
Increasing attractive intermolecular forces causes molecules in the liquid to bond more strongly
to each other. Thus it is more difficult for the molecules to escape into the gas phase and the
vapor pressure decreases.
All the other properties listed should increase in value.
2. A) Ba(OH)2
The light bulb glows because H2SO4 is an acid and strong electrolyte that ionizes to form H+
and SO42- ions that conduct electricity. Ba(OH)2 is a base that reacts with H2SO4 to form water
and insoluble BaSO4:
Ba(OH)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) => BaSO4(s) + H2O(l)
The removal of H+ and SO42-ions decreases the conductivity of the solution, less current flows
and the bulb dims.
3. D) hydration
Hydration is the process whereby water molecules form dipole-dipole interactions with the solute
ions, releasing energy and causing the salt to fall apart.
4. E)All of these are correct.
All the statements about light, matter and energy are true.
5. d) 780 kJ, 1,575 kJ, 3,220 kJ, 4,350 kJ 16,100 kJ (you may have mistyped this in your
question but I have put the correct values here for you)
Silicon has electronic configuration 1s2 2s2p6 3s2p2
The first 4 electrons removed are in the n = 3 shell and have similar (but slowly increasing)
ionization energies. The 5th electron is from the n = 2 shell and is much more strongly bound to
the nucleus, so the ionization energy shows a large increase.
Solution
1. E) The vapor pressure of a liquid.
Increasing attractive intermolecular forces causes molecules in the liquid to bond more strongly
to each other. Thus it is more difficult for the molecules to escape into the gas phase and the
vapor pressure decreases.
All the other properties listed should increase in value.
2. A) Ba(OH)2
The light bulb glows because H2SO4 is an acid and strong electrolyte that ionizes to form H+
and SO42- ions that conduct electricity. Ba(OH)2 is a base that reacts with H2SO4 to form water
and insoluble BaSO4:
Ba(OH)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) => BaSO4(s) + H2O(l)
The removal of H+ and SO42-ions decreases the conductivity of the solution, less current flows
and the bulb dims.
3. D) hydration
Hydration is the process whereby water molecules form dipole-dipole interactions with the solute
ions, releasing energy and causing the salt to fall apart.
4. E)All of these are correct.
All the statements about light, matter and energy are true.
5. d) 780 kJ, 1,575 kJ, 3,220 kJ, 4,350 kJ 16,100 kJ (you may have mistyped this in your
question but I have put the correct values here for you)
Silicon has electronic configuration 1s2 2s2p6 3s2p2
The first 4 electrons removed are in the n = 3 shell and have similar (but slowly increasing)
ionization energies. The 5th electron is from the n = 2 shell and is much more strongly bound to
the nucleus, so the ionization energy shows a large increase..
Light is a form of energy that can be released by.pdfarakalamkah11
Light is a form of energy that can be released by an atom. It is made up of many
small particle-like packets that have energy and momentum but no mass. These particles, called
light photons, are the most basic units of light. Atoms release light photons when their electrons
become excited. When an atom gains or loses energy, the change is expressed by the movement
of electrons. When something passes energy on to an atom, an electron may be temporarily
boosted to a higher orbital (farther away from the nucleus). The electron only holds this position
for a tiny fraction of a second; almost immediately, it is drawn back toward the nucleus, to its
original orbital. As it returns to its original orbital, the electron releases the extra energy in the
form of a photon, in some cases a light photon.
Solution
Light is a form of energy that can be released by an atom. It is made up of many
small particle-like packets that have energy and momentum but no mass. These particles, called
light photons, are the most basic units of light. Atoms release light photons when their electrons
become excited. When an atom gains or loses energy, the change is expressed by the movement
of electrons. When something passes energy on to an atom, an electron may be temporarily
boosted to a higher orbital (farther away from the nucleus). The electron only holds this position
for a tiny fraction of a second; almost immediately, it is drawn back toward the nucleus, to its
original orbital. As it returns to its original orbital, the electron releases the extra energy in the
form of a photon, in some cases a light photon..
1) Presence of jaws with paired fins in fish helps to feed them. Fin.pdfarakalamkah11
1) Presence of jaws with paired fins in fish helps to feed them. Fins helps them with increased
stability and maneuverability and jaws helps to capture the prey and seize it.
2) Fish with jaws need to regulate their body temperature so they need to feed themselves often.
It capture the prey and send it to stomach for digestion and for temporary storage. Jawless fish
donot regulate their own body temperature so they don\'t need temporary storage like stomach
and also they have sucking mouth and sharp teeth which helps in digestion without the need for
pre digestion with gastric juice. So the fish which needs more food has jaw (Capture large prey)
with stomach (Temporary storage and pre digestion). The fish which needs less food has no jaw
and no stomach but with sucking mouth and also they have no fins. Jawless fish examples :
Lampreys and hagfish. Majority of the fishes are with jaws.
3) Two chambered heart have one atrium and one ventricle and three chambered heart have two
atrium and one ventricle. There are two types of circulatory system that is single circulation
system (fish) and double circulation system (reptiles, mammals)
In single circulation system, blood from the parts of the body enters heart through atrium and
then ventricle pumps the blood to gills where re-oxygenation takes place. From the gills, blood is
sent back to body parts. Blood enters the heart only once that is only deoxygenated blood enters.
In double circulation system, blood enters the heart twice that is from parts of the body to heart
then from heart to pulmonary circulation (Lungs) and from lungs to heart then heart to parts of
the body. Both deoxygenated and oxygenated blood enters the heart.
Solution
1) Presence of jaws with paired fins in fish helps to feed them. Fins helps them with increased
stability and maneuverability and jaws helps to capture the prey and seize it.
2) Fish with jaws need to regulate their body temperature so they need to feed themselves often.
It capture the prey and send it to stomach for digestion and for temporary storage. Jawless fish
donot regulate their own body temperature so they don\'t need temporary storage like stomach
and also they have sucking mouth and sharp teeth which helps in digestion without the need for
pre digestion with gastric juice. So the fish which needs more food has jaw (Capture large prey)
with stomach (Temporary storage and pre digestion). The fish which needs less food has no jaw
and no stomach but with sucking mouth and also they have no fins. Jawless fish examples :
Lampreys and hagfish. Majority of the fishes are with jaws.
3) Two chambered heart have one atrium and one ventricle and three chambered heart have two
atrium and one ventricle. There are two types of circulatory system that is single circulation
system (fish) and double circulation system (reptiles, mammals)
In single circulation system, blood from the parts of the body enters heart through atrium and
then ventricle pumps the blood to gills .
Youre looking for Ka, the dissociation constant.pdfarakalamkah11
You\'re looking for Ka, the dissociation constant, so you measure this by adding the
substance to water. 1. Write the balanced equation HBrO + H2O = BrO- + H30+ 2. the pH is
4.95, so you know its acidic and there has to have hydronium as a product. if the pH was >7.0,
there would be OH- instead. the pH is a measure of H ions, and to get the concentration, you
simply do 10^(-pH). 10^(-4.95) = 1.12E-5 3. The equation for Ka is concentration of
products/concentration of reactants. always look at the coefficients infront of the molecules in
the reaction. in this case, it is [BrO-)][H3O+]/[HBrO] *liquids and solids are never included in
this, only aqueous solutions and gases are* 4. Your concentration of H3O was found to be
1.12E-5, and because the H30 and BrO are in a 1:1 ration in the equation, the concentration for
BrO is also 1.12E-5. The concentration for HBrO as a reactant is given, but the final
concentration is 0.063-concentration of hydronium...but since the concentration of the
hydronium is so small, it doesnt at all affect the final answer. 5. your equation for Ka=((1.12E-
5)(1.12E-5))/(0.063-1.12E-5). The final answer for your Ka is 2.0E-9 Hope this helps, please
rate.
Solution
You\'re looking for Ka, the dissociation constant, so you measure this by adding the
substance to water. 1. Write the balanced equation HBrO + H2O = BrO- + H30+ 2. the pH is
4.95, so you know its acidic and there has to have hydronium as a product. if the pH was >7.0,
there would be OH- instead. the pH is a measure of H ions, and to get the concentration, you
simply do 10^(-pH). 10^(-4.95) = 1.12E-5 3. The equation for Ka is concentration of
products/concentration of reactants. always look at the coefficients infront of the molecules in
the reaction. in this case, it is [BrO-)][H3O+]/[HBrO] *liquids and solids are never included in
this, only aqueous solutions and gases are* 4. Your concentration of H3O was found to be
1.12E-5, and because the H30 and BrO are in a 1:1 ration in the equation, the concentration for
BrO is also 1.12E-5. The concentration for HBrO as a reactant is given, but the final
concentration is 0.063-concentration of hydronium...but since the concentration of the
hydronium is so small, it doesnt at all affect the final answer. 5. your equation for Ka=((1.12E-
5)(1.12E-5))/(0.063-1.12E-5). The final answer for your Ka is 2.0E-9 Hope this helps, please
rate..
Okay so dipole-dipole interactions would occur be.pdfarakalamkah11
Okay so dipole-dipole interactions would occur between polar molecules such as
water. The H has a + charge while O has a - charge. Dipole- induced dipole(or dispersion forces)
would be like a molecule that has a polar part to it such as a -COOH group and then a nonpolar
part such as a long hydrocarbon chain. The nonpolar part has no charge except the transient
charge among the different atoms. I hope that helps
Solution
Okay so dipole-dipole interactions would occur between polar molecules such as
water. The H has a + charge while O has a - charge. Dipole- induced dipole(or dispersion forces)
would be like a molecule that has a polar part to it such as a -COOH group and then a nonpolar
part such as a long hydrocarbon chain. The nonpolar part has no charge except the transient
charge among the different atoms. I hope that helps.
remote operating system installationRemote Installation Services (.pdfarakalamkah11
remote operating system installation
Remote Installation Services (RIS) ships as a part of the Windows® 2000 Server software
system. This document outlines the steps necessary to put in, configure, and use RIS.
RIS was designed to cut back the prices incurred by pre-installing or physically visiting every
consumer pc to put in the software system (OS). By combining RIS with alternative Windows
2000 IntelliMirror™ management technologies features—User knowledge Management,
software package Installation and Maintenance, and User Settings Management—companies get
pleasure from higher disaster recovery with easier OS and application management.
Prerequisites
See Appendix A below to confirm that each your server and consumer hardware meet the
remote installation hardware necessities.
The drive on the server wherever you decide on to put in RIS should be formatted with the
NTFS filing system. RIS needs a big quantity of space and can\'t be put in on constant drive or
partition on that Windows 2000 Server is put in. make sure that the chosen drive contains enough
free space for a minimum of one full Windows 2000 skilled compact disc—a minimum of
roughly 800 megabytes (MB)–1 GB (GB).
RIS needs many alternative services that conjointly ship as a part of Windows 2000 Server.
These services will be put in on individual servers, or all on one server, counting on your
network design:
Domain Name Service (DNS) Server. Remote installation depends on DNS for locating the
directory service and consumer machine accounts. you\'ll use any Windows 2000 Active
DirectoryTM service-compliant DNS server, otherwise you will use the DNS server given
Windows 2000 Server.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) Server. RIS needs a DHCP server to be gift and
active on the network. The remote boot-enabled consumer computers receive AN information
processing address from the DHCP server before contacting RIS.
Active Directory. RIS depends on Windows 2000 Active Directory for locating existing
consumer machines further as existing RIS servers. RIS should be put in on a Windows 2000-
based server that has access to Active Directory. this will be a site controller or a server that\'s a
member of a site with access to the Active Directory.
To ensure a in installation, you want to install and tack together the extra services delineate
higher than so as for RIS to perform. additionally, certify that you just have each the Windows
2000 Server and skilled CDs on the market.
Before starting this gradual guide, you wish to create the common infrastructure, that specifies a
specific hardware and software package configuration. The common infrastructure is roofed
within the Common Infrastructure gradual guide, \"Part 1: putting in a Windows 2000 Server as
a site Controller\"
http://www.microsoft.com/windows2000/techinfo/planning/server/serversteps.asp. If you\'re not
victimization the common infrastructure, you wish to create the suitable changes to the current
instruction set.
Alth.
Title of this process is The Project Life Cycle (Phases)The pr.pdfarakalamkah11
Title of this process is \"The Project Life Cycle (Phases)\"
The project manager and project team have one shared goal: to carry out the work of the project
for the purpose of meeting the project’s objectives. Every project has a beginning, a middle
period during which activities move the project toward completion, and an ending.
A standard project typically has the following four major phases: initiation, planning,
implementation, and closure. Taken together, these phases represent the path a project takes from
the beginning to its end and are generally referred to as the project “life cycle.”
Initiation Phase
During the first phases, the initiation phase, the project objective is identified; this can be a
business problem or opportunity. An appropriate response to the objective of the project is
documented with recommended solution options. A feasibility study is conducted to investigate
whether each option addresses the project objective and a final recommended solution is
determined. Issues of feasibility (“can we do the project?”) and justification (“should we do the
project?”) are addressed.
Once the recommended solution is approved, a project is initiated to deliver the approved
solution and a project manager is appointed. Approval is then sought by the project manager to
move onto the detailed planning phase.
Planning Phase
The planning phase, is where the project solution is further developed in as much detail as
possible and the steps necessary to meet the project’s objective are planned. In this step, the team
identifies all of the work to be done. The project’s tasks and resource requirements are identified,
along with the strategy for producing them.
A project plan is created outlining the activities, tasks, dependencies, and timeframes. The
project manager coordinates the preparation of a project budget by providing cost estimates for
the labor, equipment, and materials costs. The budget is used to monitor and control cost
expenditures during project implementation.
Implementation (Execution) Phase
During the third phase, the implementation phase, the project plan is put into motion and the
work of the project is performed. It is important to maintain control and communicate as needed
during implementation. Progress is continuously monitored and appropriate adjustments are
made and recorded as variances from the original plan.
Throughout this step, project sponsors and other key stakeholders should be kept informed of the
project’s status according to the agreed-on frequency and format of communication. The plan
should be updated and published on a regular basis.
Status reports should always emphasize the anticipated end point in terms of cost, schedule, and
quality of deliverables. Each project deliverable produced should be reviewed for quality and
measured against the acceptance criteria. Once all of the deliverables have been produced and
the customer has accepted the final solution, the project is ready for closure.
Closing.
The answer is A) Pol II, with twelve subunits on its own, is capable.pdfarakalamkah11
The answer is A) Pol II, with twelve subunits on its own, is capable of initiating transcription.
because it is composed with 12 subunits and due to incapable of specific promoter recognition it
can\'t initiate transcription.
Solution
The answer is A) Pol II, with twelve subunits on its own, is capable of initiating transcription.
because it is composed with 12 subunits and due to incapable of specific promoter recognition it
can\'t initiate transcription..
Q1). Gene therapy is an experimental approach to treat the disease b.pdfarakalamkah11
Q1). Gene therapy is an experimental approach to treat the disease by inserting therapeutic genes
or changing gene expression levels in the patient’s cells. Genes are nucleic acid polymers; these
therapeutic genes used in gene therapy generally encode a functional gene that replaces mutated
gene. Potential treatment for single gene genetic disorders such as haemophilia, muscular
dystrophy, cystic fibrosis, etc. was demonstrated. Treatment of cancer, AIDS (acquired immune
deficiency syndrome), Alzheimer’s disease and rheumatoid arthritis are also under active
investigation.
All the diseases cannot be cured by gene therapy. Some of hte good targets of the gene therapy
include,
1). Diseases with known genetic defects or mutations
2). Diseases with point mutations on one or more genes
3). The possibility of delivering genes to the affected tissues
4). If the substitution of defective gene correct the disease status
Solution
Q1). Gene therapy is an experimental approach to treat the disease by inserting therapeutic genes
or changing gene expression levels in the patient’s cells. Genes are nucleic acid polymers; these
therapeutic genes used in gene therapy generally encode a functional gene that replaces mutated
gene. Potential treatment for single gene genetic disorders such as haemophilia, muscular
dystrophy, cystic fibrosis, etc. was demonstrated. Treatment of cancer, AIDS (acquired immune
deficiency syndrome), Alzheimer’s disease and rheumatoid arthritis are also under active
investigation.
All the diseases cannot be cured by gene therapy. Some of hte good targets of the gene therapy
include,
1). Diseases with known genetic defects or mutations
2). Diseases with point mutations on one or more genes
3). The possibility of delivering genes to the affected tissues
4). If the substitution of defective gene correct the disease status.
Solution Three modes of DNA replication 1) Semi conservative.pdfarakalamkah11
Solution
:
Three modes of DNA replication
1) Semi conservative:
=> Each daughter strand is composed of one old DNA strand and one new DNA strand.
2) Conservative:
=> The original double helix remains as complete unit.
=> The new DNA double helix is produced as a single unit.
=> The old DNA is completly conserved.
3) Dispersive mode:
=>Separation of the individual covalent phosphodiester bonds is required for this mode of
replication..
package s3; Copy paste this Java Template and save it as Emer.pdfarakalamkah11
package s3;
// Copy paste this Java Template and save it as \"EmergencyRoom.java\"
import java.util.*;
import java.io.*;
// write your matric number here:
// write your name here:
// write list of collaborators here:
// year 2016 hash code: XAbyuzR78fXeaMHBdLan (do NOT delete this line)
class patientlist {
private String PatientName;
private int emergencyLvl;
public patientlist(String PatientName, int emergencyLvl) {
this.PatientName = PatientName;
this.emergencyLvl = emergencyLvl;
}
public String getPatientName() {
return PatientName;
}
public void setPatientName(String PatientName) {
this.PatientName = PatientName;
}
public int getEmergencyLvl() {
return emergencyLvl;
}
public void setEmergencyLvl(int emergencyLvl) {
this.emergencyLvl = emergencyLvl;
}
}
class EmergencyRoom {
// if needed, declare a private data structure here that
// is accessible to all methods in this class
private List patientlist;
public EmergencyRoom() {
// Write necessary code during construction
patientlist = new ArrayList();
}
void ArriveAtHospital(String patientName, int emergencyLvl) {
// You have to insert the information (patientName, emergencyLvl)
// into your chosen data structure
if (patientName.length() > 15 || patientName.length() < 1) {
System.out.println(\"patient name is either too long or too short.\ Please enter a name between 1
to 15 characters.\");
} else if (emergencyLvl > 100 || emergencyLvl < 30) {
System.out.println(\"Emergency level is either too high or too low.\ Please enter a valid level
between 30 to 100.\");
} else {
int i;
for (i = 0; i < patientlist.size(); i++) {
if (patientlist.get(i).getPatientName().compareToIgnoreCase(patientName) == 0) {
System.out.println(\"Patient already admitted\");
break;
}
}
if (i == patientlist.size()) {
patientlist p = new patientlist(patientName.toUpperCase(), emergencyLvl);
patientlist.add(p);
}
}
}
void UpdateEmergencyLvl(String patientName, int incEmergencyLvl) {
// You have to update the emergencyLvl of patientName to
// emergencyLvl += incEmergencyLvl
// and modify your chosen data structure (if needed)
int i;
for (i = 0; i < patientlist.size(); i++) {
if (patientlist.get(i).getPatientName().compareToIgnoreCase(patientName) == 0) {
//System.out.println(\"Patient already admitted\");
//break;
if (incEmergencyLvl > 70 || incEmergencyLvl < 0) {
System.out.println(\"Emergency level is either too high or too low.\ Please enter a valid
increment between 0 to 70.\");
break;
} else {
patientlist.get(i).setEmergencyLvl(patientlist.get(i).getEmergencyLvl() + incEmergencyLvl);
}
}
}
}
void Treat(String patientName) {
// This patientName is treated by the doctor
// remove him/her from your chosen data structure
int i;
for (i = 0; i < patientlist.size(); i++) {
if (patientlist.get(i).getPatientName().compareToIgnoreCase(patientName) == 0) {
patientlist.remove(i);
}
}
}
String Query() {
String ans = \"The emergency room is empty\";
int i;
if(patientlist.isEmpty())
return ans;
else{
int max=patientlist.get(0).getEme.
Our body is having two line defence system against pathogens.Pathoge.pdfarakalamkah11
Our body is having two line defence system against pathogens.Pathogens are micro-organisms
such like virus,bactria,parasite,fungi.
First line of defence system:- It is a outside defence system which protect body from the outside
,it includes skin ,tear,mucus,cilia,stomach acid,urine flow.
Skin acts as a barrier between pathogens and your body. it stops all microarganisms to enter in to
your body unless your skin get brokken.The pathogens can get enter through your nose
,eye,mouth, but through that if pathogen passes .Nose ,eye,mouth contains mucus,tear .they stop
pathogen and break down their cell wall because they contain enzyme.those that are not killed
immediately are trapped in mucus swallowed.
cilia is present in our windpipe.it helps to move mucus and traped pathogens from lungs.Urine
flow help to flush out pathogens from the bladder.stomach acid is present in stomach and helps
to kill pathogens.this is the fine defence.
Second line of defence system :- once pathogen cross your first line of defence second line of
defence active for example ,through the cut pathogen enter into body and develope infection then
second line defence active .Through a sequence of steps called immune response ,the immune
system attacks these pathogens.
In the second line of deffence system is a group of cells ,tissues,organs work together to protect
the body .This is called immune system.
The cells involved in the immune system called white blood cells is helps to destoys the desease
causing organisms.there are different types of white blood cells but function is same that protect
you from the organisms.
They are neutrophiles,T-helper cells,Cytotoxic cells,marcophases,B-cells.
These cells work together and kill the micro organism.
Tissues and Organs :- This are involved in the immune system are the lymphatic system ,lymph
nodes and lymp fluid.This are having specific function.
Lymphatic system is a system of thin tube present through out the body .These tubes are called
lymph vessels.they contain lymph.
Lymph is a fluid that contains white blood cells. lymph helps to protect body form micro
organisms.
This is a second line of defence system.
Solution
Our body is having two line defence system against pathogens.Pathogens are micro-organisms
such like virus,bactria,parasite,fungi.
First line of defence system:- It is a outside defence system which protect body from the outside
,it includes skin ,tear,mucus,cilia,stomach acid,urine flow.
Skin acts as a barrier between pathogens and your body. it stops all microarganisms to enter in to
your body unless your skin get brokken.The pathogens can get enter through your nose
,eye,mouth, but through that if pathogen passes .Nose ,eye,mouth contains mucus,tear .they stop
pathogen and break down their cell wall because they contain enzyme.those that are not killed
immediately are trapped in mucus swallowed.
cilia is present in our windpipe.it helps to move mucus and traped pathogens from lungs.Urine
flow help to flush out.
Once neurons are produced, they migrate and modify to form six layer.pdfarakalamkah11
Once neurons are produced, they migrate and modify to form six layered structure of cortex. The
earliest formed neurons form the preplate which is then split into marginal plate and subplate by
invading newly formed neurons. The neurons can have two origin: cortical ventricular zone and
ganglionic eminences. The corticular neurons exhibit radial migration and form projection
neurons while the ganglionic neurons exhibit tangantial migration and form interneurons. Both
types arrange in inside out sequence and the early neurons form the deep layers while the late
born neuron form the outer layers of cortex.
Solution
Once neurons are produced, they migrate and modify to form six layered structure of cortex. The
earliest formed neurons form the preplate which is then split into marginal plate and subplate by
invading newly formed neurons. The neurons can have two origin: cortical ventricular zone and
ganglionic eminences. The corticular neurons exhibit radial migration and form projection
neurons while the ganglionic neurons exhibit tangantial migration and form interneurons. Both
types arrange in inside out sequence and the early neurons form the deep layers while the late
born neuron form the outer layers of cortex..
PDU is called Protocol Data Unit.It consists of user data and protoc.pdfarakalamkah11
PDU is called Protocol Data Unit.It consists of user data and protocol control information. PDU
at layer 4 i.e Networks layer is called Segment.
Solution
PDU is called Protocol Data Unit.It consists of user data and protocol control information. PDU
at layer 4 i.e Networks layer is called Segment..
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
RPMS TEMPLATE FOR SCHOOL YEAR 2023-2024 FOR TEACHER 1 TO TEACHER 3
1. What roles does succession and phytoremediation play in ecology, .pdf
1. 1. What roles does succession and phytoremediation play in ecology, evolution and the
ecosystems?
Succession plays a major role to change in environmental conditions that causes a pronounced
change in an ecosystem. Disturbances often act quickly and with great effect, to alter the
physical structure or arrangement of biotic and abiotic elements. Disturbance can also occur over
a long period of time and can impact the diversity within an ecosystem. Major ecological
disturbances may
include fires, flooding, windstorms, insect outbreaks and trampling. Earthquakes, various types
of volcanic eruptions, tsunami, firestorms, impact events, climate change, and the devastating
effects of human impact on the environment (anthropogenic disturbances) such as clear cutting,
forest clearing and the introduction of invasive species can be considered major disturbances.
This can be attributed to physical changes in the biotic and abiotic conditions of an ecosystem.
Because of this, a disturbance force can change an ecosystem for significantly longer than the
period over which the immediate effects persist. With the passage of time following a
disturbance, shifts in dominance, shifts in dominance may occur with ephemeral herbaceous life-
forms progressively becoming over topped by taller perennials herbs, shrubs and trees. However,
in the absence of further disturbance forces, many ecosystems will trend back toward pre-
disturbance conditions. Long lived species and those which can regenerate in the presence of
their own adults will finally become dominant. Such alteration, accompanied by changes in the
abundance of different species over time, is called ecological succession. Succession often leads
to conditions that will once again predispose an ecosystem to disturbance.
Phytoremediation play a major role to clean up contaminated environments including metals,
pesticides, explosives, and oil. Also help prevent wind, rain, and groundwater flow from carrying
contaminants away from the site to surrounding areas or deeper underground. Certain plants are
able to remove or break down harmful chemicals from the ground when their roots take in water
and nutrients from the contaminated soil, sediment, or groundwater. Plants can help clean up
contaminants as deep as their roots can reach using natural processes to:
• Store the contaminants in the roots, stems, or leaves.
• Convert them to less harmful chemicals within the plant or, more commonly, the root zone. •
Convert them to vapors, which are released into the air.
• Sorb (stick) contaminants onto their roots where very small organisms called “microbes” (such
as bacteria) that live in the soil break down the sorbed contaminants to less harmful chemicals.
2. Biogeochemical cycles, succession and phytoremediation. Explain how all three work together
for a positive outcome.
Biological diversity is dependent on natural disturbance. The success of a wide range of species
2. from all taxonomic groups is closely tied to natural disturbance events such as fire, flooding, and
windstorm. As an example, many shade-intolerant plant species rely on disturbances for
successful establishment and to limit competition. Without this perpetual thinning, diversity of
forest flora can decline, affecting animals dependent on those plants as well.
When the environment is disturbed by many activities, it wil be replaced by phytoremediation
and the necessary requirements for the survival of the organism will be meet out by the
biological cycles.
3. Explain how each of the cycles benefit from each other.
These cycles are important because they regulate the elements necessary for life on Earth by
cycling them through the biological and physical aspects of the world. Biogeochemical cycles
are a form of natural recycling that allows the continuous survival of ecosystems. The cycles
move substances through the biosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. Cycles are
gaseous and sedimentary. Gaseous cycles include nitrogen, carbon and water. These elements
cycle through evaporation, absorption by plants and dispersion by wind.
Plants absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen, making the air breathable. Plants also acquire
nutrients from sediment. Animals acquire nutrients from plants and other animals, and the death
of plants and animals returns these nutrients to the sediment as they decay. The cycle then
repeats and allows other living things to benefit.
4. What role does nitrogen, carbon and water cycle play in ecology, evolution and ecosystems?
Nitrogen cycle
The nitrogen cycle provides nitrogen to the ecosystem from the atmosphere, ground and oceans.
Nitrogen is an important component of complex molecules such as amino acids and nucleotides,
which lead to the creation of proteins and DNA, the building blocks of all life. Plants absorb
nitrogen in the form of ammonium, nitrate ion and, on rare occasions, as amino acids. Animals
receive nitrogen necessary for biological processes from feeding on living or dead organic
matter. Nitrogen is commonly converted back into inorganic material when it joins the
biogeochemical cycle through decomposition. The nitrogen is then typically changed into
ammonium ion by bacteria and fungi through a process called mineralization.
When ammonium enters the soil, it is bound to certain clay particles. The ammonium is then
released from these particles by cation exchange. When the ammonium is released, its chemical
properties are altered by special bacteria and allowed to be dispersed from the soil. The new
form of nitrogen can then be transferred to oceans by the hydrologic system, where it is released
back into the atmosphere after being converted into gas through the denitrification process.
Carbon cycle
Carbon in the form of CO2 is present in the atmosphere in a very small amount, about 0.04
percent, but it has a big impact on sustainable life on the planet. The CO2 traps radiation in the
3. atmosphere and acts like a warm blanket around the planet, trapping heat in and keeping the
surface from freezing.
The way that humans live, using fossil fuels and other practices that release CO2 into the air,
contributes to the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. As this CO2 builds, the atmospheric blanket
continues to grow, adding to the amount of heat trapped in the atmosphere, which raises the
temperature on the surface of the planet. This is a major contributor to what is being called
global warming or global climate change. If humans leave the excess CO2 in the atmosphere, it
takes several thousands of years to work its way out of the air through natural mechanisms.
Water cycle
The water cycle is an important process that recycles water and nutrients. It brings freshwater to
people, animals and plants all around the world. The water cycle begins with the ocean, lakes,
ponds and other bodies of water on earth. Water evaporates from these bodies of water, and as
the evaporated water lifts into the sky, it is cooled rapidly and condenses to form clouds. These
clouds act as storage compartments for water. As they become filled with water, precipitation
occurs. Clouds travel all around the world by wind currents and can bring precipitation to every
part of the world. Once the water reaches the ground in the form of rain, snow, sleet or ice, some
of the water may evaporate back into the air to form clouds, while other parts of the water may
penetrate the soil and become groundwater. The groundwater can either return to the atmosphere
and form clouds via transpiration, or it can flow into oceans, rivers, streams and other bodies of
water. The cycle then begins again, with water evaporating from earth’s bodies of water.
5. Explain Nitrogen and phosphorus cycle
Nitrogen Cycle:
The chemical structure of nitrogen gas makes it chemically unreactive in nature and large
amounts of energy are required to break the triple bond. When a lightning strike in the biosphere,
enormous energy is released and breaks the nitrogen molecules. The nitrogen atoms can then
combine with oxygen in the atmosphere to produce various oxides of nitrogen, which are carried
by the rain into the soil where they can be used by existing plants in the ecosystem. This process
is known as Atmospheric nitrogen fixation. About 5–8% of the total nitrogen is only fixed this
way. Apart from this, most nitrogen fixation is done by free-living or symbiotic bacteria. Such
Nitrogen-fixing microorganisms can fix about 60% of nitrogen gas in the atmosphere. This
process is known as Biological nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen fixation is a process where N2 is
converted to ammonium, since it is the only way for organisms to attain nitrogen directly from
the atmosphere. Only a relatively few bacteria are able to carry out this reaction and they are
termed as the nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Nitrogen fixing plants are termed as legumes. The
bacteria of the genus Rhizobium have the ability to fix nitrogen through their metabolic
processes. They often form symbiotic relationships with the host legume plants such as beans,
4. peas and clover. Ammonia produced by the nitrogen fixing bacteria is converted to organic
nitrogen, which is then incorporated as protein and other organic nitrogen compounds mainly by
some soil microorganisms.
Herbivores such as rabbits, cow etc secures their nitrogen compounds from plants and it
circulates in their body to make their proteins and new cells. When these animals die, the
nitrogen still exists in their body until decomposers take their action. Decomposers such as
bacteria and fungi consume the organic matter and lead to the process of decomposition, where
the nitrogen contained in the dead organism is converted into ammonium compounds, the
process is known as Ammonification. Once ammonium is formed the further transformation into
nitrates are carried out through the nitrification process.
Nitrification, a step process, refers to the biological conversion of ammonium in the soil to
nitrate. In the first step, the compounds such as the ammonia and Ammonium are converted to
nitrites (NO2-) with the help of the bacteria such as Nitrosomonas. These nitrites (NO2-) are
highly toxic to plants and animals in their higher concentration. Thus the nitrites (NO2-) are then
converted to nitrates (NO3-) by the bacteria such as Nitrobacter. The nitrates can then be taken in
by plants. This oxidation reactions release large amount of energy is released which can be
utilized by the nitrifying bacteria to produce organic compounds from inorganic ions. Examples
of nitrifying bacteria include Nitrosomonas, Nitrosococcus, Nitrobacter and Nitrosospira. The
conversion of nitrates (NO3-) to primarily nitrogen gas, by the denitrifying bacteria, is termed as
Denitrification process. This also derives lower proportions nitrous oxide gas. The denitrifying
bacteria are mainly heterotrophic bacteria such as Pseudomonas, uses NO3- instead of oxygen in
their metabolic processes. The nitrogen gas is then returned to the atmosphere. Typical examples
of denitrifying bacteria include Micrococcus denitrificans, Thiobacillus denitrificans, Paracoccus
denitrificans and Pseudomonas. Once the nitrogenous compounds are converted into dinitrogen,
converted back to biologically available forms since the gas is rapidly lost to the atmosphere.
This process balances the nitrogen fixation process in the ecosystem.
Phosphorus Cycle
The phosphorus cycle differs from the other major biogeochemical cycles in that it does not
include a gas phase; although small amounts of phosphoric acid (H3PO4) may make their way
into the atmosphere, contributing—in some cases—to acid rain. The water, carbon, nitrogen and
sulfur cycles all include at least one phase in which the element is in its gaseous state. Very little
phosphorus circulates in the atmosphere because at Earth’s normal temperatures and pressures,
phosphorus and its various compounds are not gases. The largest reservoir of phosphorus is in
sedimentary rock.
It is in these rocks where the phosphorus cycle begins. When it rains, phosphates are removed
5. from the rocks (via weathering) and are distributed throughout both soils and water. Plants take
up the phosphate ions from the soil. The phosphates then moves from plants to animals when
herbivoreseat plants and carnivores eat plants or herbivores. The phosphates absorbed by animal
tissue through consumption eventually returns to the soil through the excretion of urine and
feces, as well as from the final decomposition of plants and animals after death.
The same process occurs within the aquatic ecosystem. Phosphorus is not highly soluble, binding
tightly to molecules in soil, therefore it mostly reaches waters by traveling with runoff soil
particles. Phosphates also enter waterways through fertilizer runoff, sewage seepage, natural
mineral deposits, and wastes from other industrial processes. These phosphates tend to settle on
ocean floors and lake bottoms. As sediments are stirred up, phosphates may reenter the
phosphorus cycle, but they are more commonly made available to aquatic organisms by being
exposed through erosion. Water plants take up the waterborne phosphate which then travels up
through successive stages of the aquatic food chain.
Solution
1. What roles does succession and phytoremediation play in ecology, evolution and the
ecosystems?
Succession plays a major role to change in environmental conditions that causes a pronounced
change in an ecosystem. Disturbances often act quickly and with great effect, to alter the
physical structure or arrangement of biotic and abiotic elements. Disturbance can also occur over
a long period of time and can impact the diversity within an ecosystem. Major ecological
disturbances may
include fires, flooding, windstorms, insect outbreaks and trampling. Earthquakes, various types
of volcanic eruptions, tsunami, firestorms, impact events, climate change, and the devastating
effects of human impact on the environment (anthropogenic disturbances) such as clear cutting,
forest clearing and the introduction of invasive species can be considered major disturbances.
This can be attributed to physical changes in the biotic and abiotic conditions of an ecosystem.
Because of this, a disturbance force can change an ecosystem for significantly longer than the
period over which the immediate effects persist. With the passage of time following a
disturbance, shifts in dominance, shifts in dominance may occur with ephemeral herbaceous life-
forms progressively becoming over topped by taller perennials herbs, shrubs and trees. However,
in the absence of further disturbance forces, many ecosystems will trend back toward pre-
disturbance conditions. Long lived species and those which can regenerate in the presence of
their own adults will finally become dominant. Such alteration, accompanied by changes in the
abundance of different species over time, is called ecological succession. Succession often leads
6. to conditions that will once again predispose an ecosystem to disturbance.
Phytoremediation play a major role to clean up contaminated environments including metals,
pesticides, explosives, and oil. Also help prevent wind, rain, and groundwater flow from carrying
contaminants away from the site to surrounding areas or deeper underground. Certain plants are
able to remove or break down harmful chemicals from the ground when their roots take in water
and nutrients from the contaminated soil, sediment, or groundwater. Plants can help clean up
contaminants as deep as their roots can reach using natural processes to:
• Store the contaminants in the roots, stems, or leaves.
• Convert them to less harmful chemicals within the plant or, more commonly, the root zone. •
Convert them to vapors, which are released into the air.
• Sorb (stick) contaminants onto their roots where very small organisms called “microbes” (such
as bacteria) that live in the soil break down the sorbed contaminants to less harmful chemicals.
2. Biogeochemical cycles, succession and phytoremediation. Explain how all three work together
for a positive outcome.
Biological diversity is dependent on natural disturbance. The success of a wide range of species
from all taxonomic groups is closely tied to natural disturbance events such as fire, flooding, and
windstorm. As an example, many shade-intolerant plant species rely on disturbances for
successful establishment and to limit competition. Without this perpetual thinning, diversity of
forest flora can decline, affecting animals dependent on those plants as well.
When the environment is disturbed by many activities, it wil be replaced by phytoremediation
and the necessary requirements for the survival of the organism will be meet out by the
biological cycles.
3. Explain how each of the cycles benefit from each other.
These cycles are important because they regulate the elements necessary for life on Earth by
cycling them through the biological and physical aspects of the world. Biogeochemical cycles
are a form of natural recycling that allows the continuous survival of ecosystems. The cycles
move substances through the biosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. Cycles are
gaseous and sedimentary. Gaseous cycles include nitrogen, carbon and water. These elements
cycle through evaporation, absorption by plants and dispersion by wind.
Plants absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen, making the air breathable. Plants also acquire
nutrients from sediment. Animals acquire nutrients from plants and other animals, and the death
of plants and animals returns these nutrients to the sediment as they decay. The cycle then
repeats and allows other living things to benefit.
4. What role does nitrogen, carbon and water cycle play in ecology, evolution and ecosystems?
Nitrogen cycle
The nitrogen cycle provides nitrogen to the ecosystem from the atmosphere, ground and oceans.
7. Nitrogen is an important component of complex molecules such as amino acids and nucleotides,
which lead to the creation of proteins and DNA, the building blocks of all life. Plants absorb
nitrogen in the form of ammonium, nitrate ion and, on rare occasions, as amino acids. Animals
receive nitrogen necessary for biological processes from feeding on living or dead organic
matter. Nitrogen is commonly converted back into inorganic material when it joins the
biogeochemical cycle through decomposition. The nitrogen is then typically changed into
ammonium ion by bacteria and fungi through a process called mineralization.
When ammonium enters the soil, it is bound to certain clay particles. The ammonium is then
released from these particles by cation exchange. When the ammonium is released, its chemical
properties are altered by special bacteria and allowed to be dispersed from the soil. The new
form of nitrogen can then be transferred to oceans by the hydrologic system, where it is released
back into the atmosphere after being converted into gas through the denitrification process.
Carbon cycle
Carbon in the form of CO2 is present in the atmosphere in a very small amount, about 0.04
percent, but it has a big impact on sustainable life on the planet. The CO2 traps radiation in the
atmosphere and acts like a warm blanket around the planet, trapping heat in and keeping the
surface from freezing.
The way that humans live, using fossil fuels and other practices that release CO2 into the air,
contributes to the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. As this CO2 builds, the atmospheric blanket
continues to grow, adding to the amount of heat trapped in the atmosphere, which raises the
temperature on the surface of the planet. This is a major contributor to what is being called
global warming or global climate change. If humans leave the excess CO2 in the atmosphere, it
takes several thousands of years to work its way out of the air through natural mechanisms.
Water cycle
The water cycle is an important process that recycles water and nutrients. It brings freshwater to
people, animals and plants all around the world. The water cycle begins with the ocean, lakes,
ponds and other bodies of water on earth. Water evaporates from these bodies of water, and as
the evaporated water lifts into the sky, it is cooled rapidly and condenses to form clouds. These
clouds act as storage compartments for water. As they become filled with water, precipitation
occurs. Clouds travel all around the world by wind currents and can bring precipitation to every
part of the world. Once the water reaches the ground in the form of rain, snow, sleet or ice, some
of the water may evaporate back into the air to form clouds, while other parts of the water may
penetrate the soil and become groundwater. The groundwater can either return to the atmosphere
and form clouds via transpiration, or it can flow into oceans, rivers, streams and other bodies of
water. The cycle then begins again, with water evaporating from earth’s bodies of water.
5. Explain Nitrogen and phosphorus cycle
8. Nitrogen Cycle:
The chemical structure of nitrogen gas makes it chemically unreactive in nature and large
amounts of energy are required to break the triple bond. When a lightning strike in the biosphere,
enormous energy is released and breaks the nitrogen molecules. The nitrogen atoms can then
combine with oxygen in the atmosphere to produce various oxides of nitrogen, which are carried
by the rain into the soil where they can be used by existing plants in the ecosystem. This process
is known as Atmospheric nitrogen fixation. About 5–8% of the total nitrogen is only fixed this
way. Apart from this, most nitrogen fixation is done by free-living or symbiotic bacteria. Such
Nitrogen-fixing microorganisms can fix about 60% of nitrogen gas in the atmosphere. This
process is known as Biological nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen fixation is a process where N2 is
converted to ammonium, since it is the only way for organisms to attain nitrogen directly from
the atmosphere. Only a relatively few bacteria are able to carry out this reaction and they are
termed as the nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Nitrogen fixing plants are termed as legumes. The
bacteria of the genus Rhizobium have the ability to fix nitrogen through their metabolic
processes. They often form symbiotic relationships with the host legume plants such as beans,
peas and clover. Ammonia produced by the nitrogen fixing bacteria is converted to organic
nitrogen, which is then incorporated as protein and other organic nitrogen compounds mainly by
some soil microorganisms.
Herbivores such as rabbits, cow etc secures their nitrogen compounds from plants and it
circulates in their body to make their proteins and new cells. When these animals die, the
nitrogen still exists in their body until decomposers take their action. Decomposers such as
bacteria and fungi consume the organic matter and lead to the process of decomposition, where
the nitrogen contained in the dead organism is converted into ammonium compounds, the
process is known as Ammonification. Once ammonium is formed the further transformation into
nitrates are carried out through the nitrification process.
Nitrification, a step process, refers to the biological conversion of ammonium in the soil to
nitrate. In the first step, the compounds such as the ammonia and Ammonium are converted to
nitrites (NO2-) with the help of the bacteria such as Nitrosomonas. These nitrites (NO2-) are
highly toxic to plants and animals in their higher concentration. Thus the nitrites (NO2-) are then
converted to nitrates (NO3-) by the bacteria such as Nitrobacter. The nitrates can then be taken in
by plants. This oxidation reactions release large amount of energy is released which can be
utilized by the nitrifying bacteria to produce organic compounds from inorganic ions. Examples
of nitrifying bacteria include Nitrosomonas, Nitrosococcus, Nitrobacter and Nitrosospira. The
conversion of nitrates (NO3-) to primarily nitrogen gas, by the denitrifying bacteria, is termed as
Denitrification process. This also derives lower proportions nitrous oxide gas. The denitrifying
9. bacteria are mainly heterotrophic bacteria such as Pseudomonas, uses NO3- instead of oxygen in
their metabolic processes. The nitrogen gas is then returned to the atmosphere. Typical examples
of denitrifying bacteria include Micrococcus denitrificans, Thiobacillus denitrificans, Paracoccus
denitrificans and Pseudomonas. Once the nitrogenous compounds are converted into dinitrogen,
converted back to biologically available forms since the gas is rapidly lost to the atmosphere.
This process balances the nitrogen fixation process in the ecosystem.
Phosphorus Cycle
The phosphorus cycle differs from the other major biogeochemical cycles in that it does not
include a gas phase; although small amounts of phosphoric acid (H3PO4) may make their way
into the atmosphere, contributing—in some cases—to acid rain. The water, carbon, nitrogen and
sulfur cycles all include at least one phase in which the element is in its gaseous state. Very little
phosphorus circulates in the atmosphere because at Earth’s normal temperatures and pressures,
phosphorus and its various compounds are not gases. The largest reservoir of phosphorus is in
sedimentary rock.
It is in these rocks where the phosphorus cycle begins. When it rains, phosphates are removed
from the rocks (via weathering) and are distributed throughout both soils and water. Plants take
up the phosphate ions from the soil. The phosphates then moves from plants to animals when
herbivoreseat plants and carnivores eat plants or herbivores. The phosphates absorbed by animal
tissue through consumption eventually returns to the soil through the excretion of urine and
feces, as well as from the final decomposition of plants and animals after death.
The same process occurs within the aquatic ecosystem. Phosphorus is not highly soluble, binding
tightly to molecules in soil, therefore it mostly reaches waters by traveling with runoff soil
particles. Phosphates also enter waterways through fertilizer runoff, sewage seepage, natural
mineral deposits, and wastes from other industrial processes. These phosphates tend to settle on
ocean floors and lake bottoms. As sediments are stirred up, phosphates may reenter the
phosphorus cycle, but they are more commonly made available to aquatic organisms by being
exposed through erosion. Water plants take up the waterborne phosphate which then travels up
through successive stages of the aquatic food chain.