1. What does 44 indicate。The number of pulses in a meter。The

1. What does 4/4 indicate?
。The number of pulses in a meter
。The speed of the song
。The number of meters in a section
。The number of parts in a song
2. What does "swing" or "shuffle" indicate?
。That there is a division of three in song
。That the song is a verse, chorus song
。That it is not rock and roll
。That the measures are long
3. What do we call a hook of the song that is:
a single line and attached at the end of the primary lyrical
passage
not immediately repeated over and over
usually the title of the song
。Pre-chorus
。Bridge
。Verse
。Refrain
。Chorus
4. What usually makes a chorus more memorable than other
parts of the song? (choose all that are appropriate)（Need to
choose four correct answers）
。Tells a story
。Contains song title
。Loud
。Repetitive
。High
。Shorter than other sections
Special Issue: School Counseling Leadership in Practice

School Counselors as Curricular Leaders:
A Content Analysis of ASCA Lesson Plans
Caroline J. Lopez1 and Erin C. M. Mason2
Abstract
The authors examined school counselors design of classroom
curriculum lessons through a content analysis of lesson plans
located on the American School Counselor Association (ASCA)
Scene website. The analysis coded 139 lesson plans based on 12
lesson plan component categories and types of instructional
strategies used. Findings address the frequency of topics related
to
the three ASCA domains, grade levels, and scores on 12 lesson
components including overall total score. The article includes
implications for school counselor leadership and training.
Keywords
classroom guidance, counseling curriculum, core curriculum,
lesson plan, school counselor, school counselor leadership
The purpose of this study was to add to the body of literature
that seeks to understand school counselors’ design of classroom
curriculum lessons. By conducting a content analysis of lesson
plans from the American School Counselor Association
(ASCA) Scene resource center, this study focuses on the curri -
culum design of school counselors, including (a) the types of
classroom lessons that are used in the profession, (b) the quality
of classroom lessons, (c) school counselors’ competence in the

development of classroom guidance lessons, and (d) types of
instructional activities employed by school counselors. We dis-
cuss the application of principles of leadership to curriculum
design and delivery and implications for school counselor prac -
tice and preparation.
Implementing a Comprehensive School Counseling
Model as a Function of Leadership
Multiple studies suggest that a fully implemented comprehen-
sive school counseling program has a positive overall impact
on schools and, most important, on student achievement
(Dahir, Burnham, & Stone, 2009; Mason, 2010; Richard,
2001). School counselors who lead change efforts within the
school to improve outcomes for all students are demonstrating
horizontal leadership (Young & Miller Kneale, 2012). To drive
change efforts at any level, counselor leaders must be knowl -
edgeable about systems and know how to maneuver strategi-
cally within them (Saginak & Dollarhide, 2006). Gaining
systemic support for the counseling curriculum, both in and

outside the school, necessitates that school counselors enact
their roles as leaders.
School counselors who take an active role in
planning, preparing, delivering, and evaluating the
core counseling curriculum for all students
demonstrate their roles as leaders.
Within the comprehensive school counseling model, curri-
culum planning is a fundamental leadership responsibility. In
the School Leadership That Works framework, the school
counselor leader remains focused on established goals and core
beliefs and advocates for the program as a whole (Marzano,
Waters, & McNulty, 2005). School counselors who understand
instructional practices, especially those that support the
school’s vision and the standards of the time, create a counsel -
ing curriculum that is critical both to the school and to students’
education. As a change agent, the school counselor is involved
in curriculum design and implementation and in monitoring the
effectiveness of school practices that impact student learning

(Marzano et al., 2005). Amatea and Clark (2005) identify the
innovative school leader as one who designs and implements
curriculum as part of efforts to implement a comprehensive
program.
1 California State University, Long Beach, Long Beach CA,
USA
2 Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
Corresponding Author:
Caroline J. Lopez, PhD, California State University, Long
Beach, CA 90840,
USA.
Email: [email protected]
Professional School Counseling
Volume 21(1b): 1-12
ª 2018 American School
Counselor Association
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School counselors who understand instructional
practices, especially those that support the school’s
vision and the standards of the time, create a
counseling curriculum that is critical both to the
school and to students’ education.
Defining Counseling Curriculum and Classroom
Curriculum
As school counseling has evolved as a profession, terminology
used in the field has shifted, so we clarify several terms for the
sake of this article. As identified by the ASCA National Model
(ASCA, 2012), “counseling curriculum” is inclusive of the
school counseling–related content that all students should
receive through the school counseling program. This content
is outlined at the national level by the ASCA Mindsets &
Behaviors for Student Success: K-12 College- and Career-
Readiness for Every Student (ASCA, 2014a), which is recog-
nized as the current set of standards for students. The delivery

mode or format may vary and the counseling curriculum can be
delivered during advisory periods, in study halls, in large
grade-wide assemblies, in groups, or most commonly, in class-
rooms. For the purpose of this article, classroom curriculum
will refer specifically to the counseling curriculum that is deliv-
ered in the classroom.
Significance and Effectiveness of Classroom Curriculum
Delivery of the counseling curriculum has increasingly become
an important leadership function of school counselors because
it reaches all students, a guiding principle of the ASCA
National Model framework (ASCA, 2012). Counseling curri-
culum, in the form of classroom curriculum in particular, con-
sists of structured lessons intended to help students attain the
desired mind-sets and behaviors for their developmental level.
Classroom curriculum has been identified as an efficient use of
time for addressing developmental issues within the academic,
career, and social/emotional domains (Dahir & Tyson, 2014).
ASCA (2012) recommends that, at the elementary level, school

counselors devote 35–45% of the counseling program to imple-
menting curriculum; at the middle school level, 25–35%; and at
the high school level, 15–25% should be devoted to curriculum.
Teachers and administrators also recognize the impact of
classroom curriculum lessons on student success. Specifically,
teachers (Clark & Amatea, 2004) and principals (Zalaquett,
2005) report that classroom curriculum is one of the most
essential functions of school counselors. Elementary school
counselors have reported that classroom curriculum is a critical
component of their role (Mau, 2008); however, it has received
little attention in the research (Whiston & Quinby, 2009).
Given the emphasis on classroom curriculum as a means of
reaching large numbers of students, the increased need for
accountability, and curriculum design as a vehicle for school
counselor leadership, the profession’s examination of the
lesson planning and classroom curriculum design practices of
school counselors is critical.
Studies have shown that classroom curriculum can posi-
tively impact students’ academic, social/emotional, and career

development. For example, Lee (1993) found that classroom
curriculum lessons on school success positively influenced aca-
demic achievement in math, and Sink and Stroh (2003) found
that schools with comprehensive counseling programs that
included classroom curriculum had higher academic achieve-
ment than schools that did not. Furthermore, classroom curri -
culum lessons using Student Success Skills were found to have
positive effects on standardized test scores (Villares, Lember-
ger, Brigman, & Webb, 2011). However, most of the literature
on the effectiveness of classroom curriculum outcomes focused
on established, commercial, and evidence-based curriculum
rather than school counselor–generated lessons.
School Counselors and Curricular Design
and Development
Among school counselors are those who have come to the
profession as former teachers or with school-based experience
and those who have not. Today, few states still require that
school counselors have prior teaching experience, although

historically this was the norm. According to ASCA (n.d.), only
six states (Connecticut, Kansas, Louisiana, Nebraska, Oregon,
and Texas) require school counseling candidates to hold a
teaching license. School counselors with a background in
teaching may be more readily accepted as curricular leaders
by their teacher colleagues and thus may have a leadership edge
over those without a teaching background (Criswell, 2005).
Furthermore, school counselor preparation programs may have
inconsistencies with regard to curricular development. School
counseling evolved out of a model in which individual counsel -
ing services were the most common and many counselors may
not have backgrounds as educators; therefore, lack of training
in curricular design is likely. The Council for the Accreditation
of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP),
the primary accrediting body for counselor training programs,
lists only one standard that addresses curricular development or
design. The 2016 CACREP standards include “core curriculum
design, lesson plan development, classroom management stra-

tegies, and differentiated instructional strategies” (CACREP,
2016). Classroom curriculum is a stated component of a com-
prehensive school counseling program (ASCA, 2012), and a
2008 study found that 44 of 50 states suggest the implementa-
tion of the comprehensive model as a statewide standard, up
from 24 states just 10 years prior (Martin, Carey, & DeCoster,
2009). For these reasons, school counselors without a teaching
background may have to work harder or longer to develop as
curricular leaders than their counterparts with a teaching back-
ground. Preservice exposure to curriculum design, lesson plan-
ning classroom management, and differentiated instruction
strategies via didactic school counseling leadership classes and
2 Professional School Counseling
field experiences is critical to school counselors’ development
as curricular leaders.
Despite the increased time dedicated to the delivery of les -
son plans and curriculum development, school counselors have

limited training with both. Desmond, West, and Bubenzer
(2007) examined the mentorship experiences of novice school
counselors with no teaching experience and found that novice
school counselors reported the need for assistance with lesson
planning and delivery. Furthermore, school counselors have
ranked classroom activities as the most important topic for
continuing education (Anctil, Smith, Schenck, & Dahir,
2012; Knight, 2015). According to Sink (2005), good teaching
is essential for the efficient delivery of classroom curriculum
lessons. Because of this, a closer examination of the lesson
planning practices of school counselors, as functions of school
counseling program implementation and school counselor
leadership development, is necessary.
Using Leadership to Gain Support for the Counseling
Curriculum
School counselors who take an active role in planning, prepar-
ing, delivering, and evaluating the core counseling curriculum
for all students demonstrate their roles as leaders. Research
shows that school counselors who reported having more fully

implemented, comprehensive, developmental programs also
reported higher leadership practices than those who did not
report as high on program implementation (Mason, 2010;
Mason & McMahon, 2009). A 2016 survey of 693 school
counselors showed that those who use classroom curriculum
to implement a comprehensive program exhibited a greater
degree of confidence in their ability as counselors and rated
themselves highly regarding self-efficacy (Mullen & Lambie,
2016). Further, when others in the school value the role of the
school counselor as a leader, the school counselor is more
likely to be seen as someone who contributes to positive stu-
dent outcomes (Stone & Dahir, 2006). As leaders, school coun-
selors must have the disposition to challenge the status quo
while staying deeply connected to the members of the school
community (Marzano et al., 2005). A key strategy in serving
the needs of the school community is to connect the school
counseling program to school-wide initiatives.
Connecting to school-wide initiatives. One strategic way school

counselors can take the lead is to connect the core curriculum
to initiatives related to multitiered systems of support, a recent
but widely adopted framework in schools for providing aca-
demic and behavior interventions (ASCA, 2014b). Through
these avenues, the core curriculum can become standardized
as a part of a school-wide improvement plan for implementing
Tier 1 interventions (Ryan, Kaffenberger, & Carroll, 2011).
School-based strategic plans or improvement plans may pro-
vide data and goals from which to develop ideas for annual
classroom curriculum. Furthermore, the advisory council,
which is included in the management component of the ASCA
National Model (ASCA, 2012), can serve to help the counselor
or counseling team to connect the curriculum to school-wide
initiatives.
Gaining buy-in through collaboration. Necessary leadership
skills
for gaining buy-in for providing classroom lessons may include
knowledge of the systemic nature of schools (DeVoss &
Andrews, 2006), cultural proficiency (Lindsey, Robins, & Ter-

rell, 2009), self-efficacy (Mullen & Lambie, 2016), and nego-
tiating strategies and proposal pitching (Dollarhide, 2003). Part
of these negotiation efforts includes working with multiple
stakeholders, of whom classroom teachers are most important.
By working and collaborating with teachers, all of whom reg-
ularly design and develop curricula, school counselors can
enhance and strengthen their position as curricular leaders in
the school building. These skills recall Bolman and Deal’s
(2008) Four Framework approach, which conceptualizes lead-
ership through structural, human resource, political, or sym-
bolic constructs. The school counselor leader knows who
wields influence in the building or district (political) and pos -
sesses the communication skills to build relationships (human
resource) with stakeholders to develop resources (structural)
for the counseling program (Dollarhide, 2003). Young (2013)
expands the school counselor leadership tool kit to five char -
acteristics: resourceful problem-solving, systemic collabora-
tion, interpersonal influence, social justice advocacy, and

professional efficacy. Young’s framework shares much with
Bolman and Deal’s conceptualization of leadership, not least
of which is collaboration, especially considering that skills in
collaboration and coalition building advance the school’s mis -
sion and align with a comprehensive school counseling model.
According to Tollerud and Nejedlo (2004), school counselors
can also train teachers in the delivery of classroom curriculum
lessons and assist them in identifying ways to incorporate
social/
emotional, academic, and career objectives into their subject
matter. In the process of helping their colleagues become aware
of school counseling standards like the ASCA Mindsets &
Beha-
viors (ASCA, 2014a), school counselors aid in legitimizing
themselves and their work in delivering classroom lessons.
School counselors who collaborate with colleagues on curricu-
lum development and who share their lessons as examples (e.g.,
via professional development swaps, the ASCA Scene, Teacher -
sPayTeachers, CounselorCreated) may be seen as leaders in
their

respective professional communities.
Lesson Planning, Effective Teaching, and Data Collection
Vernon (2010) contends that in creating curriculum, school
counselors need to assume a leadership role in developing the
scope and sequence of the program. If school counselors are to
spend a significant portion of their time in the classroom, the
development of a detailed plan of instruction is critical. Begin-
ning with a curriculum action plan, school counselors detail
how they plan to design and deliver the counseling curriculum
and achieve the desired results. The curriculum action plan
Lopez and Mason 3
includes the lesson taught, competencies addressed, curriculum
used, time lines, projected students, evaluation methods, and
the person responsible (ASCA, 2012).
Womack, Hannah, and Bell (2012) examined the effective-
ness of pre-service teachers and found that four main factors
contributed to teaching effectiveness: lesson planning, teacher

and student reflection, safe school environment, and teacher
professionalism. The majority (41%) of effective teaching was
found to be in lesson planning (Womack, Hannah, & Bell
2012). Danielson (2007) stated, “Content must be transferred
through instructional design into sequences of activities and
exercises that make it accessible to students” (p. 27). Further -
more, lesson plans help school counselors stay task oriented so
that learning objectives are met and desired outcomes are
achieved (Tosado, 2014). Lesson planning and preparation
ensure that school counselors take the most thoughtful
approach to get students where they need to be (Merlin &
Knoblich, 2016).
Designing lesson plans. Rather than selecting instructional
meth-
ods based on convenience, comfort, or trends, school counse-
lors should select learning activities, materials, and strategies
that are appropriate for both the specific competency and the
student (Vernon, 2010). McIver, Fitzsimmons, and Flanagan
(2016) suggested a knowledge-in-practice approach to select-

ing instructional activities. Taking this approach, the school
counselor identifies the underlying knowledge structure of the
learning objective and matches this knowledge structure with
the most appropriate instructional method. For example, learn-
ing objectives classified under the knowledge structure enacted
information (where the information itself is the primary driver
of learning) might benefit from instructional methods such as
lecture, readings, flash cards, and quiz games. Danielson
(2007) contended, “a teacher’s role is not so much to teach,
but to arrange for learning” (p. 27). That is to say, school
counselors who are skilled in instructional design demonstrate
an understanding of the subject they teach, the important prin-
ciples and concepts within that subject, and how these compo-
nents relate to one another and the selected learning activities
(Danielson, 2007).
Components of an effective lesson plan. The school counseling
literature describes several critical components to instructional
design (Goodnough, Perusse, & Erford, 2010; Merlin & Kno-
blich, 2016; Myrick, 1997; Vernon, 2010). Tosado (2014) rec-

ommended that school counselors consider the needs of
students and school; local, state, and national mandates; mate-
rials required; and methods of evaluation. Furthermore, lesson
plans should include necessary information including the title
of the lesson, the grade level or age-group, and the length of
time required to complete the lesson. Lesson plans should align
with the ASCA Mindsets & Behaviors, which describe the atti -
tudes, knowledge, and skills that students need to achieve aca-
demic success, college and career readiness, and social/
emotional development (ASCA, 2014a).
Johnson (2000) recommended a five-step lesson planning
process consisting of (a) the development of learning objec-
tives, (b) introduction, (c) input, (d) activity, and (e) closure.
The first component in lesson plan design is measurable learn-
ing objectives, which help the school counselor determine what
students should be able to do after participating in the lesson
and which measure progress in student learning (Goodnough
et al., 2010). Once identified, these learning objectives guide

the direction of activities known as procedures. The second
component is the introduction, which provides interest and
motivation to focus students’ attention on the lesson, and its
purposes, and links new ideas to what students already know.
The third element, input, is also known as direct teaching and
involves the presentation of new material related to the learning
objectives (Tosado, 2014). Input can take the form of new
vocabulary, skills, and concepts. The fourth component is an
activity that allows students to demonstrate their understanding
of the new information. Guided practice activities (teacher
questioning, sample problems, graphic organizers, and concept
webs) and independent practice activities (role-play, debate,
report, homework, poem, skit, or project) help students build
their understanding of the new content. The last component,
closure, consists of a short review of main ideas and processing
what was learned (Johnson, 2000; Tosado, 2014). It provides an
opportunity for formative assessment and helps the school
counselor decide whether additional practice is necessary or

whether students can move on to the next part of the lesson.
Although guidelines exist for the development of classroom
curriculum lessons, primarily in school counseling textbooks
(Dollarhide & Saginak, 2017; Goodnough et al., 2010; Myrick,
1997; Vernon, 2010; Ziomek-Daigle, 2015), research on school
counselor competence in designing and developing classroom
curriculum is minimal. A content review of lesson plans can
serve as a means of evaluating school counselors’ development
in classroom curriculum design. School counselors submit
these lesson plans and a review of them can act as a method
for self-reflection and professional development. Information
from a review can provide valuable information regarding the
extent to which school counselors currently implement best
practices for classroom curriculum and lesson plan design.
Data collection and accountability. The ASCA National Model
(ASCA, 2012) emphasizes the need for data collection in the
school counseling program as part of the accountability com-
ponent. With regard to classroom curriculum, a review of rel-

evant data (needs assessments, school-wide data, surveys, etc.)
should be a precursor to planning and designing lessons
(ASCA, 2012). Aligning program goals with the appropriate
mind-sets and behaviors assists the school counselor in writing
lesson plan objectives (Ziomek-Daigle, 2015).
As a part of the program evaluation process, classroom cur -
riculum can incorporate short-term, formative assessments and/
or more long-term, summative assessments (Hatch, 2013). For-
mative assessment involves checking for learning in order to
modify instruction for student understanding prior to reaching
4 Professional School Counseling
the end of the lesson, and summative assessment is used to
evaluate student learning at the end of a unit (Danielson,
2007). Data collection methods used for these often include
pre-/posttests, exit tickets, and so on, for gathering perception
data. Finally, broader outcome data such as grades, test scores,
attendance rates, and/or disciplinary records contextualize the

effectiveness of the classroom curriculum (ASCA, 2012).
Method
We conducted a content analysis of school counselor–
generated lesson plans using a 12-category rubric on a
4-point Likert-type scale. Coded data were further analyzed
using descriptive statistics. We collected lesson plans via
the ASCA Scene. This study used an extant database with
no identifying data.
Participants and Procedures
The research team coded the lesson plans using a 12-category
rubric adapted from the Making Connections lesson plan rubric
(Louisiana Department of Education, n.d.). Both deductive and
inductive procedures were utilized to generate and describe
categories. We generated elements of the rubric deductively
based on an examination of the school counseling literature
on curricular design (Goodnough et al., 2010; Tosado 2014;
Vernon, 2010). Then, the three coders met and discussed the
items and used inductive procedures to further refine the cate-

gories. Two reviewers then provided feedback on the rubric: a
school administrator with experience evaluating teacher lesson
plans at both the elementary and middle school levels and a
practicing school counselor with experience in developing and
implementing lesson plans.
We collected information about the learners from the lesson
plan and included information such as the ASCA domain in
which they would receive instruction (academic, social/emo-
tional, and career), the school level (elementary, middle, or
high school), and the specific grade level (K through 12). We
then used the rubric to evaluate the lesson plan based on the
quality and presence of the 12 lesson plan components. Com-
ponents included standards, learning objectives, materials,
introductory activity, learning activities, and closure. We also
evaluated the overall design of the lesson plan, including the
description of procedures, the alignment of activities to stan-
dards, the developmental appropriateness of the lesson and its
ease of use, accommodations, evaluation methods, and creativ-

ity and innovation. Criteria were rated using a 4-point Likert-
type scale (0 ¼ ineffective, 1 ¼ developing, 2 ¼ effective, 3 ¼
highly effective). Last, we examined the types of instructional
strategies used in the lesson. These strategies included activi-
ties such as guided practice, independent practice, modeling/
demonstration, cooperative learning, debate/dialogue, technol -
ogy, role-play, recitation, and bibliotherapy.
The coders for this study were a school counseling master’s
student, a teacher education master’s student (the first author),
and an assistant professor of school counseling. To determine
interrater reliability, a practicing school counselor with a back-
ground in teaching participated as a fourth coder to assist in the
agreement of coding. The first author trained the coders. The
researchers calculated interrater reliability based on the per -
centage of agreement of coding responses for each of the three
coders and the fourth coder on four lesson plans. Each coder
coded all the lesson plans and the percentage agreement
between coders was calculated. Once interrater reliability
reached 90%, all lesson plans were coded by the three coders

(an assistant professor and two master’s students). Coded data
were analyzed by SPSS using descriptive statistics (frequency,
percentage, mean, and standard deviation [SD]).
Results
The purpose of this study was to examine school counselors’
design of classroom curriculum lessons. We conducted a con-
tent analysis of multiple lesson plans in an effort to understand
(a) types of classroom lessons that are used in the profession,
(b) the quality of classroom lessons, (c) school counselors’
competence in the development of classroom guidance lessons,
and (d) types of instructional methods employed by school
counselors.
The research team found and collected a total of 139 lesson
plans from the ASCA Scene. Lesson plans were at all school
levels. Table 1 illustrates the frequency and percentage of les-
son plans (a) in each of the three domains, (b) at each level, and
(c) at each level within each domain. For example, Table 1
shows that among lesson plans at all levels, 86.3% (n ¼
120) were in the social/emotional domain, 7.2% were in the

academic domain (n ¼ 10), 4.3% were in the career domain (n
¼ 6), and 2.1% (n ¼ 3) were in more than one domain. The
percentage of lesson plans at each level were 1.4% (n ¼ 2)
preschool, 68.3% (n ¼ 95) elementary school, 6.5% (n ¼ 9)
middle school, 9.4% (n ¼ 13) high school, 2.1% (n ¼ 3) com-
bination of levels, and 12.2% (n ¼ 17) level unknown. The
rubric was used to evaluate the quality and presence of the
12 lesson plan components. Table 2 describes the lesson plan
component scores by percentage as well as the total score. The
results of each component and the total score ratings are dis -
cussed below.
Lesson Plan Components
Standards and learning objectives. The research team examined
and rated each lesson plan based on its stated standards base.
Ineffective lessons (28.1%, n ¼ 39) did not provide any stan-
dards. Lessons scored as developing (38.1%, n ¼ 53) incorpo-
rated too many standards for a singular lesson. Effective
lessons (32.4%, n ¼ 45) incorporated an appropriate number
of ASCA standards, and highly effective lessons (1.4%, n ¼ 2)
incorporated both ASCA and state standards. Lesson plan
objectives were rated based on the extent to which learning
objectives highlighted the specific conditions and standards
Lopez and Mason 5

of student learning and performance. More than half of the
lesson plans (55.4%, n ¼ 77) did not have learning objectives
and scored as ineffective. Lesson plans with objectives that
made no reference to what students will know and be able to
do as a result of the lesson were scored as developing (7.9%, n
¼ 11). Those with student-centered objectives that were …

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