Human physiology is the study of the normal functions of living organisms and their parts. It includes anatomy, which is the study of the structure and relationship between body parts. Physiology examines both how biological functions are performed (processes) and their purposes (functions). The human body is made up of hierarchical levels of organization from atoms to organ systems. Key organ systems include the circulatory, respiratory, and digestive systems. Homeostasis refers to the body's ability to maintain stable internal conditions and involves feedback loops. Physiological processes depend on chemical reactions and energy conversions and transfers within the body.
Of all the living things, the human body in particular has been a source of curiosity by most of us. No doubt, the field of biology, anatomy and physiology provide us a clear venue to explore and understand it.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Of all the living things, the human body in particular has been a source of curiosity by most of us. No doubt, the field of biology, anatomy and physiology provide us a clear venue to explore and understand it.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
2. Etymology (word origin; derivation of words):
Physiology
• From 1560’s, French and directly from Latin physiologia.
• “Study and description of natural objects, natural philosophy".
• Derived from physios = "nature, natural, physical"; and logia = "study".
• This gives the meaning of "science of the normal function of living things".
Anatomy
• From Late 1300’s, Latin anatomia, Greek anatome.
• “Study or knowledge of the structure and function of the human body“.
• Derived from ana = "up"; and tomos (or temnein) = "to cut".
• Together this gives "a cutting up" involving dissection.
3. Compare Function and Process in terms of Physiology
Process Questions:
How is event achieved?
Integration of both
to get the
holistic picture!
Functional Question:
Purpose of event?
Why does blood flow?
Why do RBC transport O2?
Why do we breathe?
How does blood flow?
How do RBCs transport O2?
How do we breathe?
4. The Systems that make up the Body in Human Physiology
Levels of Organization: … Atoms … → …. Cells → … (starting point for Physiology)
5. The Systems that make up the Body in Human Physiology
System Main
Function
Major
Organs
Location
of Organs
Basic
Diagram
Interactions
with some
other Systems
6. Parameter Blood Levels
Osmolarity 295-310 mOsM
pH 7.35-7.45
Arterial blood gas PCO2 35-46 mmHg
Arterial blood gas PO2 80-100 mmHg
Hematocrit (HCT) 42-52% Male
37-48% Female
Blood Sugar Regulation
Glucose (fasting) 70-100 mg/dL
Glucose - 2 hrs post prandial 140 mg/dL
Insulin (fasting) 5-25 mU/mL
Glucagon 50-100 pg/mL
Ions/Minerals
Sodium (Na+
) 135-145 mM
Potassium (K+
) 3-5 mM
Calcium (Ca2+
) 1.8 mM
Chloride (Cl-
) 106 mM
Phosphorus (i) (PO4
3-
) 3-4 mM
Homeostasis
Typical values of a Metabolic Blood Panel
7. Figure 1. Circadian rhythms of several physiological variables in a human subject with room lights on (clear bars) for
16 h and lights off (blue bars) for 8 h.
Lights on (daytime) Lights off
11. THE CHEMISTRY OF PHYSIOLOGY - REVIEW
Levels of Organization:
atoms > molecules > organelles > cells > tissues > organs > organ systems > organism
Valence e- –> outer shell electrons = chemical properties of atom.
12. 3 Types of Chemical Bonds
1. Covalent bonds – sharing of electrons between atoms; strong bonds.
a) Non-polar = equal sharing of e-s e.g. lipids
a) Polar = non-equal sharing of e-s e.g. water
Molecules: Inorganic molecules – e.g. H2O.
Organic molecules – e.g. C6H12O6.
2. Ionic bonds – complete transfer of electrons, relatively weak bond (though
crystals are strong), break in water yielding ions (charged particles).
Yielding Na+ and Cl-
3. Hydrogen bonds – weak but sig attractive forces between a H atom in one
molecule and an O or an N atom in another molecule.
Na atom Cl atom
13. Properties of Water
1) Solvency - universal solvent.
2) Cohesion - surface tension and adhesion.
3) Thermostability - high heat capacity, high heat of
vaporization. Define calorie.
4) Reactivity - Water participates in chemical
reactions
e.g. Hydrolysis and Dehydration Synthesis
14. Organic Molecules:
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides – simple sugars (monomers).
1. Glucose – the molecule as a source of E in the human body.
2. Fructose – a simple sugar found in fruits (fruit sugar).
3. Galactose – a component of milk sugar.
Disaccharides – 2 monosaccharides joined by a glycosydic bond.
1. Sucrose (table sugar) = glucose + fructose
2. Lactose (milk sugar) = glucose + galactose
3. Maltose (grain sugar) = glucose + glucose
Polysaccharides –complex carbohydrates – polymers of glucose.
1. Glycogen - E storage for glucose in animal cells, liver, skeletal mus.
2. Starch - E storage for glucose in plant cells, e.g., potatoes!
3. Cellulose – structural component of plant cell walls, e.g., dietary fiber!
15. Lipids
In general are non-polar molecules, not solvent in water.
1) Fatty Acids – fatty acids and glycerol.
2) Triglycerides – mono, di, tri ...
3) Phospholipids – amphiphilic (polar and non-polar)
4) Steroids – complex and important!
Proteins
Contains C, H, O, N, S. most versatile and complex Amino Acids
(AA’s) are the monomers of proteins.
Levels of Structures of Proteins:
Primary (1o) –
Secondary (2o) –
Tertiary (3o) –
Quaternary (4o) –
16. THERMODYNAMICS - How Energy is converted to Work.
1st Law of Thermodynamics
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
The Human Body:
Food (PE) is used to move and operate (KE) the body.
e.g., 100 Kcal of food is consumed, ~ 60 Kcal lost as heat, ~ 40 Kcal
used for movement (chemical, transport and mechanical) of the
body.
i.e., Our bodies are ~ 40% efficient
Efficiency changes…
17. What is Energy?
What is Work?
1) Chemical Work – chemical bonds (invest, store, release E).
2) Transport Work – movement across a gradient.
3) Mechanical Work - movement of a part or 'whole‘.
Let’s examine 2 forms of Energy:
Kinetic Energy (KE) and Potential Energy (PE)
KE and PE can be converted from one form to the other but it is
never a 100% efficient conversion.
Work (chemical, transport, mechanical) in body involves inter-
conversion of these 2 forms of E.
18. Chemical Reaction in Body - to Store, Release, or Transfer E.
Metabolism = Anabolism + Catabolism
1) Endergonic Reactions – Require Energy (E) input
e.g. A + B + E → C
Dehydration Synthesis:
Anabolic Reactions –synthesizing something, building a more complex, larger
molecule from simpler, smaller molecules, require input of E.
2) Exergonic Reactions – Release Energy (E)
e.g. C → A + B + E
Hydrolysis:
Catabolic Reactions – they are breaking chemical bonds. Large molecules are
broken down to produce smaller molecules, release E that can be used for
physiological work.