2. 2
Stocks(Shares)
Stocks or shares represent the participation of an
individual in the activities of a company in the role of
share-holder, involving some «risk capital».
Nominal value
Book value
Market value
The cash flow generated by the assets of a company
pay debt obligations and tax first and the remaining goes
to equity.
Residual Claim characteristic.
3. Ordinary Shares
Ordinary shares are the most commonly traded shares,
and they give you a vote in company matters.
They earn a dividend as long as the company is earning
money, and this dividend directly corresponds to the
profit made by the company. High profits mean high
dividends for you.
Ordinary shares have no special rights or restrictions.
Whilst they have the highest risk, they also have the
potential to bring the biggest financial gains.
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4. Preferred Shares
In direct contrast to common shares, these shares are
given preference when it comes to dividend payments.
More importantly, if a company goes bankrupt, these
shares are paid back before common shares.
The shareholders of preference shares, however, do not
enjoy normal voting rights.
Dividends of preference shares have a fixed rate, and
therefore provide more security, but this means that if
the profits of the business increase, the value of
preference shares remains the same. Low risk but only
moderate returns.
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5. Share valuation (I)
In order to determine the value today of a share, just like
in any other financial instrument, we must estimate the
PV of its future cashflows
Shares involve two possible cashflows...
1. Dividends: received by share-holders at regular intervals
2. Market price: received at the time the share-holder decides to
sell its share in the company
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6. Share valuation (II)
A share is a financial instrument without a predefined
maturity (perpetual)
Its price therefore must be calculated from the infinite
series of future dividends or cash flows to equity
However, the exact value of these future dividends is
unknown. Some simplifications are thus used:
(a) constant dividends
(b) constant interest rates
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11. CAPM: a way to calculate K
(Re)
Assumption: the return of a single stock is related to the
return of the market index
The relationship according to CAPM is
K=Rf+Beta*(Rm-Rf)=Re
Where
K or Re expected return of the single stock (equity)
Rf risk free rate
Beta correlation coefficient
Rm expected return of the market index
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14. Beta as a function of Risk PremiaBeta as a function of Risk Premia
Beta=(Re-Rf)/(Rm-Rf)
15. Share Valuation (III)
The value of the equity of a company could be calculated as
the difference between the total value of the company and
its debt.
This methodology implies an estimate of the future cash
flows generated by the business of the company
This cash flows are then discounted at weighted average
cost of capital
The value of the debt is then subctracted and the resulting
number represent the value of equity
This methodology is considered the most accurate and
needs a deep understanding of the company in order to
model its business
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17. Stockmarkets
The primary market is the market where
securities are created
The secondary market is one in which they are
traded among investors.
Knowing how the primary and secondary
markets work is key to understanding how
stocks trade.
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18. Primary market
The primary market is the one in which a security
is first issued
Companies use the primary market to raise capital
If a company decides to issue securities in order to
raise short- or long-term capital, it enters the
money or capital market as an issuer
Companies can issue different kinds of securities:
shares, bonds, debt securities, warrants etc
The proceeds from issuing shares constitute or
increase the company's equity capital. Issuing a
bond constitutes or increases its debt capital 18
19. Primary market
In a first step, securities such as shares and bonds
are placed directly with investors or indirectly via
banks
If trading on a stock exchange is desired
(secondary market), among other things, this
involves the duty to publish a prospectus, the
subscription period and the lodging of a listing
application with the stock exchange
When a joint-stock company goes public, the first
share issue is called the Initial Public Offering
(IPO) 19
20. Secondary market
The secondary market is the market in which
securities are traded on the stock market
In the secondary market, companies are not in
search of capital
You as an investor deal with other buyers and
sellers of securities
This is where actual stock-exchange trading
takes place. All traded securities are public and
available to everyone.
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21. Secondary market
In order for a security to be traded on the
Exchange, the company has to successfully
complete the issuing process and meet various
requirements set out in the Listing Rules
In order to remain listed, issuers have to carry
out certain duties such as publication of price-
sensitive data. This is why news about listed
companies is published in the media on an
almost daily basis
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22. Secondary market
The national exchanges are secondary markets
and includes the New York Stock Exchange
(NYSE), Nasdaq and all major exchanges
around the world
A market where investors purchase securities or
assets from other investors, rather than from
issuing companies themselves
If you go to buy IBM stock, you are dealing only
with another investor who owns shares in IBM.
IBM (the company) is in no way involved with the
transaction 22
23. Auction vs Dealer Markets
The secondary market can be further broken down
into two specialized categories:
Auction Market and Dealer Market
The difference between these two market systems
lies in what is displayed in the market in terms of
orders and bid and ask prices
The Auction Market is an “Order Driven” market
and displays all of the bids and asks
The Dealer Market is a “Quote Driven” market
and focuses only on the bids and asks of market
makers and other designated parties 23
24. Quote Driven Market
Participants are joined through electronic networks
The dealers hold an inventory of the security in which they
“make a market”
The dealers then stand ready to buy or sell with market
participants
These dealers earn profits through the spread between the
prices at which they buy and sell securities
Nasdaq is a dealer market: here the dealers (market makers)
provide firm bid and ask prices at which they are willing to
buy and sell a security
The theory is that competition between dealers will provide
the best possible price for investors 24
25. Order Driven Market
In the auction market, all individuals and institutions that
want to trade securities announce the prices at which they
are willing to buy and sell
These are referred to as bid and ask prices
An efficient market should prevail by bringing together all
parties and having them publicly declare their prices
The best price of a good need not be sought out because
the convergence of buyers and sellers will cause mutually-
agreeable prices to emerge
The biggest advantage is its transparency: it clearly shows
all of the market orders and what price people are willing to
buy at or sell for
NYSE is an auction market 25
26. Market Order Book
An order book is the list of orders (manual or
electronic) that a trading venue (in particular stock
exchanges) uses to record the interest of buyers and
sellers in a particular financial instrument
A matching engine uses the book to determine which
orders can be fulfilled i.e. what trades can be made
Market orders:
At market
Limit order (create the order book)
Stop loss / Take profit order
Vwap order … 26
30. Extraordinary Events
A company could increase its capital by:
1. Free capital increase
2. Paid capital increase (with or without
prehemption rights)
3. A mixture of the two
Listed stocks could be subject to takeover offers
1. There are strict stockmarkets rules in case of
takeover offers aimed at protecting minority
shareholders
2. The price of shares might be strongly influenced
by takeover activities
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