The Destruction Of Yellow Fever

The Destruction of Yellow Fever
A disease that has yet to be conquered" (Barrett & Higgs, 2007). Such a quaint, simplistic phrase
that yet effectively describes the disease commonly known today as yellow fever. Over the course of
history, the yellow fever virus (YFV) has decimated populations in various regions all across the
globe. While the overall gross impact of yellow fever has declined over the years, the virus still
poses a significant threat present day, especially to those in the developing world. The World Health
Organization currently estimates that approximately 200,000 cases of yellow fever occur around the
world each year, resulting in 30,000 fatalities (Bundschuh et al, 2013). Presently, yellow fever
remains without a legitimate cure, and the best defence against the virus lies with preventative
action. WHO identifies its three major yellow fever prevention strategies as vaccination, mosquito
control, and epidemic response (WHO Yellow Fever Fact Sheet, 2014). This being said, through the
combined efforts of scientists, medical workers, governments, and international agencies alike, the
yellow fever virus has been confined to endemic areas throughout Africa and Latin America (Barrett
& Higgs, 2007, p.209). With regards to the epidemiological nature of yellow fever, geographic
factors and influences clearly play a significant role. Environments, both physical and human (ie.
social), directly correlate to how the virus behaves, adapts, and survives. Through the analysis its
biology, its
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Preventing The Transmission Of The Zika Virus
The island is currently monitoring to prevent the transmission of the virus from the Zika, especially
in pregnant women, this virus can cause microcephaly and otherbirth defects and development, as
well as pregnancy loss. In adults the possibility exists that can produce paralysis (Guillain–Barré
Syndrome) and other neurological problems. There are no vaccines to prevent, medications to treat
the infection. Follow the recommendations of the Department of health to prevent the spread of the
Zika virus.
The weekly report of diseases Abovirales (ArboV) of the Department of health of Puerto Rico
collects the latest information on the cases of Dengue, Chikunguna and Zika. It includes the cases
reported to the respective surveillance systems ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Use condoms whenever you have any kind of sexual contact. Use repellents with ingredients
registered by the Agency of environmental protection (EPA):
DEET
Picaridin
IR3535
Eucalyptus oil of lemon or for–menthane–diol (never in less than three years) are examples of
repellent of mosquitoes with these ingredients: Off!, Cutter, Skin So Soft Bug Guard Plus and
Repel.* repellents that have one higher percentage of the activeingredient provide longer–lasting
protection.
Remember to wear repellent after apply sunscreen for more adequate protection against mosquito.
Protection measures for your home: Cover the containers or containers that accumulate water in
your home. Inspecting the surroundings of your home to identify possible mosquito breeding sites
and eliminate them. Pour the water into the ground and wash the container with a brush to remove
mosquito eggs. Wash the pet drinking daily. Inspect septic tanks, keep them sealed and netting in the
vent
Who is at risk of being infected?
Any person, including pregnant women, that has not been infected with the Zika virus and who live
in or travel to an area where the Zika virus or the mosquito that transmits it.
How can afertarme the Zika virus?
The Zika virus can cause microcephaly and other defects of birth and development, as well as loss
of the embarzado.
The

A Brief History of Yellow Fever Essay examples
You woke up a week ago feeling odd. You were not sure what was wrong, but your body was full of
aches, you felt hot to the touch, and you kept vomiting. Your mother told you to lay down and rest,
hoping it was just a cold. After a few days, you began to feel better, well enough that you wanted to
return to the river to watch the trade ships come in. Now, unfortunately, your symptoms have come
back with a vengeance – your fever is back along with intense abdominal pain, your mouth is
bleeding without being wounded, and every time you vomit, it appears black in color. Also, when
you look in the mirror, your skin has changed from the sun–kissed color you have always been to a
dull yellow hue. The doctor comes in to examine you; he makes many ... Show more content on
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The symptoms documented from that outbreak are the first recorded that best match those of Yellow
Fever, then termed "black vomit," because the infection would cause bloody vomit. Later, it was
deemed "Yellow Jack" due to the typical jaundice the infection would cause: a yellowing of the skin,
eyes, and other mucous membranes. For the next few centuries, outbreaks would occur near ship
trade routes, further showing that the disease was probably brought from Africa on ships. The
fictional story of the "Flying Dutchman" was based on stories of Yellow Fever because wherever the
Dutchman went, all would perish. Likewise, when an infected ship would come to in port, citizens
of that town or city quickly began to take ill and many would die (Dickerson 48). Many times, a
town would refuse to let ships port in fear that they would bring sickness with them. In the late
1700s, the city of Philadelphia, then the capital of the newly formed United States of America, lost
nearly one tenth of its population due to an outbreak of Yellow Fever. Because of the outbreak,
many well known political figures fled the city and the country moved the capital from to
Washington D.C. where it has stayed ever since. During the same time, Yellow Fever also attacked
Europe and Central America, presumably still being spread by trade and slave ships. It is believed
that in the early 1800s, Napoleon desired to sell Louisiana to the United States after Yellow Fever
drastically reduced his army

No Treatment Or Vaccine For The Zika Virus
Currently there is no treatment or vaccine for the Zika virus but there are antibiotics available to
treat a range of bacterial infections. (WHO, 2016) The only way to prevent the dangerous
complications is to avoid contracting the virus. The main prevention is to avoid mosquito bites since
it is mosquito borne, especially for travelers. Some prevention methods include staying inside,
wearing long sleeves and using insecticide. Many countries in Latin America and the Caribbean
where Zika has been locally transmitted have restrictive abortion policies, and contraceptives in
these areas are often hard to obtain. (WHO, 2016) So the only way to prevent the virus would be to
avoid mosquitoes.
US health officials are worried that the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Their results show that meteorological conditions are largely unsuitable for Aedes aegypt over the
U.S during the winter from December to March, except in southern Florida and southern Texas were
warm conditions where the mosquitoes can live year–round. Meteorological conditions are more
suitable for Aedes aegypti across all fifty cities studied over the summer from July to September.
Cities in Southern Florida and Southern Texas indicate the highest mosquito abundances and a
strong potential for travel related viruses. Also higher poverty rates in cities along with the Mexico
border may be associated with factors that increase human exposure to Aedes aegypti. The
researchers ' aim is to look ahead at the summer months and help public health officials prepare for
potential Zika outbreaks. The virus is not yet circulating in the local mosquito population yet.
(Monaghan et al., 2016). The only cases are from travel and sexual transmission. According to the
CDC (2016), "For local transmission to occur the Zika virus would have to be introduced by
infected travelers or infected mosquitoes and become sustain in local Aedes mosquito populations."
Generally to summarize their study, cities with the highest levels of travel, the highest numbers of
mosquitoes in peak summer months, and those that are in the climate range in which the mosquitoes
thrive are the most at risk. The study does also note there 's a chance, due to

Zika Virus: A Short Story
Rash, red eyes, muscle pain, headaches, and fevers is all I heard people at the hospital telling the
doctors (Scientists look for new ways to kill mosquitoes, stop deadly diseases). I saw people crying,
praying, and doubting themselves. I looked over at the front desk, being the curious person that I
am, and there sat my mom and a doctor talking and I was sitting in the flat rocky hospital bed. My
mom always took me to school. I was already done with everything before my mom started getting
to take me to school, while she was doing that I turned on the news. The news reporter said that the
Zika Virus was infecting a lot of people in Brazil. It had been in Brazil since July 2015 when Brazil
reported its first Zika infection, but now it had ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
I explained to her that there was a mosquito on me and she sent me down to the office to call my
mom and have her pick me up. Once I plopped into the passenger seat, I started crying, but I'm not
sure why. Is it because I was scared I was infected with the Zika virus? Or is it because I just needed
to let all of my emotions out? There is no way of telling for sure if you have Zika, most people
infected with Zika won't have symptoms, or will only have mild symptoms. Some symptoms of the
Zika virus are joint pain, fever, rash, conjunctivitis, muscle pain, and headaches, these symptoms
normally last for 2–7 days.(CDC Centers for Disease Control and prevention). Later that night I had
a fever and a really bad pounding headache, so my mom took me to the hospital. Once the doctor
came in I told him about my headache and fever, so he ran some test and took my temperature again
and came to a conclusion that I was officially infected with the Zika virus. He told me that I was
going to be there for a while. I felt like my whole world has turned upside down completely. The
doctor told me that he has seen many cases with Zika and that I wasn't the only one. I got up once
the doctor left and went to the other side of the hall just to look around for a bit. As I went down the
hall I saw my best friend Kelli Rosee, a sweet caring person. Why was she here I asked

The Effects Of Genetical Modified Organisms ( Gmo )
Genetical Modified Organisms (GMO's) are created when scientists manipulate an organism's genes
to create a new strain of species with similarities but also differences from the original species. Zika
is spread through a type of mosquito called Aedes aegypti also known as yellow fever mosquito.
These mosquitos originated from Africa and came to the United States through ships. The mosquitos
tend to stay in tropical and sub–tropical parts of the world including Argentina to the southern parts
of the United States. These mosquitos go through a complete life cycle going from egg to larva to
pupa to an adult and the life cycle in all takes about 6 weeks to complete. The Aedes aegypti
mosquito is known for carrying yellow fever and now Zika which is why scientists are trying to
genetically modify them to no longer carry these diseases ("Yellow Fever Mosquito– ".). GMO's are
being used to help contain the spread of Zika and other mosquito held diseases around the world.
Zika was first discovered in mosquitos around 1948 in Africa. Since its discovery Zika has
developed from a mild illness to something that can cause severe neurological complications in
those who have been infected (Musso, et al.,,2016). The increase numbers of people being effected
by Zika and the increase in risks associated with the disease have led to a curiosity of using GMO's
to contain the disease.
The pros of using genetically–modified mosquitos to fight Zika are the Zika carrying mosquito
population

Case Study On Blood Transfusion
INTRODUCTION
Blood is one of the integral components of body constituents, which flows throughout body and
becomes a reason for survival. Blood transfusion is a life saving intervention for patients in need of
transfusion. Blood borne infections are common serious hurdles of blood transfusion. Considering
the serious consequences of these infections and to hold back the transmission to minimum, it is
extremely important to remain vigilant about the possible spread of these diseases in the course of
blood transfusion1. Transfusion safety begins with healthy donors. Blood transfusion is safer than
ever before through continuous improvements in donor recruitment, screening, testing of donated
blood with increasingly sensitive assays, and appropriate clinical use of blood. Serologic testing for
transfusion transmitted infections had historically been the foundation of blood screening, while
newer strategies like nucleic acid testing (NAT) have helped further shorten the "window period".
Moreover, threat of infectious agents entering the blood supply is not constant and may evolve as
new pathogens emerge or when old ones change their epidemiological pattern. In 2002, the
Government of India adopted the National Blood Policy "An action plan for blood ... Show more
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WHO recommends that all blood donations should be screened for infection prior to use. The World
Health Organization's (WHO) goal is for all countries to obtain all blood supplies from voluntary
unpaid donors by 20203.
The national blood policy in India relies heavily on voluntary blood donors, as they are usually
assumed to be associated with low levels of transfusion–transmitted infection4. In India, it is
mandatory to test every unit of blood collected for hepatitis B, hepatitis C, HIV, syphilis and
malaria. If donor test positive to any of the five infections, their blood is

Chikunguya Research Paper
Chikunguya Virus is a virus that is considered to be an alpha virus in the Togaviridae family. It is a
single stranded RNA virus with a capsid as well as a phospholipid envelope that allows the virus
inside a human cell and able to attack other human cells around the first infected cell. This virus is
known to be spread typically in the eastern hemisphere, especially in Africa, Asia and Europe
(Cigarroa–Toledo). This virus has a few forms of transmission. The way this virus can be spread is
through; mosquitos, mother to child, and during blood transfusions. The most common way the
virus is spread is through mosquitos. The mosquito primarily responsible for transmitting this
disease is the Aedes aegypti mosquito. The way it is transmitted is ... Show more content on
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This virus is not life threatening for the most part. It can cause some complications but it is very
rare. Even though it is not threatening people should still take precautions against mosquitos
because it still can cause other life threatening diseases. If someone wants to avoid any mosquito
transmission disease my advice to them is to avoid places of a tropical climate, wear long–sleeved
clothing as well as use plenty of insect

Dengue Virus Infection : The Common Health Problems Essay
Dengue virus infection is one of the common health problems of the people in tropical and
subtropical geographic countries. A viral diseases known to cause dengue fever to severe
hemorrhagic fever that is transmitted by an infective female mosquito, genus Aedes but there are
other species known that capable of carrying the dengue virus, the Aedes aegypti and Aedes
albopictus, and Aedes polynesiensis. However, the Aedes aegypti is the most common mosquito that
spread the virus. There are two modes of transmission of the virus, the horizontal transmission
which is transmitted by human to the mosquito where the mosquito takes a blood meal from infected
human host. The vertical or transovarial transmission where infected female mosquito transmitted
the virus to the uninfected human host by taking a blood meal (1). The life cycle is a basic mosquito
to human transmission. Here, the mosquito ingested the virus when taking blood meal of the
infected host and passes through salivary gland and resided at the intestinal tract. After the
incubation period of approximately 10 days, the mosquito releases the virus through injecting to the
uninfected host by taking a blood meal (2).
The genus Flavivirus from family flavivirae is a viral pathogens responsible to cause the dengue
virus. Flavivirus is a virion that consists of a positive–single stranded RNA with lipopolysaccharide
envelope which measures 11 kb in length. It consists of three genome structural proteins– the capsid,
membrane

Dengue Fever : Symptoms And Symptoms
Dengue fever is actually a very old disease and it started spreading worldwide in the 18th and 19th
centuries. It was during this time where commerce and the shipping industry were expanding and it
was becoming more often that goods were being transported via ships. "Both the principal mosquito
vector, Aedes aegypti, and the viruses responsible for Dengue Fever were spread via sailing ships . .
. Mosquitos used the stored water on the ships as a breeding site and could maintain the
transmission..." as stated by Duane J. Gubler on "Science Direct" on an article he written.
The symptoms of Dengue fever can be mistaken for flu or other viral infection. The symptoms
include sudden high fever, severe headaches, pain behind the eyes, severe joint and muscle pain,
fatigue, nausea, vomiting, skin rash (which appears two to five days after the onset of fever), mild
bleeding (such a nosebleed, bleeding gums, or easy bruising). These symptoms can last up to 10
days and it starts after 4–6 days infection. "However, serious problems can develop. These include
dengue hemorrhagic fever, a rare complication characterized by high fever, damage to lymph and
blood vessels, bleeding from the nose and gums, enlargement of the liver, and failure of the
circulatory system. The symptoms may progress to massive bleeding, shock, and death. This is
called dengue shock syndrome (DSS)." The information above was given by Webmd in their article
about Dengue fever. Doctors can diagnose people with dengue

A Report On Aedes Albopictus
3. BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1 INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT
Aedes albopictus is considered to be the most invasive mosquito species in the world (1, 2) and
there is an increased potential for its introduction into mainland Australia given the established
populations discovered, since 2005, in the Torres Strait, the region that sandwiches between Papua
New Guinea (PNG) and northern Australia (3). The aedine mosquito species have been culpably
involved in the transmission cycles of pathogens of public health importance (1). Aedes albopictus
is known to have both field and laboratory proven vector competence for a number of emerging and
re–emerging viruses including chikungunya virus (CHIKV) and dengue virus (DENV). CHIKV and
DENV are arthropod–borne (arboviruses) viruses transmitted by the Aedes genus (4). Dengue is
considered the most important arboviral disease in the world affecting 390 million people every year
(5, 6), and CHIKV has continued to conquer new territories; charting an unprecedented worldwide
expansion (7–11). In Australia, dengue outbreaks occur regularly in northern Queensland where
there is Aedes aegypti (12–14). Between November 2008 and May 2009, more than one thousand
confirmed autochthonous cases of dengue were recorded in Cairns, north Queensland, and Aedes
aegypti, the only competent dengue vector, at the time, was implicated. There is increasing global
concern about recent outbreaks of pathogenic arboviruses from diverse viral families including

Viral Manipulation Of Cell Death Lab
Geraldson D'Haiti
Doctor Susan McLaughlin
BI 201
March 22,2017 Viral Manipulation of Cell Death (Zakeri's Cell Death Lab) The cells of a
multicellular organism are members of a highly–organized community. The number of cells in this
community is regulated, not by controlling the rate of cell division, but also by controlling the rate
of cell death. If cells are no longer needed, they commit suicide by activating an intracellular death
program. This process is therefore called programmed cell death, although it is more commonly
called apoptosis. Cell death plays a role in development and the process is called, morphogenesis,
the biological process that causes an organism to develop its shape. It also plays a role in the
maintenance ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Mechanisms of dengue virus induces cell death by taking control of the machinery of the cell. It is
evident that dengue (DEN) viruses can trigger the host cell to undergo apoptosis in a cell–dependent
manner. Virally induced apoptosis contributes directly to the cytopathogenic effects of DEN virus in
cultured cells. The induction of apoptosis involves the activation of intracellular signaling systems.
The cellular factors that regulate cell death can adjust the outcome of DEN virus infection in
cultured cells. Apoptosis inhibitors delay DEN virus–induced apoptosis, thereby providing a suitable
environment for the virus. During DEN virus infection, cell death is also regulated by the harshness
of the infecting strains. Overall, the purpose this research provides information on the cellular
mechanisms and viral proteins associated with apoptosis in response to DEN

Speech On The Mosquito
All these numbers are small in comparison with the deadliest creature in the world. According to
World Health Organization, this creature is responsible for killing more than 1 million people every
year. It is estimated that this creature kills one child every 30 seconds. The deadly bite of this
creature can cause a myriad of diseases. It can cause encephalitis, filariasis, yellow fever, West Nile
Virus, Chikungunya virus, Zika virus, malaria, and dengue fever. By now, you should know which
deadly creature I'm talking about. That's right, it's the mosquito.
Now, at one look, you won't see mosquito as scary, right? In fact, if you see a mosquito, you don't
run away but instead, you will chase it down until you kill it. As a Christian, ask yourself, what are
the little things that matter in your life? You may easily spot the crocodiles, sharks, hippopotamuses,
and snakes in your life. But are you also recognizing the mosquitoes? ... Show more content on
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and they, therefore, avoid them like the plague. But for little sins, they do not worry much about.
They indulge in them feeling it doesn't matter. Some categorized these things as little sins which
don't have the same consequences as the big sins. But the truth of the matter is that in God's sight,
there is no such thing as little sins or big sins, sin is sin whether big or small and they carry the same
consequence and punishment. The Bible makes it abundantly clear in Romans 6:23, "For the wages
of sin is death. . ." In most cases, it is the smallest things that pose the greatest risk in our lives. In
the same manner, it is the little sins in our Christian life that can lead us to spiritual death. These
little sins are more dangerous than the sins we consider as big sins. As Christians, if we allow those
sins we term as little in our lives, they can hinder us from getting to heaven. Most of these little sins
come in

Dengue Fever an Article by John P. Cuhna
Identifying the preliminary issue In his article "Dengue Fever" John P. Cuhna describes Dengue
fever, also known as "breakbone" or "dandy fever", as, "a family of viruses that are transmitted
through mosquitos". This disease is very common in tropic and subtropic areas such as Brazil.
Dengue Fever has no vaccination and the only way to prevent is to avoid getting bit by a mosquito
that carries the disease. The disease comes from a mosquito known as the Aedes aegypti (Halstead,
2008). Since the climate and amount of rainfall are two key factors in the reproduction of the Aedes
aegypti global warming and climate change have been playing a role in the dengue fever cases (
Halstead, 2008). This is a struggle for people who live in lower income and over populated areas
since they have little to no form of protection and live in less cleanly areas. No one is exactly sure
where dengue fever originated from but scientist recently proposed that it came from forests in Asia.
Dengue fever has three stages; the first being the acute stage which can last from one to five days,
the second is the critical stage which can last up to two to three days, and the last stage which is the
recovery stage which is can last up to weeks. Dengue fever symptoms vary in severity. While some
people, mainly babies and young children, show little to no symptoms others, such as older children
and adults, show mild to severe symptoms. Symptoms include but are not limited to fever, bone and
joint pain,

How To Prevent Zika Disease
Preventing an outbreak of Zika in Mississippi Throughout the Caribbean, Central, and South
America there has been health crisis that's has been affecting the youngest generation of these
developing countries. Thousands of babies have been born with a birth defect known as
microencephaly. This birth defect can cause horrible problems such as seizures, mental retardation,
developmental delays, short stature and difficulties with coordination and balance. (Centers for
Disease Control 2017) This birth defect often leads to having to provide life–term medical care and
it was determined to be caused by the mother acquiring a mosquito–borne infection with the Zika
virus. So, what is this Zika virus and how can ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
What are the prevention techniques our state is investing in? What can we do to try and prevent
ourselves and our families from getting Zika? The CDC is currently tracking the spread of the Zika
virus throughout the world and teaching local healthcare providers how to detect case of the Zika
virus. They are also providing support for local hospital laboratories to provide testing if the hospital
cannot provide it and preforming confirmatory testing for those labs that do provide that type of
testing. The CDC is also doing research on the link between Zika virus and the birth defects that it
causes. They also educate people about the Zika virus and issue travel warnings on the place that
have outbreaks. CDC is also recommending that all men that travel to countries with travel warnings
to practice safe–sex for a while after returning from those trips because it is suspected that Zika can
be passed through semen. President Obama signed a release of emergency funds that has provided
$1.8 billion dollars to help accelerate research into a vaccine for Zika. (USA Today 2016) Another
method that is being tried in countries like Brazil is the release of genetically modified male
mosquitoes. These male mosquitoes have genetically modified genes that will cause their offspring
to die quickly so that they will never reach maturity and since male mosquitoes do not bite they
cannot spread disease. The biotech company Oxitec which is behind this concept, has stated that it
can reduce populations by 80%. (Stein 2016) This has been deemed a safe method of mosquito
reduction by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (Stein 2016) This method is controversial but
it does reduce the overall amount of pesticide that is used to control the mosquitoes. Another method
that is being used is the use of biological warfare against

Literature Review On The Outbreak Of Dengue Fever
Name: Shari Blackman
Professor: Jennifer Boswell
Course: Comm–3050–01–Writing & Contemporary Health Issues
Date: October 24rd 2014
The Outbreak of Dengue Fever: An Annotated Reference
Research Problem: Is the spread of Dengue Fever being effectively controlled? If so how?
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2012, September). Prevention: How to reduce your risk
of dengue infection. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/dengue/prevention/
Summary: Although there is no vaccine, or medication for dengue fever there are several
precautions that can be made to help reduce the number of dengue fever cases that occur. The best
way to reduce these cases is to avoid getting bitten by mosquitoes (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention [CDC], ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The number of mosquitoes increases with warmer temperatures and higher levels of rainfall,
therefore there would be a rise in dengue fever cases. This article argues that although basic
practices play a role in the outbreak, climate factors play an even greater role. The higher the
temperatures the more likely persons are to store water. These are ideal conditions for mosquitoes to
lay their eggs. This study showed that Caribbean Islands experienced an increase in the temperature
by more than 0.5 degrees during 1900–1955 (Environmental Management Authority, (n.d). Also, if
society does not cooperate with health personnel and take action starting with their immediate
surroundings, then the efforts to contain this virus will not be successful.
Reflection: This source is very helpful to me because it gives more than one view which I can use in
my research essay. This article helped shape my argument because it not only gave the basic
precautions for controlling the outbreak of dengue fever, it also stressed that the environment
contributes greatly to this problem. Overall, this article gave me a different view on the topic which
I can use in my research

The Epidemic Of Dengue Fever
The holiday season tends to attract Canadians to visiting warmer destinations in the hopes of
escaping our frigid winter weather. These warmer destinations, like the Caribbean, have much to
offer; with balmy tropical weather, hot beaches, ocean views, and plenty of sun. Unfortunately,
along with the luxuries of these areas comes with the risk of an array of tropical diseases, such as
dengue fever. The thought of contracting this illness is not ideal for the perfect winter getaway but is
beginning to become a somber reality with the dramatic increase of incidences in tropical climates
globally. Dengue fever, also historically known as break–bone fever, is caused by the dengue virus
and is endemic in tropical areas around the world. If severe, the illness can progress to more serious
conditions, including dengue hemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome. Dengue fever is
emerging as a major global concern as an estimated 2.5 billion people are at risk and an increasing
trend in annual number of cases over recent reported years (1,2). The dengue virus (DENV) is a
small, positive, enveloped RNA virus about 40–50 nm in diameter. DENV belongs to the genus
flavivirus; a member of the Flaviviridae family (1). Its single–stranded genome codes for three
structural proteins (capsid, precursor membrane, and envelope), and 7 non–structural proteins. There
are four different serotypes of the virus, DENV–1 through DENV–4, that are all antigenically and
genetically different. Although

ZIKV Case Study
Relative to many other viruses previously studied in this course, discovery of the Zika Virus (ZIKV)
is a fairly recent development. ZIKV was first isolated in 1947 from the serum of rhesus monkeys
located in the Zika Forest of Uganda. These monkeys were displaying signs of fever and served as a
sentinel animal for the surveillance of Yellow Fever Virus (YFV). Approximately nine months later,
ZIKV was isolated in the same region from the Aedes africanus mosquito species (Seitz, 2016).
ZIKV primarily infected monkeys in an enzootic mosquito–monkey–mosquito cycle, with only
occasional transmission to humans. In 1952, ZIKV was first reported in humans, but remained
confined to Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania. Very few reports ... Show more content on
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ZIKV preferentially infects and injures neural progenitor cells (Tang et al., 2016). A study in Rio de
Janeiro tracked 88 pregnant women who reported potential symptoms of ZIKV infection (Brasil et
al., 2016). A Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) test confirmed a ZIKV infection in 72 of these
women who were between 5 and 38 weeks of gestation. Fetal ultrasonography was performed in 42
ZIKV–positive and 12 ZIK–V negative pregnant women. In 12 of the 42 ZIKV–positive and none
of the 16 ZIK–V negative pregnant women, fetal abnormalities including central nervous system
defects were observed. These studies led World Health Organization (WHO), the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and other health authorities to publish recommendations for
pregnant women living in countries affected by the ZIKV epidemic. Because of these recent ZIKV
outbreaks and the potential for complications resulting from infection, ZIKV is an important
emerging pathogen. ZIKV is an arbovirus of the Flaviviridae family, which includes dengue, West
Nile, yellow fever, and Japanese encephalitis viruses, that causes a mosquito–borne disease
transmitted by the Aedes genus of mosquito. As with other flaviviruses, the approximately 11 kb
positive–sense, single stranded Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) molecule encodes seven nonstructural
proteins and three structural proteins. Virus replication occurs in the

The Epidemic Of The Zika Virus
The rare tropical virus has been prompting a worldwide concern lately. A number of cases has been
increasing and not much has been done to protect our citizens. The Zika Virus is an epidemic on
delay, with the worst of the outbreak's effects trailing in the wake of the mosquitoes that carry the
virus. The Zika is mosquito borne virus that has spread rapidly across the world such as the warm
parts of Latin America, from Brazil to Mexico and even Puerto Rico. [World Health Organization
(WHO), 2016] The Zika virus is transmitted to humans by the same type of mosquito, Aedes that
transmits dengue and chikungunya viruses. (Researchers say Aedes aegypti is the main transmitter
of the Zika virus, but there are other types of mosquitoes may be ... Show more content on
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For most people, the Zika infection is not a big deal. The problem is that areas affected by the Zika
outbreak are seeing an unusual rise in some serious conditions, and evidence points to the virus as
the cause. Dozens of other Zika cases have surfaced the United States, but has involved people who
became infected with the mosquito–born virus while traveling to Zika affect countries. (Fox News,
2016)
In 1947, the Zika virus was first identified in a monkey that was being used to monitor the presence
of yellow fever virus in the Zika Forest of Uganda. A year later, the virus was also found in the
mosquito species, Aedes africanus, that was caught on a tree platform in the same forest. In 1952,
the first human case was detected in Uganda and United Republic of Tanzania in a study
demonstrating the presence of neutralizing antibodies to Zika virus. The first outbreak of the disease
outside of Africa and Asia was in 2007, on the island of Yap in the Federated States of Micronesia.
Prior to the outbreak there were only 14 cases of human Zika virus that had been documented
worldwide. The condition was characterized by rash, conjunctivitis, and arthralgia, and was initially
thought to be dengue. (WHO, 2016)
In the beginning of March 2015, Brazil notified WHO about an illness described as a skin rash that
was appearing in northeastern states. In February to the end of April 2015 there were about

Human Beings And The Human Body
The Earth is surrounded by different kinds of living creatures since thousand years ago from humans
up to small tiny bacteria that live inside this planet. But before we go on do you know what is a
bacterium or bacteria? So basically Bacterium or bacteria are small tiny living organism that can
only be seen using microscope and it won't be able to show its body if we look at it using our naked
eyes. All of the living creatures that are found in earth may have some interactions with other
creatures like humans and animals, even interactions between human beings and small tiny bacteria
in many different ways. Human beings and small tiny bacteria could have any interaction in many
different ways; due to its tiny size the bacteria are able to come inside the human body from holes
from your body, wound, through air and water. Human beings has always been terrify since
hundreds years ago by Bacteria because it can affect anyone, and when it affects a person it may
cause infections, disease, and if fatal it may cause death. As a result thousands of people more than
23 thousand people die each year in the United States of America according to Centres For Disease
Control And Prevention (CDC). Living in Indonesia, a country a large country with full of
diversities of plants and animals that's risky of getting harmful diseases like the an outbreak in
Brazil called The Zika Virus that's carried by mosquitoes there's a 75% chance of people infected by
this disease. Before we carry

Dengue Epidemic : Dengue Virus
Introduction
Dengue is transmitted by the bite of a mosquito named as Aedis aegypti. It has four serotypes.
Hence, It can also be transmitted by a bite of an infected with one of the four dengue virus
serotypes. Dengue is not transmitted directly from person–to–person. on this earth , approximately
more than one–third of the world's population are at risk for infection by dengue virus. Dengue virus
is a very important cause of sickness and mortality in the areas located on tropics and subtropics.
Approximately 400 million people are infected yearly. (CDC) There are not yet any vaccines
available to prevent infection with dengue virus. The most efficient measures are those that avoid
mosquito bites, vector control and precautions. After ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It needs water holding containers and places for their development and blood meals from humans.
The mosquito lays her eggs on the sides of containers, which are filled with water, and these eggs
hatch into larvae after a rain or flooding. To note, the eggs when submerged in water can survive for
months. Later on, a larva changes into a pupa in about a week and into a mosquito in two days.
In Asia and America, it breeds mainly in man–made containers and in Africa, it breeds in places as
tree holes and leaf axils and also in artificial containers. Artificial containers are those which are
kept to collect rainwater or that are filled with water by human population.
The mosquito Aedes aegypti comes in three polytypic forms: The domestic form breeds in urban
habitat, often around or inside houses. The sylvan form is a more rural form, and breeds in tree
holes, generally in forests. The peridomestic form thrives in environmentally modified areas such as
coconut groves and farms.
Temperatures have a significant affect on the replication of viruses. Higher temperatures can reduce
the time required for the virus to replicate and disseminate in the mosquito. If the mosquito becomes
infectious faster as it does in the regions and areas where temperatures are warmer, it has a much
likely chance of biting and infection a human before it perishes.
Aedis albopictus is an another form of vector for dengue in Asia and pacific. This vector was also

Mence of Dengue
Menace of Dengue
Dengue is an arbovirus disease caused by any one of four closely related viruses that do not provide
cross–protective immunity; a person can be infected as many as four times, once with each serotype.
Dengue viruses are transmitted from person to person by the Aedes aegypti mosquito in the
domestic environment. Periodic epidemics have occurred in the Western Hemisphere for over 200
years. In the past 20 years, however, dengue transmission and frequency of epidemics have
increased greatly in most tropical countries of the American, African and Asian region. As this has
occurred, dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) has emerged and produced epidemics in many countries
of the region.
What is Dengue?
The first reported epidemics of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Reasons:
The transmission of the virus to mosquitoes must be interrupted to prevent the illness. To this end,
patients are kept under mosquito netting until the second bout of fever is over and they are no longer
contagious.
The prevention of dengue requires control or eradication of the mosquitoes carrying the virus that
causes dengue. In nations plagued by dengue fever, people are urged to empty stagnant water from
old tires, trash cans, and flower pots. Governmental initiatives to decrease mosquitoes also help to
keep the disease in check but have been poorly effective.
To prevent mosquito bites, wear long pants and long sleeves. For personal protection, use mosquito
repellant sprays that contain DEET when visiting places where dengue is endemic. There are no
specific risk factors for contracting dengue fever, except living in or traveling to an area where the
mosquitoes and virus are endemic. Limiting exposure to mosquitoes by avoiding standing water and
staying indoors two hours after sunrise and before sunset will help. The Aedes aegypti mosquito is a
daytime biter with peak periods of biting around sunrise and sunset. It may bite at any time of the
day and is often hidden inside homes or other dwellings, especially in urban areas.
There is currently no vaccination available for dengue fever. There is a vaccine undergoing clinical
trials, but it is too early to tell if it will be safe or effective. Early results of clinical

Positive And Negative Effects Of Mosquito
According to the U.S. Center for Disease Control, "every year more than 1.5 million people around
the globe lose their lives due to mosquito–borne diseases" (2012). A mosquito is an insect which
lives around the world especially in tropical and subtropical countries. The mosquito has both
positive and negative effects. As part of positive effects, larvae of mosquitoes are food for fish and
dragonflies, and when mosquitoes consume nectar, they help the flowers to pollinate. On the other
hand, mosquitoes make people annoyed and cause many diseases. World Health Organization
(2016) explains that the mosquito is the greatest menace which causes many diseases and they are
responsible for more than million deaths and cases every year. There are many diseases that caused
by mosquitoes, but the diseases are commonly found and get people's attention because they have
many negative effects on people such as malaria, dengue fever, and zika virus disease. A disease that
kills a child patient every two minutes and gets patient to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
According to World Health Organization, "Dengue virus is transmitted by female mosquitoes mainly
of the species Aedes aegypti and, to a lesser extent, Ae. albopictus" (2016). People who live in or
travel to Africa, South and Central America, and Southeast Asia have a risk of infection the disease.
Other high–risk people are children, pregnant women, and people with compromised immune
systems. World Health Organization (2009) explains that "more than 70% of the population at risk
for dengue worldwide live in member states of the WHO South–East Asia Region and Western
Pacific Region, which bear nearly 75% of the current global disease burden due to dengue" (p. 4).
World Health Organization (2009) shows that a total of 4,332,731 cases of dengue was notified in
more than 30 countries of the Americas from 2001 to

Philippines : The Country 's Overview
The Country's Overview Philippines is an archipelago located in Southeast Asia near the equator.
The Philippine archipelago consists of 7,107 islands divided into three major groups of islands
which is Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. As of 2016 the Philippine population is estimated to about
102,624,209 (World Fact Book). The Philippine nationality is termed Filipino and its population is
made up of various ethnic groups. The national language is called Tagalog, it also the name of the
major ethnic group of the country. According to Philippine Statistic Authority the population of
urban area accounts for 45.3% of the country's total population (Urban–Rural Classification). In
contrast, the population in rural area is comprised of 54.7% and considered to be the majority
population of the entire country. The Philippine climate is predominantly tropical marine where wet
season occurs from November to April and is caused by the northeast monsoon. Similarly, the
second set of rainy season, is caused by the southwest monsoon during May to October (World Fact
Book). Additionally, the Philippine economy has been relatively resilient to global economic
struggles because the country is less exposed to troubled international securities. The lower
dependence on exports is what makes the country relatively resilient, relying only domestic
products, as well as large remittances from millions of migrant and overseas Filipino workers
(World Fact Book). The existing account balance has

Thesis About Chikungunya
Chikungunya : Stories in My Unfortunately and Pity Country
Indonesia, located on the equator. Lined become one of the countries in tropical regions with
immense charm of the famous to various parts of the world. The wealth of nature, hospitality, the
cool air and the other which is typical of this beloved country. My beautiful country seems to start
fading charms. Now we are rich, rich with problems. The only small one like mosquitoes could
trigger problems. That's why, because mosquitoes, Chikungunya problems began to adorn this
country.
Before I reveal any further, we should know first what is Chikungunya. Chikungunya is a disease
caused by the chikungunya virus that spread to humans through the bite of the mosquito Aedes
aegypti. Additionally ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If we compare with Dengue Fever, the Chikungunya have no severe bleeding, shock and death. The
incubation period of Chikungunya fever is two to four days. Manifestations of the disease lasts three
to ten days. These viruses include "Self Limiting Disease" which means disappear by itself. Usually
attacks the joints causing pain that can be left behind in a matter of weeks to months. This often
causes the sufferer to experience such as paralysis. So, there is a paradigm of public stating the
Chikungunya causes them to become

What Are The Positive And Negative Effects Of Mosquito
lives around the world, especially in tropical and subtropical countries. The mosquito has both
many negative effects on people such as malaria, dengue fever, and Zika virus disease. A disease
that kills a child patient every two minutes and gets patient to infect again is malaria. As World
Health Organization explains, "Malaria is a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
First is wearing protective clothing. People should wear clothes which cover all the body to protect
themselves from mosquitoes. Second, People should reschedule outdoor activities. Avoid being
outdoors at dawn and dusk because mosquitoes are out. The last one is reducing a mosquito habitat.
For instant, people should eliminate drains, tyres or other containers which may contain water. The
disease does not have any medicines to treat. When people have dengue fever, they should see a
doctor. The doctor may recommend treatment. For example, they should drink plenty of water, they
should also rest, and avoiding some types of pain relievers such as aspirin and ibuprofen because
they can increase bleeding complications. If people have severe dengue fever or dengue
hemorrhagic fever, they have to admit to the

Why Didn't Noah Swat those Two Mosquitoes
Why Didn't Noah Swat Those Two Mosquitoes?
We all know how Noah was instructed by God to make an ark, and fill it with two of every sort of
living thing, and gather food for them (Genesis 6:11–22) but if you are lying in a hospital bed
waiting for the nurse to stick the big, gleaming needle in your vein for the nth time, you will
definitely want those pesky blood sucking parasites dead!
World Health Organization (WHO) celebrates World Health Day on 7th April each year and the
theme for 2014 was, Vector borne diseases under the banner "Small Bite Big Threat".Vector–borne
diseases account for 17% of the estimated global burden of all infectious diseases!
Imagine Mr. X, a resident of Mumbai who is suffering from high fever, severe headache (behind the
eyes), and nausea and vomiting. He also complains of excruciating joint pain. He has started to
develop a petechial rash. Mr. X goes to his physician who orders some blood tests. His CBC shows
decreased platelets and NS–1 antigen test is positive. What am I talking about? You guessed it right!
DENGUE!
Why talk about dengue? WHO says the world's fastest growing vector–borne disease is dengue,
with a 30–fold increase in disease incidence over the last 50 years. The Centre for Disease Control
(CDC) states with more than one–third of the world's population living in areas at risk for infection,
dengue virus is a leading cause of illness and death in the tropics and subtropics. As many as 400
million people are infected yearly.
A

Gene And Drive Systems
Without any single powerful sickness control system, much investment has been controlled at the
utilization of gene drive components to spread against pathogen qualities through mosquito
populaces. Here, they break down the likelihood that transgenic DNA comprising of a hostile to
pathogen gene and drive system is lost from a mosquito populace taking after an unplanned
discharge. Any transgenic mosquito undertaking is required to include a few phases of testing–first
in the research facility, then in indoor confines, and after that in outside cages presented to the
surrounding environment in a locale where transgenic mosquitoes may in the long run be
discharged. A few gene drive systems exist in nature, and it is trusted that recalcitrant genes will be
connected with these frameworks and crashed into mosquito populaces inside a time span
satisfactory to general wellbeing objectives. Probably the most guaranteeing gene drive systems
right now being explored incorporate homing endonuclease genes (HEGs), transposable elements
(TEs), Medea elements, the intracellular bacterium Wolbachia, designed underdominance genes, and
meiotic drive. The Core Working Group on Guidance for Contained Field Trials has distinguished a
few potential unfavorable impacts of transgenic mosquitoes that must be evaluated before a release.
A few gene drive systems are right now being considered to spread hostile to pathogen qualities into
mosquito populations, each one having its own one of a kind

Symptoms And Symptoms Of Dengue Fever
Dengue Fever is a well–known arbovirus infection persistently affecting the tropical and subtropical
areas sharing similar characteristics of overcrowding, clammy warm climate, poor economic and
moving toward industrialization. (1) The incidence of dengue fever is escalating each year mostly in
Southeast Asia, America and the Pacific's adding to the world's burden of the disease (1,2) Dengue
virus is a member of flavivirus genus family that includes also West Nile virus, yellow fever, zika
and Japanese encephalitis virus (1). Four serotypes of dengue virus identified DENV 1–4
transmitted by the Aedes aegypti and Ades albopictus mosquitoes (3) Clinical diagnosis of dengue
fever remains a challenge and requires high index of suspicion. This could be attributed to the non–
specific signs and symptoms in acute phase which mimic many other febrile illnesses (1). It has a
spectrum of symptoms ranging from mild self–limiting symptoms (fever, headache, retro–orbital
pain, weakness, myalgia, arthralgia, nausea, vomiting, rash and sore throat) to severe life
threatening; dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue shock syndrome (DSH) (3,4). The disease
has an incubation period of 2–7 days and has been classified into primary and secondary infection,
depending on whether there is no previous exposure to dengue virus or flavivirus related vaccine
(primary) or there is past exposure (secondary) (1,4).
While no definitive treatment for dengue fever and no vaccine available, early detection

Hemorrhagic Fever And Indi Dengue Fever
Running head: DENGUE FEVER & INDIA
Dengue Fever in India
Daniela Shvartz & Heather Grossklaus
HSC 4117 Health Disparities in Diverse and Dynamic Populations
John F. Kennedy University
Fall 2014
Table of Contents
Introduction (Daniela)........................................................................................3
Epidemiology (Daniela)........................................................................................3
Ecology (Daniela)..............................................................................................4 Transmission
(Daniela)...............................................................................4 Vector Interactions
(Daniela)........................................................................6
Case Management (Daniela)................................................................................7 Vector Surveillance
(Daniela).......................................................................7 Vector Control
(Daniela).............................................................................7
Prevention (Heather)............................................................................................8–9
Vaccine (Heather).............................................................................................10
Conclusion(Heather)..........................................................................................11
Dengue Fever, a tropical arbovirus infection (viruses transmitted by arthropods to humans), is an
emerging viral disease infecting approximately 100 million individuals globally (52% at risk) per
year living in dengue–risk areas, primarily tropical urban areas and subtropical ones.1 Most cases
are commonly distributed and reported among humans in India, South East Asia, South and Central
America, Africa, and the Caribbean. It has plagued such regions for centuries and turned into a
crucial public health concern in need of stringent control measures. However, considering the
probable fact that no other nation in the globe

Pharmacy Department : Pharmacist And Community
Faculty of Pharmacy
Microbiology Department
Pharmacist and Community
PM501
Zika Virus
Group: B
Submitted to: Dr–Ghada Refaat
Prepared by: Ali Mousa Abd El–Raouf ID: 123061
Due Date: 31–3–2016
– Spring2016 –
Introduction:
It is an emerging mosquito–borne virus which was first recognized in 1947 in Uganda in rhesus
monkeys throughout a yellowish fever monitoring network. During 1952 it was found in humans in
Uganda and United Republic of Tanzania. Outbreaks of the virus was noticed in Africa, Asia and
America.
Genre: Flavivirus
Vector: Aedes mosquitoes (that frequently bite in the morning and during late afternoon)
the reservoir is unknown
What is Zika Virus? The disease (Zika) is caused by Zika virus that is extent to individuals primarily
through an infected Aedes species mosquito bite. The most noticed indicators of Zika are fever, joint
pain, rash and conjunctivitis (red eyes). The disease is usually mild with symptoms continue for
several days to a week after the patient bitten by an infected mosquito. People usually don't get sick
enough to go to the hospital, and they die of Zika very rarely. Thus, many people may not
understand that they have been infected.
Symptoms
 Most people infected with Zika virus can 't even recognize that they are infected as they won't
have noticed symptoms. Common symptoms of Zika include fever, rash, joint pain, or conjunctivitis
(red eyes). Other common signs may include muscle pain and

Rationale And Hypothesis / Research Question On Open...
RATIONALE AND HYPOTHESIS/RESEARCH QUESTION
Open Information Environments (OIEs) describe information system environments where the uses
and users of user generated content may not be known in its entirety at the point of collection.
Citizen Science platforms are typical examples of information systems that operate in OIEs. They
allow scientists access to distributed knowledge about an object of interest from disparate sources.
Some of the benefits of citizen science can be seen in birdwatching (the eBird project:
www.ebird.org) where scientist can now recruits ordinary citizens to assist with monitoring the
migration of birds. Another pertinent example is in the monitoring of disease vectors like the Zika
Virus carrier – the Aedes Aegypti Mosquito (See the Invasive Mosquito Project
www.citizenscience.us/imp). In theory, Citizen science projects would reduce research costs (time
and money) and engender an awareness of scientific research in the participants.
Citizen science stems from crowdsourcing, which was originally defined by the originator of the
term – Howe (2006) – as "taking a job traditionally performed by a designated agent (usually an
employee) and outsourcing it to an undefined, generally large group of people [emphasis added]".
However, many citizen science platforms explicitly or implicitly seek out experts in the crowd from
a nomological standpoint that an expert crowd would make for a better crowd in terms of the quality
of information they will provide.

Analysis Of Christopher Columbus Discovered The New World...
"Christopher Columbus discovered the 'New World' and Europeans conquered the native lands with
little resistance due to their superior weaponry." These stories have been at the heart of the American
education system for as long as American history existed. But this type of Eurocentric view does not
provide the entire narrative for the events that occurred during the colonial era in the Greater
Caribbean. Between Britain's esteemed navy, France's leadership, and Spain's army, who would've
guessed that mosquitoes could've tipped the scale of power and changed history forever? J.R.
Mcneill addresses the key significance of mosquitoes in the colonial Greater Caribbean by utilizing
existing information and presenting them in the format of a ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Furthermore, gullies started appearing in bigger quantities due to soil erosion, and this is best
described by "one downpour in November 1668 [that] opened a gully in the churchyard of Christ
Church parish that carried 1,500 coffins and their contents out to sea" (McNeill 28). Moreover, not
only are these marshes bad for plantations, it was also an ideal situation for mosquitoes. To make the
situation even worse, the birds that were the main predators to the mosquitoes have now exited the
ecosystem. Despite this, Barbados was largely free of malarial mosquitoes, but other islands weren't
so lucky. When the Europeans made their transatlantic voyages, in addition to trading slaves and
commodities, yellow fever and malaria managed to sneak their way onto the slave ships. Due to the
sheer quantity of slaves needed to run a sugarmill, these slave ships were often crowded beyond
capacity and its cramped and damp hulls provided a haven for mosquitoes infected with numerous
diseases. And these unfortunate islands became hubs for spreading malaria and yellow fever.
Perhaps the best way to illustrate the deadliness of these diseases is to bring up the Haitian
Revolution in St. Domingue. Soonafter the rebellions broke out in Haiti, the British Army arrived in
an effort to weaken their French rival. When the army arrived, the planters and whites in general
welcomed them, and so did

What Is Zika Virus Disease?
Zika Virus What is Zika virus disease? Zika virus disease, also referred to as Zika, is a disease that
people can contract from the Zika virus. The Zika virus first emerged in Uganda in 1947 in rhesus
monkeys. Its name comes from the Zika forest located in Uganda (CDC). What are the signs and
symptoms? The most common symptoms of the Zika virus are mild fever, vomiting, headache, skin
rash, red eyes, joint aches, and muscle aches (phila.gov). Symptoms resemble other infections such
as chikungunya and dengue so many cases go unidentified. The Zika virus disease typically results
in mild symptoms therefore many do not go to the hospital and people rarely die. With only one in
four exposed individuals actually showing signs of infection, many may not realize they have been
infected (CDC). Is there treatment for Zika virus disease? There is no vaccine to help prevent Zika.
There is also currently no formal medication to treat the disease. Therefore, it is best to treat the
symptoms. In addition, get a good amount of rest, prevent dehydration by drinking plenty of fluids,
and take medication that reduces fever or pain such as paracetamol or acetaminophen (Tylenol®).
When taking medication, do not take non–steroidal anti–inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) like aspirin.
NSAIDS could increase the risk of bleeding if dengue has not been ruled out. It is also important to
talk to your healthcare provider before taking any medication if you are already taking medication
for a separate

Causes And Consequences Of Mosquitoes
Mosquitoes are significant groups of arthropods that inhabit aquatic habitats. They are probably
adverse arthropods, which transmits wide range of pathogens that cause drastic deadly diseases such
as human malaria, dengue, filariasis, viral encephalitis (Leopoldo 2008). Zika virus, another
mosquitoe borne infection was first reported in Brazil by Pan American Health Organization in
2015. After the identification, the Zika virus has spread tremendously all around America. The
illness begins with mild symptoms lasting up to a week after being bitten by vector mosquito.
However, an infection during pregnancy may cause certain neurological anomalies like
microcephaly and several other brain defects (Plourde & Bloch 2016).Thus control of mosquitoes
becomes the need of the hour to prevent wide epidemic infections. However, it is difficult to control
and prevent severe consequences created by mosquito species (Aneesh 2009).
Currently a total of 3549 recognized mosquito species belonging to subfamily Culicinae are reported
all over the world (Harbach 2016). Out of this more than hundred species of mosquitoes are capable
of disease transmission to humans and other ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Pupae don't require food and be alive for 1–3 days before the adult form. Male adult mosquitoes
primarily feed nectar from plants to get sugar while the female mosquitoes imbibe the blood meal to
generate viable eggs (Leopoldo 2008). Female mosquitoes usually nourish every 3–5days. A.
albopictus females are diurnal feeders; they not only give preference to attack large mammals but
also imbibe blood meals from birds (Savage et al

The Positive And Negative Effects Of Mosquitoes
lives around the world, especially in tropical and subtropical countries. The mosquito has both
many negative effects on people such as malaria, dengue fever, and Zika virus disease. A disease
that kills a child patient every two minutes and gets patient to infect again is malaria. As World
Health Organization explains, "Malaria is a life–threatening disease caused by parasites that are
transmitted to people through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes" (2016). Malaria is
transmitted in tropical and subtropical countries. The countries that mostly ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention explains that "Zika is spread mostly by the bite of an
infected Aedes species mosquito. These are the same mosquitoes that spread dengue and
chikungunya viruses" (2016). The first human cases of Zika were detected in 1952. Tropical Africa,
Southeast Asia, and the Pacific Islands have been reported on Zika virus. World Health Organization
(2016) reports that "Since 2015, 67 countries and territories reported evidence of vector–borne Zika
virus

Aedes Mosquitos : Dangerous Invasive Species And Disease...
Aedes mosquitos are dangerous invasive species and disease vectors who originally came from
Asian tropical territories. Due to the global change of the climate, it became possible for Aedes
mosquitos to habitat in many suitable for them territories (1). Aedes albopictus is one of the 2,
which had adjusted to most of the places in the world with warm enough climate to survive. The
major reason that this species has massively invaded worldwide, is due to their plasticity (2).
Another threatening species is Aedes aegypti, which has certain homology, but in contrast, could
only exist in warmer zones with a tropical climate and high humidity. It results in less massive
population range comparing to the Asian Tigers (3). Aedes aegypti occupies warm pleases like
Africa, many islands, southern parts of the Europe, and U.S., and with the greatest population
outgrows is in Southern America and Caribbean aria (4). The main cause of Aedes emigration was
the international trade of the objects, such as tires, into many parts of the world (2). The current
anthropological influence, which supports high population size of Aedes aegypti, is increased water
collection during rain seasons, and storage in urban places, in countries with the tropical climate (5).
The main problem caused by the Aedes albopictus and Aedes eagypti is the threat to the human
health by transmitting vector–borne disease, and their population outgrowth that causes epidemics
(3). The purpose of this paper is to focus

The Outbreak Of Yellow Fever
The outbreak of yellow fever ceased when the first frost of November covered the city of
Philadelphia. Out of the eleven–thousand people that contracted the fever, around five–thousand
died. The epidemic took ten percent of the city's population. The epidemic of 1793 was the first to
strike in a twenty–nine year period. From 1793 to 1822, the fever ravished through the port cities of
the nation. Yellow fever was not caused by miasma in the atmosphere like the inhabitants of
Philadelphia thought. The actual cause of the fever would not be known until the nineteenth century.
The United States' invasion of Cuba would lead to the discovery of the cause. A man named Walter
Reed discovered that the virus was caused by the female Aedes aegypti mosquito in the year 1900. It
would not be until 1930 with the work of a man named Max Theiler that a vaccine would be
developed. This thesis is a deviation from the historiography of the epidemic. It does not examine
the epidemic as a battle of doctors. It instead examines how the epidemic played a larger role in
American independence. Before the epidemic, the nation was strengthening its individuality by
creating its own medical school. It was a step in the nation's journey of creating its own structures
that did not involve the British crown. However when the epidemic began to break out, it was
evident that the nation still held to European ideas. John Morgan's Medical Department of the
College would become the University of

Dengue Fever And Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever
Dengue is believed to have originated in primates before jumping to humans via an insect vector
100 – 800 years ago in either Southeast Asia or Africa. (cdc.gov/dengue/epidemiology) Dengue
became a prevalent issue during the 20th century as a result of the Second World War inadvertently
transporting the insect vector from place to place along with cargo. (cdc.gov/dengue/epidemiology)
This caused outbreaks in Thailand and the Philippines in the 1950's and in the 80's cases began to
crop up in Latin America and the Caribbean. (cdc.gov/dengue/epidemiology)
Dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever are caused by a family of four similar viruses that have
been appropriately dubbed; dengue 1–4. (cdc.gov/dengue/epidemiology) The insect vector ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(cdc.gov/dengue/symptoms/index.html) These include a high fever in conjunction with two or all of
these symptoms; joint pain, rash, severe headache and/or eye pain, low leukocyte count and mild
bleeding of the gums, nose, petechiae, and sometimes bruising.
(cdc.gov/dengue/symptoms/index.html) The real danger can occur when the patient is beginning to
seem to be on the road to recovery. After about a week of infection the fever can suddenly begin to
decline and leads to what clinicians call a "48 hour critical window" when the patient begins to show
the symptoms of dengue hemorrhagic fever. (cdc.gov/dengue/symptoms/index.html)
Family members caring for a dengue infected patient need to keep vigil over the person and bring
them to hospital immediately if they begin to complain of severe abdominal pain with or without
vomiting, vomiting blood, tarry stools, bleeding from the gums or nose red patches on the skin, and
signs of shock such as pale, cold, clammy skin, difficulty breathing, drowsiness and/or irritability.
The cause of these severe symptoms is during the 48 hour window; even the smallest vessels of the
body begin to leak and can lead to catastrophic fluid loss, leading to hypovolemic shock and death.
(cdc.gov/dengue/symptoms/index.html) Dengue can only rarely be passed from person to person
directly through blood transfusions and mother to fetus transmissions.
(cdc.gov/dengue/symptoms/index.html) That is why in conjunction with monitor the person

The Destruction Of Yellow Fever

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