Metal Forming In Medieval Europe

Metal Forming In Medieval Europe
During the Medieval period through the 5th and 15th centuries in Europe, technology advancement
in metal forming and extraction was becoming popular. The reason for this is because of the battles
and empires in the time periods having the desires to expand and build up their military. To
complete this task, an edge in iron working and metal forming had to be solidified as a strength for
those wanting to further expand their countries boundaries. An example of this would be the Roman
Empire. (Source) This research paper is going to talk about how people in the medieval time periods
extracted iron ore, what technology was utilized to make armor, and what armor was produced and
how it was made in the middle age era. (Brief history, studies of ... Show more content on
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Wootz consists of high carbon (nearly 1.2%C to 1.6%C) crucible steel. This is first created by small
pieces of iron in sealed crucibles and charcoal being heated into a cake. Then the mixture is left to
cool slowly, and exported to manufacturers. The cakes would be manipulated by forging it into
blades. Through this process, the cementite was broken up, decreasing the brittleness and created a
watered silk texture to the blades surface. (The night an blast furnace pg 11, 12, 14) Wootz steel
would be imported by Europe and also called Damascus steel.(History of Metallurgy pg
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Research Plan: Fuel Research Essay
Research plan: Fuel research
____________________________________________________________________________
Title: Bio–inspired fuel (H2) research using bioinorganic and organometallic catalysis Specific aim
The goals of this research plan is to (1) synthesize electrocatalysts based on active sites of enzymes
(Hydrogenase) for hydrogen recycling; (2) do catalytic studies to understand the suitability of the
catalysts; (3) focus on the rational design of fuel cell using newly made electrocatalysts; (4) develop
a strategy to attach the catalysts to the electrode surface; (4) setup collaboration with engineering
and other departments to meet fuel cell development goal; (5) bring financial support from
industries and national funding ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Besides, methanol and methane, renewable resources, such as bio(ethanol) and glycerol, are
considered as promising source of hydrogen. Nevertheless, their use remains limited as the applied
reforming processes run at high temperature. On the other hand, hydrogen can be produced from
metal and metal compound such as NaBH4. Nonetheless, these processes have obvious
disadvantage such as toxicity, price, and safety. Although, decomposition of formic acid and amine
adduct produces hydrogen under mild conditions, but need a catalyst to complete the process. It is
noteworthy to mention that these resources are limited and we have to find a substrate which is
ample on earth. So, H2 in future must be obtained from slitting of water, whether, electrolytically,
photolytically, thermolytically or biolytically; however, the catalyst is a prime consideration. In
biological systems, H2 is produced by microbes, using two routes (i) fermentation and (ii)
photosynthesis. Fermentation involves providing bacteria with suitable carbon sources such as
domestic waste. However, photosynthesis is potentially more attractive since primary energy is
captured, but is complicated by the need to avoid O2 damaging the active site of the enzymes. The
storage of hydrogen is another challenging issue in this research and many alternates for it has been
discovered and

A Brief Note On Biotechnology And Its Effects On...
ation: Biotechnology Using Plants to Reverse the Effects of Environmental Problems.
Introduction
In the last century the population has increased by 6 billion and by 2050 is expected to reach 8
Billion, this coupled with global industrialisation has placed huge stresses on the environment,
affecting sustainability and causing buildups of organic and inorganic contaminants throughout the
biosphere, most notably in the rhizosphere (Ward & Singh, 2004). Phytoremediation coming from
the Greek word phyto, meaning "plant" and the latin remediare, meaning "to remedy" is a term first
coined by Dr. Ilya Raskin in 1991 terming the use of vascular plants, fungi and algae in either the
control of waste, the encouragement of waste break down or the ... Show more content on
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Legally contaminated land is defined when these concentrations pose a significant risk to human
health or protected species or has the possibility of contaminating surface of ground water systems.
Projections of global risk of arsenic in drinking water (United Nations Environment Programme,
2006) in figure. 1, and the map of global risk of radioactive contamination in figure. 2 (Kunkel,
2011) show the extent of the problem;
Figure, 1– United Nations Environment Programme, (2006) Estimated Risk of Arsenic in Drinking
Water.
Figure, 2– Kunkel, (2011) Probability of contamination from severe nuclear reactor accidents.
Key Contamination Events In Niagara Falls in the state of New–York during the 40's and 50's a
huge company called Hooker Chemical Company used an abandoned canal to dump around 20,000
tons of PCP's, pesticides and other chemical waste, twenty to thirty years later huge rises in
miscarriages and deformities where reported in the area (Ward & Singh, 2004). The Chernobyl
disaster of 1986 ,in which, a nuclear reactor released huge amounts of contaminants such as, iodine,
plutonium and caesium effected 200,000 square kilometres of Europe causing high increases in
cancers and affecting over 600,000 people (United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),
2014). On March 11th, 2011 an earthquake led to three reactor

Waste Water Case Study
It can be concluded that mixed primary and secondary iron nanoparticles were synthesized in Mt
and PVP involved borohydride reduction system. In addition, the nanoparticles contained an iron
oxide–coated α–Fe core and a PVP surface layer. Also, the clay–polymer interactions made PVP not
only adsorb on the external surface but also intercalate into the interlayer space of Mt particles,
developing a polymer barrier on the clay mineral surfaces. Due to the barrier–related steric
hindrances and/or alkaline pH–derived electrostatic repulsions, the clay mineral particles built a
card–house flocculation structure, which after suitable washing and drying can convert to a semi–
card–house form in dry products. [2]
Treatment of laundry wastewater ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
[20] In addition detergents in laundry water has been reported to have a negative impact by
destroying fish mucus membranes and gills to some degree. As a consequence, the gills lose natural
oils, interrupting oxygen transfer. Damaged mucus membranes leave fish susceptible to bacteria and
parasites. Detergents have toxicity level on fish near 15 ppm, thus killing fish eggs at 5 ppm and
could cause endocrine disrupting and estrogenic effects in fish. [21] In addition, oil/grease can be
found within a concentration of 8–35 mg/l of oil/grease. It adversely affects the esthetic advantages,
water turbidity and Dissolved Oxygen (DO) content in the water. [22] Several methods have been
employed to treat laundry water before its release into aquatic sources. This involves the removal of
contaminants both soluble or insoluble before its discharge into the environment. Coagulation,
adsorption, flocculation, chemical oxidation, and biological treatments are some of the conventional
methods used in treating laundry waste be discharge into the environment. [23] These methods have
been successful in its entire application but suffer some drawbacks. For example, ineffective
decolorization of waste water and time–consuming efforts makes it difficult for effective removal of
CODs. [24] Membrane separation has also been employed in some way for effective from the
treatment of grey water. The membrane separation process has been successful over conventional
methods which

The Shape Memory Effect And Super Elasticity
INTRODUCTION
The Shape Memory Alloys are quite fascinating materials characterised by a Shape Memory effect
and Super–elasticity, which ordinary metals and alloys do not have. This unique behaviour was first
found in Au–47.5%Cd alloy in 1951, and was publicised by its discovery in a Ti–Ni alloy in 1963.
After much research and development thereafter, shape memory alloys are now being practically
used as new functional alloys for pipe couplings, antennae for cellular phones and various actuators
in electrical appliances, etc. Furthermore, they have attracted keen attention as promising candidate
for smart materials since they function as sensors as well as actuators.
The shape memory effect and super–elasticity are based on the diffusion less transformation called
martensitic transformation. The Shape memory effect is a unique property of certain alloys
exhibiting martensitic transformations. Even though the alloy is deformed in low temperature phase,
it recovers its original shape by reverse transformation upon heating to a critical temperature called
reverse transformation temperature. Many other alloys such as In–T1, 3, 4 Cu–Zn and Cu–Al–Ni
were also found. The same alloys have another unique property called Super–elasticity at a higher
temperature, which is associated with a large (18%) nonlinear recoverable strain upon loading and
unloading. Since these alloys have a unique property in remembering the original shape, having an
actuator function and having

Essay Metal And Architecture
Metal and architecture has evolved over centuries, with successive eras opening up new technical
and elegant possibilities through the development of different types of metals. Metals are dense,
lustrous materials that are highly conductive of heat and electricity. Some facts about metals are that
they are generally ductile, meaning that they can be hammered thin or drawn into wires. Metals can
also be liquified by heating and then resolidified by cooling. Presently metals are the strongest
building materials in common use. Found in nature, metals come in the form of oxide ores, meaning
they are a compound of oxygen mixed with a mineral containing a valuable constituent such as
metal. Metals can also corrode and wear away by oxidation. ... Show more content on
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Cast iron, the great material of the Industrial Revolution, revolutionized Georgian and Victorian
buildings. The protection of metal includes galvanizing, tern plating, plating and anodizing.
Galvanizing protects metal or steel against the exposure to the atmosphere and rusting. It is applied
by an application of zinc coating. Tern plating is a steel sheet with a coating of tern metal which is
an alloy of led and tin. This is applied by dipping the steel into molten metal. An example of what
you would use tern plating for would be roofing, gutters, gas tanks, oil cans, etc.. Another way to
protect metal is plating. Plating is the coating of metal or other material such as plastic or china,
with a hard, nonporous, metallic surface to improve durability. Most plating is done for decorative
purposes, but still more is done to increase durability and corrosion resistance. An example of where
you would use plating would be on auto parts, housewares, hardware, plumbing/electrical
equipment and machine tools. Anodizing is another method of protecting metal. It is a method of
coating metal for corrosion resistance, electrical insulation, thermal control, abrasion resistance,
sealing, improving paint adhesion, decorative finishing. This is applied by electrically depositing an
oxide film onto the surface of a metal usually aluminum. Aluminum, after it has been anodized can
also be

Iron Fertilisation and Algal Blooms
Phytoplankton are the basis of nearly all the Ocean's ecosystems, and require a wide range of
inorganic nutrients in order to grow; notably Carbon, Nitrogen and Phosphorous. They take up these
nutrient elements according to the Redfield Ratio of C : N : P = 106 : 16 : 1. But phytoplankton also
require less obvious nutrients such as calcium, magnesium and potassium. These are often in
plentiful supply in the worlds Oceans, and other factors such as the micronutrient Iron can be the
limiting Phytoplankton growth factor. Iron is not required by Phytoplankton in large amounts, but
the Oceans are deficient of this micronutrient, and without it Phytoplankton cannot grow and
reproduce as readily. This is because Iron is required in the biosynthesis of the pigment chlorophyll,
required by Phytoplankton in order to photosynthesise. With a deficiency in Iron, Phytoplankton can
suffer from a lack of chlorophyll known as chlorosis. The protein ferredoxin contains Iron and is
substituted for flavodoxin as an iron–stress response (when Iron levels are low). It can be shown that
Phytoplankton are Iron deficient by measuring how much of this electron transfer protein flavodoxin
is present.
Iron's role in phytoplankton growth was first identified in the 1930's by an English biologist named
Joseph Hart. However it was not until 1988 when the Iron Fertilisation Hypothesis was suggested, in
an article in the January edition of the scientific journal Nature. It was submitted by John Martin
who

Material Use Of The Automotive Business
Literature review Materials use in automotive
The automotive business uses an incredible range of materials to make cars, together with iron,
aluminium, plastic steel, glass, rubber, rock oil product, copper, steel et al. These components square
measure wont to produce everything from those little things we do not rely on, like dashboard
needles and wiring, to the large stuff, like the cylinder block or the transmission gears. But besides
this most common metals uses in automobile are steel and aluminium. These materials have evolved
greatly over the decades, changing into a lot of refined, higher engineered, and safer. They 've
modified as new automotive producing technologies have emerged over the years, and they are
employed in more ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Steel 's strength compared to pure iron is barely doable at the expense of plasticity; of that iron has
associate degree excess.
Basic oxygen steel making system
Accounting for the world 's total output of crude steel, the essential chemical element Steelmaking
(BOS) method is that the dominant steelmaking technology. In the U.S., that figure is fifty four and
slowly declining due primarily to the appearance of the "Greenfield" spark chamber (EAF) flat–
rolled mills. However, elsewhere its use is growing. The Basic chemical element Steelmaking
method differs from the EAF therein it 's self–generated, or self–sufficing in energy. the first raw
materials for the BOP square measure 70–80% liquid hot metal from the furnace and also the
balance is steel scrap. These square measure charged into the essential chemical element chamber
(BOF) vessel. chemical element is "blown" into the BOF at supersonic velocities. It oxidizes the
carbon and Si contained within the hot metal liberating nice quantities of warmth that melts the
scrap. There square measure lesser energy contributions from the oxidization of iron, manganese,
and phosphorus. The post combustion of CO because it exits the vessel conjointly transmits heat
back to the bathtub. The product of the Bos is liquid steel with a nominative chemical analysis at
2900°F–3000°F. From here it 's going to bear any refinement in an exceedingly secondary
refinement method or be sent on to

Manganese And The Role Of The Human Body
MANGANESE AND THE ROLE IT PLAYS IN THE HUMAN BODY
Introduction
Manganese is one of sixteen known minerals that are essential within the human diet (wardlaw).
Minerals, such as manganese, are considered essential to the diet of humans if their absence results
in physiological or structural abnormalities and their presence prevents disease/illness (wardlaw).
The body utilizes manganese primarily in energy metabolism and within the antioxidant systems
(wardlaw). Manganese is found primarily in parts of the body such as the liver, pancreas, kidneys
and bones (Ehrlich).
The Chemical Properties of Manganese
Manganese (Mn) is a member of the periodic family of transition metals. Transition metals have one
or more stable ions that do not have complete d–orbitals. Manganese has the atomic number twenty–
five, ie. the nucleus contains twenty–five protons. Taking into consideration the abundance of
various Manganese isotopes, the atomic weight was found to be 54.9380amu.
Dietary Reference Intake
Manganese does not have a Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) due to insufficient
information, however, the Food and Nutrition Board has set an Adequate Intake. The Adequate
Intake was formulated based on observed and experimentally determined approximations of
manganese by populations of good health status. In healthy adults, the AI for men is 2.3mg/day and
1.8mg/day for women (wardlow). The need for dietary manganese increases with pregnancy and
lactation (2.0–2.6 mg/day) (linus pauling).

Where Is It Written By Adam Schwartz Essay
Where Is It Written", by Adam Schwartz, is a story about Sam who's thirteen that lives with his
mother Sandra. First Sam visits his father for two weeks in late August. Then he wrote his mother
Sandra a letter regarding his decision on staying with his father. Finally, his mother Sandra received
his letter and called his father house to speak to Sam about him wanting to live with his father and to
reject him to live with his father. Coming of age is an important theme in which they take up for
their actions. Sam came of age because he realize his mother Sandra isn 't who he thought she was.
To begin, this story takes place in New Jersey. The author introduces Sam who is dealing with his
mother Sandra. His solution to this problem is to persuade his father to sue. The author explains that
he wanted to move with his father. The author also introduces us to Phyllis who is Sam's father wife,
which is now sam's stepmother. The author mostly focuses on Sam and his mother Sandra the
relationship between the two. Such as the shouting, smoking, bringing in different boyfriends every
week. Also about the letter that Sam wrote his mother regards of his decision. "Everything!The
cooking, the cleaning,the shouting . Everything!"[Schwartz pg. 87]. This quote refers back to the
article about his mother Sandra. The most important detail provided by the author in the beginning
of the story are important because they demonstrate that Sam persuades his father to sue his mother
so

Essay on Chemistry 1 Stoichiometry Lab
Stoichiometry
04/09/12
Chemistry I B
Ms. Norton
Introduction/Pre–laboratory Assignment: 1. Write out and balance each of the following equations.
A. CuSO4 + Fe Cu + FeSO4 B. 3CuSO4 + 2Fe 3Cu + Fe(SO4)3 2. If Iron (III) Sulfate were formed,
what mass of Copper would be expected and what is the limiting reagent? C. 2.26 g Cu D. Fe 3. If
Iron (II) Sulfate were formed, what mass of Copper would be expected and what is the limiting
reagent? E. 2.8 g Cu F. CuSO4
Driving Question: What compound is formed when you add 7 g of CuSO4 to 2 g of Fe?
Goal: To correctly identify what compound is formed and how close it is to the theoretical yield.
Materials:
* Safety Goggles ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Let the copper settle to the bottom of the beaker and decant again. X. Dry the copper as your teacher
directs and determine its mass. Record this mass. XI. Calculate the percent yield by using the
theoretical yield that you determined in the pre–lab. Observations: Adding Iron to Copper (II)
Sulfate * Got very hot * It started sizzling * Made greenish/turquoise bubbles * A brownish sludge
formed
These were all chemical reactions that took place. The reason that this is known is because of table
7.1 on page 219 in the textbook.
Data: | Yield | Percent Yield | Theoretical: | 2.28 g Cu | 100 % | Actual: | 2.13 g Cu | 93.4 % |
Data Analysis: When weighing the mass of our product you get 2.13 grams. Also when you figure
out the percent yield you get 93.4%.
Conclusion:
I. The limiting reactant was 2.28 g Cu. Because iron is the limiting reactant. I know this because
when the equation is done iron ends up being the limiting reactant. II. So iron would be the limiting
reactant. You have unreacted iron that will mess up the weight. III. So the impurities were washed
away and the experiment is contaminated. IV. It didn't have anything to do with the reaction because
it was a spectator ion. V. CuSO4 + Fe Cu + FeSO4
There are two main errors that could happen in this lab. The first being human error when weighing

the elements. This would result in more reactants which would cause more products and a
misreading

Persistence and Qualitative Change
Persistence and qualitative change
The metaphysical idea of and object persisting over time brings rise to a lot of debate on how we
can properly identify a thing as it experiences qualitative change over time. The main issue that
arises when talking about persistence over time is whether we can identify the initial thing we are
observing as a different entity as time progresses and it undergoes qualitative change. For example
is some thing we identify as "x", that goes through a qualitative change at time T1, the same as the
thing "x" at time T2 after the change was implemented. There are many different views on this topic
and I will introduce three of them and then select the one I think is most probable. The first view is
the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
My initial thoughts about this is that is similar to a mathematical function were you can get a y–
value (current state) for every x–value (position in time) and that you only get to see the whole
function when you graph all x,y "relations". Also the direction of the graph can change (qualitative
Change) depending on the function.
The three problems that arise with this theory is the assumption that the notion of time is non–
existent and that a thing can never represent itself at any one time because by the very definition of
this theory it would be insufficient in representing itself. The time issue is a consequence of a thing
not being a whole thing unless it's dispersed over time therefor a thing is only itself when time is one
"frame". Using algebra to explain what I mean I can say that an object "Q" is equal to Q only when
the sum of all times "t" is equal to 1 because Q is equal to the sum of all Q's corresponding to all
times "t". The third issue is that it denies that anything changes (by our definition of change as a
function of time) because it denies that time is ongoing. This theory is not empirically supported
because obviously we see time as being ongoing and infinite also it is an overly complicated
explanation for what we seek.
The last theory is called the no persistence theory and it states that an object "x" does not persist
through time

Essay on Lynchburg Foundry
Lynchburg Foundry: The Ductile Dilemma
Understanding the Numbers: 1. Study Exhibits 1, 2, and 3 and answer the following: a. What is the
per ton cost of ductile iron casting at the Lynchburg Plant? At the Archer Creek Plant? At the
Radford Plant?
Lynchburg Plant | Archer Creek Plant | Radford Plant | $194.91 | $189.25 | $222.05 |
b. What percentage of ductile iron can be recycled (i.e. ductile iron return that is generated) from
each charge at the Lynchburg Plant? At the Archer Creek Plant? At the Radford Plant?
Lynchburg Plant | Archer Creek Plant | Radford Plant | 900 lbs. | 1840 lbs. | 600 lbs. |
c. What is the average percent of ductile iron return in the total raw material used in a ... Show more
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g. How many tons of ductile iron return are available for transfer from the two castings plants
(Lynchburg and Archer Creek) to the pipe–making plant (Radford)? Explain how the Excess
Available for the Radford Plant was calculated.
* Exhibit 5 shows us that there is 51,600 tons of ductile iron return available from the casting plants
to be transferred to the pipe making plant in Radford. The excess ductile iron return available from
the Radford plant can be calculated by taking the ductile iron return tonnage available for the
Lynchburg and Archer Creek plant and subtracting the amount necessary for the 40% of charge. This
left you with the excess available for the Radford Pant which is 6,000 tons.
3. What is the most expensive raw material for castings and for pipe–making?
How is the charge mix for castings different than the charge mix for pipe–making? * The most
expensive raw material for the Lynchburg castings is the Pig Iron. * Pipe charges are different from
castings charges for two reasons. The chemical composition of ductile iron pipe is different from
ductile iron castings, and the pipe–making process has a higher yield (over 80% vs. 50% to 60%)
than the castings process, therefore leaving less ductile iron return available for remelting.
4. Provide an economic analysis that calculates the

Extraction of Metals
Extraction of metals
The History of Metals.
Metals have been used by people for many thousands of years. Gold and silver, found as native
metal, were used both as jewellery and as a status symbol – nothing new there. These metals were
known in the Stone Age, but gold and silver are too soft to be used as tools.
The first really useful metal to be discovered was bronze. This began the Bronze Age. Bronze was
used extensively for tools and weapons in Asia and Africa from 4,500 B.C. (6,500 years ago) and in
Britain from 2,000 B.C. (4,000 years ago). News of the new material travelled slowly in those days
and it took the Brits 2,500 years to get the message.
Bronze is not an element (like gold and silver) but an alloy (metal mixture) of ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The same can be said of metal extraction. Metal extraction can drastically affect the quality of air in
the surrounding areas, what with the high levels of dust and gas in the area. There's also the noise
pollution that it creates, which is affecting the natural habitat of animals. Last, metal extraction
disfigures the landscape.
Now, if companies continually extract metal, the land will forever be disfigured, causing flooding
and soil erosion in the area. It will also cause large–scale natural habitat destruction, causing so
many species to be uprooted. There's also the air and water pollution to consider.
Economic Impact of Metal Extraction
It is a fact that mining, extracting, refining, and purifying metal will cost a lot of money. There are
different types of metal, and they need different methods of extraction. Now, the methods of
extracting metal do not come cheap, nor does refining and purifying metal. Not only will you need
special equipment for their extraction, but you will also need other elements as well such as copper,
zinc, mercury, among others, for the purification and refinement processes. Some of these elements
are very harmful and toxic not only to humans and animals but to nature as well, worsening the
environmental impact of metal extraction.
Aside from this, you also have to think of the transportation costs of extracted metal.

Silver Essay In Chemistry
1. Ancestry
Discovered in approximately 3000 BC, silver is one of the oldest elements known to man. Why was
it so easy for miners in Turkey and Greece to discover, one may ask? Silver is also one of the most
abundant elements found on earth and was not difficult to come across when mining mountains and
rocks. (Silver, 1)
The exploration of silver mines in Laurium, Greece is significantly responsible for the rise of Athens
in 600 BC. Additionally, in medieval times, German mines became the main source of silver in
Europe, allowing the country to flourish and become what it is today. Silver proved to be an
important part of the successes of many civilizations, including the ancient civilizations of Central
and South America, who were rich deposits of silver in countries such as Peru, Bolivia and Mexico.
(Silver, 1)
The element of silver is known to have a symbol of Ag. While this may surprise some due to its lack
of resemblance to the actual name, this character has an explanation. Silver was originally known as
'seolfor': an Anglo–Saxon name, and while this is how its name came to be, silver possesses the
symbol Ag because of the fact that it is an abbreviation of the Latin word for silver, 'argentum.' (The
Element Silver, 1)
As previously mentioned, silver bears the symbol Ag; however, there is much more to know about
the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
With each passing year the demand for silver has increased. As the demand increases, the supply
must inevitably increase as well; and miners around the world have done just that. In 2004 we
supplied approximately 872 billion ounces of silver with a demand as high 917.1 billion ounces.
Last year, there were 978.1 billion ounces of silver distributed into the world with a very high
demand of 1,081.1 billion ounces. With a price of one ounce of silver being 17.2 US dollars in an
open marketplace, it is clear that the silver industry has been doing pretty well. (Supply & Demand,

The Pros And Cons Of Ethanoline
Gas is an invaluable commodity in today's society. It is used in everything from cars, to
lawnmowers, to generators, to boats. Everyone uses it, but what exactly goes into it besides oil? One
of the answers to this is ethanol. Ethanol has been going into gasoline since the 1920's and was
widely used during WWII (Gustafson, 2010). Ethanol gasoline became popular in the 1970's due to
the climbing prices of gasoline (Gustafson, 2010). The high price of gasoline was a result of oil
shortages because of production cuts by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. (The
Washington Times, 2006). The reason a rise in prices and a shortage of oil led to adding ethanol to
gasoline was because ethanol was an easily and cheaply created (Gustafson, ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Microbially influenced corrosion "is the biologically mediated deterioration of material"
(Williamson et al, 2015). This includes the microbial production of organic acids, like acetic acid
(Williamson et al, 2015). Normally, ethanol would kill bacteria, but there are some cases where it
becomes a carbon donor for the creation of acids (Williamson et al, 2015). This is what happens in
the gas tanks under gas stations that creates the acetic acid that corrodes the

Assess the View That Economic Development Is Not Possible...
Assess the view that economic development is not possible without causing environmental
degradation – 15 marks.
Overall, I feel that it is mainly large scale economic development projects that are not possible
without causing some environmental degradation. Construction is one of the main reasons for this,
for any development to take place an area must be used efficiently to maximize space for
development. A great example of this is the 3 Gorges Dam in China; this cost over $25 billion to
build. Yes, it was financially positive, however a lot of land was taken, which led to huge disruptions
in local ecosystems.
Also china has a huge demand for Iron; this is in order to build the buildings and also for the
growing demands of the car ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
16 of the top 20 air polluted cities are located in China; this is due to rapid development in many
what were rural areas of China. A massive 30% of china suffers from acid rain, also because air
quality is so poor, 400,000 premature deaths from air polluted causes in 2003. Leaking water pipes
contaminated drinking water, which caused illness throughout China; resulting in 70% rivers/lakes
are polluted.
As well as environmental concerns, there are also social concerns, such as the rural population are
not seeing the positives of the economic boom, which is not fair as they work just as hard. Also it's
the rapid development that is taking their farm land to either convert it to homes for the county's fast
growing population and taking land in place of factories for the also fast growing industries –
housing is regularly demolished and in 2007 300,00 people were evicted from their homes; to create
space. 20% of the Chinese population live on less than $1 per day, also in China, child labour is not
uncommon, and this is in order to keep up with the rapid growth within industries.
On the other hand, there are many other schemes that promote economic development without
having negative environmental impacts. However, these tend to be small–scale aid projects as they
usually help improve people's quality of life and standard of living more directly. For example,
Practical

What Are The Advantages And Disadvantages Of Cast Iron And...
INTRODUCTION
Even though the actual condition is much more complex, wrought iron, cast iron and steel can be
thought of alloys made of iron and carbon.
Iron is basically extracted from natural ores – iron oxide (FeO). Iron oxide heated to high
temperatures become iron.
FeO + C → Fe + CO
We get pig iron from this process which is not pure form and includes Iron carbide and material is
made hard along with brittleness.
CAST IRON
Cast iron is produced by remelting pig iron with some amount of scrap iron. It is remelted by
blowing air into the molten mass of two until the carbon content is between 2.40 and 4.00 percent.
Thus contemporary cast iron is formed which exists in two forms : grey cast iron and white cast
iron.
(source: http://cast–iron–radiator.com/cast–iron–radiator.jpg)
WROUGHT IRON
Wrought iron is produced by reprocessing cast iron. The strength limitations of cast iron were
gradually overcome by the development of a process called puddling . Puddling involves reheating
cast iron and manually mixing air in the molten form. Due to its nature, the process could only
produce small volumes at a time. The material produced by this method has high tensile strengths
and was much more ductile than cast iron. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
HSLA (High Strength Low Alloy Steel) is another type which is much stronger than ordinary ones.
They are used in cars, trucks, cranes etc. They contain more than 15.0% of carbon. AR or Abrasion
Resistant is another type that is wear resistant. PVQ or Pressure Vessel Quality steel is a low weight
and high strength mild steel used in transport equipment like booms buckets or in earth moving.
4140, 8620 is produced to perform well under high heat and heavy load .1045 is like common A36
but with more durability. FM459 (Free Machine Steel) has moderate durability and strength and is
easy to

Environmental Pollution is Causing Serious and Lasting...
One of the greatest problems that the world is facing today are of environmental pollution, pollution
is increasing rapidly every year and causing serious and lasting damage to the earth. In the short
story "A Fable for Tomorrow" by Rachel Carson, describes a small beautiful town in America that
later become a terrible town, because it was overwhelmed by pollution. In addition, most of the
technology that is uses in today society causes pollution for examples, cars, and pesticides.
However, it is very difficult for people to give up on technology, since they are very used of using
every day that makes it challenging to protect the environment. It is a similar story "Our Animal
Rites" by Anna Quindlen, shows how nature is harmed because of ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
In addition, due to the expansion of modern agricultural technology, farmers tend to use a lot of
chemical fertilizers and pesticides to increase the harvest. Many burning processes, such as wood
and coal fires, wood stoves, and the burning of fuel in cars harvest tiny elements of carbon, in the
form of smoke. These may affect climate change by dropping the clearness of the atmosphere. There
are not a lot of people who are willing to give up things that cause carbon dioxide pollution in order
to protect the environment. People think if they do give on everything that produces carbon dioxide,
that cause pollution they will not have enjoyment in their life, which makes hard for people to live
in harmony with nature. Moreover, it becomes a big challenge for people to give up on something
that is very useable in everyday life such as cars, and rail because if they do not use car to go
somewhere they have to walk, which takes a lot of their. The other reason they do not want to give
up on their things is more responsibility and less leisure time to enjoy.
Another thing that is becoming a challenging to protect the environment is agricultural technology
that is causing pollution in the

Metallurgy: Oxygen and Ore
Extractive Metallurgy
Minerals are naturally occurring chemical substances in the earth's crust obtainable by mining.
Out of many minerals in which a metal may be found, only a few are viable to be used as sources of
that metal. Such minerals are known as ores. Examples: Galena, PbS, etc.
It is usually contaminated with earthly or undesired materials known as gangue. The extraction and
isolation of metals from ores involve the following major steps:
Concentration of the ore,
Isolation of the metal from its concentrated ore, and
Purification of the metal. It is also called 'Refining'.
Stages of extraction of metals:
After the concentration of the ore is done, there are two main steps or stages in extractive
metallurgy. They are: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Electro–refining is used to dissolve an impure metallic anode (typically from a smelting process)
and produce a high purity cathode. Fused salt electrolysis is another electrometallurgical process
whereby the valuable metal has been dissolved into a molten salt which acts as the electrolyte, and
the valuable metal collects on the cathode of the cell. The fused salt electrolysis process is
conducted at temperatures sufficient to keep both the electrolyte and the metal being produced in the
molten state.
Extraction of crude metal from concentrated ore:
The concentrated ore must be converted into a form which is suitable for reduction. Usually the
sulphide ore is converted to oxide before reduction. Oxides are easier to reduce (for the reason see
box). Thus isolation of metals from concentrated ore involves two major steps , they are:
(a) conversion to oxide, and
(b) reduction of the oxide to metal
(a) Conversion to oxide
(i) Calcination: Calcinaton involves heating when the volatile matter escapes leaving behind the
metal oxide: Fe2O3.xH2O → Fe2O3 (s) + xH2O(g) ZnCO3 → ZnO(s) + CO2 (g)
CaCO3.MgCO3(s) → CaO(s) + MgO(s ) + 2CO2(g)
(ii) Roasting: In roasting, the ore is heated in a regular supply of air in a furnace at a temperature
below the melting point of the metal. Some of the reactions involving sulphide ores are:

2ZnS + 3O2 → 2ZnO + 2SO2

Material Properties Of Steel Iron
Material Properties of Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron, with carbon being the primary solute in the solid solution. It is a
polycrystalline solid with grain diameter from 10 to 20 micro–meter (Ashby et al). The presence of
impurity like carbon causes the crystal lattice distortions to increase, hence making giving steel
better hardness, yield strength, and tensile strength, at the cost of ductility. Pure iron being very
ductile but comparatively weak, steel is widely because of its greater load bearing capacity. Other
impurities are also introduced into steel to produce different properties. Materials like chromium,
vanadium, titanium, boron etc. are added to steel to give it better corrosion resistance, hardness,
tensile strength and better fatigue response (Smith et al). Elements like carbon and nitrogen form
take up interstitial spaces between the iron atoms owing to their reduced atomic size (Smith et al).
Elements with larger atoms like nickel, chromium, aluminium, sulphur, phosphorus etc. act as
substitutional elements (Smith et al). Although, the inclusion of various alloying elements do alter
the material property and the crystalline structure, material property of basic steel can be understood
by analyzing various phases of iron and carbon solid solution. Considering the structural differences
in steel it can be differentiated into austentic, ferretic and martensitic.
As excessive presence of carbon in steel can render steel extremely brittle and hard, carbon

Comparison Of Cast Iron And Steel
Comparison of Cast Iron and Steel
Composition, Microstructure and Classification
Cast Iron and Steel are ferrous alloys – means iron is their prime constituent. In cast iron the carbon
content is higher than steel. In most of the cast irons carbon exists as graphite. Graphite formation is
regulated by the composition and rate of cooling. Silicon concentration greater than about 1 wt%
and slower cooling rates during solidification of liquid cast iron favor graphitization. On the other
hand, steels are iron–carbon alloys that may contain appreciable concentration of other alloying
elements. There are thousands of steel alloys that have different compositions and/or heat
treatments. Classification of ferrous alloys is shown below. Figure 1 Classification scheme for cast
irons and steels
Generically, cast iron are a class of iron–carbon alloys with carbon contents above 2.14 wt%; in
practice, however, most cast irons contain between 3.0 and 4.5 wt% carbon and, in addition, other
alloying elements. The most common types of cast iron are gray, nodular, white, malleable and
compact graphite. The silicon and carbon content in Gray Cast Iron vary between 1.0 and 3.0 wt%
and 2.5 and 4.0 wt%, respectively. In Gary Cast Iron, the graphite exists in from of flakes (similar to
corn flakes). It is easily seen in figure 2(a) that those graphite flakes are surrounded by a matrix of
α–ferrite and pearlite. Because of these flakes when surface of this cast iron is fractured it takes the

Application Of Magnetic Polymer Nanocomposites
Abstract Magnetic polymer nanocomposites have attracted broad interest for hyperthermic cancer
treatment because they are non–toxic, biocompatible, and can be remotely heated by alternating
magnetic fields. The magnetic induction heating behavior provides a great benefit in biomedical
applications, such as targeted drug delivery, and magnetic separation. In situ formation of an organic
or polymer layer on their surface is one of the efficient methods for decreasing the aggregation
between the nanoparticles, as well as providing functionality on the surface and allowing further
functionalization with drugs and therapeutic agents. The most challenging task in hyperthermia is to
maximize the specific absorption rate (SAR) with a lower ferrofluids dose. Magnetic nanoparticles
coated with polymer layer combine the unique magnetic properties of multi functional nanoparticles
with self heating property. In addition, it is easier in preparation by a one–pot process. The
formation of the nanoparticles with a higher SAR makes it a promising in hyperthermia cancer
treatment. 1. Introduction The outstanding potential of magnetic polymer nanocomposites stems
from the ability to obtain structures with the combinations of properties that neither individual
material possesses. It is possible to synthesize these nanocomposites in desired shape and size with
controlled properties of stability, surface area, magnetic, optical, and catalytic properties. The easy
separation and controlled

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Silicon Alloy
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Aluminium:
Aluminium is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is
available in large quantity. It is combined with 270 different materials. Aluminium is good for
corrosion resistance. Aluminium is soft, light weight and ductile material. It can be easily machined
and extruded.
1.2 Alloy:
An alloy is a material formed by two or more chemical elements that has metallic properties, in
which at least one is a metal. Alloys are designed and produced to have some desirable
characteristics like formability, strength and corrosion resistance. Chemical composition of metallic
atoms dominate and metallic bond in its crystal structure. Elements commonly alloyed aluminium
are copper manganese, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is commonly used for producing components of home appliances, toys, motors and hand tools.
Post processing is not required as the surface finish and tolerance of die cast part is good. It is an
expensive and time consuming process. Fig 1.3 Die Casting Setup
1.5.1.2.4 Centrifugal casting: Centrifugal casting is also called as rotocasting. It is used to form thin
walled cylindrical parts. This is different from most metal casting process. In centrifugal casting
process a permanent mould made of cast iron steel or graphite is rotated at high speed continuously
about its axis. This process is carried out on a horizontal centrifugal casting machine where molten
metal is thrown centrifugally towards inside mould wall, where it solidifies after cooling. Fig 1.4
Centrifugal Casting
1.5.2 Spray

Chemistry Concepts That Are Present During The Process Of...
Introduction
Rust, also known as iron (II) oxide, occurs when iron is exposed to oxygen and moisture for a long
period of time. This reaction is called oxidation. Oxidation can occur on old cars, iron, exhaust and
even the burning of fossil fuels. When wood, natural gas, or coal burns, the oxygen in the air
combines with the carbon and hydrogen in the fuel to produce water and the oxides of carbon.
(Prentice Hall Chemistry The Study of Matter p.599.) Rust may seem like an average everyday
phenomenon, however many things we cannot see take place as the rust begins to form. Many
everyday exposures such as water or hot temperature can cause rust to form. The purpose of this
paper is to relate chemistry concepts that are present during the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Despite its destructive characteristics it can be stopped by acids or bases that will dissolve the rust
off, but if you leave any bare iron outside exposed to heat and water rust will occur without doubt.
After the rusting process has occurred iron can either lose its magnetic ability or weaken it. ("Rate
of Rust Formation", van.physics.illinois)
SC2 Molar mass of Rust and indicators of chemical properties.
The molar mass of rust is 159.69 g*mol−1 . The chemical formula is Fe2O3. Chemical properties in
rust are indicated by the change of color, smell, and production of a solid. Rust as a solid can appear
on many household items such as cars, bikes, and tools. Basically, anything left outside can get
rained on, and the rain will leave the item wet, and overtime rust will appear. Rust has a brown–red–
orange color. Rust has a smell similar to blood. 4Fe+3O2+6H20 → 4Fe(OH)3 is the formula for the
rusting of iron. So basically, do not leave items that you care for outside where they can get rained
on because the rust will ruin it.
SC3. Chemical bonds and the movement of electrons
Fe2O3 is an ionic bond due to the reaction between a metal, Iron, and a nonmetal, Oxygen. Based
on the atomic radius

Components Of Engineering Design And Analysis
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1. ENGINEERING MATERIALS Materials are an important
aspect of engineering design and analysis. The importance of engineering materials can be noted
from the fact that historical ages have been named after materials. Materials Science forms the basic
foundation for engineers in product development because the structures, components, and devices
that design are limited by the properties of the materials. In the customer driven competitive
business environment, the product quality is of paramount importance [1]. The product or end
application quality has been found to be influenced by the engineering design, type of materials
selected and the processing technology employed. Therefore, the importance of engineering
materials and their process techniques are art of today's engineering world. There are wide
categories of materials available which have shown their potential in various engineering
applications ranging from aerospace to household. The materials are usually selected by considering
their properties, specific application areas, advantages and limitations. The challenge for designers is
to select an optimal material suitable for the specific design requirements. The complex design need
in modern science generally lead to development of newer materials to meet the specific operating
conditions and regimes [1]. The new materials are today developed from the conventional materials
by both structural and surface (extrinsic) modifications. In

Nucor Steel Case Study
There are many competitive forces that are affecting Nucor Corporation. Some of the primary ones
are the market size, number of rivals, and pace of technological change. The market size is shrinking
because of the increase in competing international steel companies. The number of rivals in America
is declining due to higher labor costs than in foreign countries. There is a very fast pace of
technology in the steel industry and it seems that the company, that obtains the newest technology,
flourishes. This is due to the difficulty in lower costs of steel production. Better technology is one of
the only ways to decrease costs because labor is pretty much at a set cost and all that is left is the
cost of iron and making the steel. If a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It seems that the companies, who obtain these technologies, obtain a significant head start in the
industry.
Like I said before, many companies are going bankrupt and are leaving the exiting the industry.
Since steel is a commodity it leads to very volatile prices and can change quite frequently due to
demand. By looking at Exhibit 1, you can see how the average price per ton decreased form $425
per ton in 2000 to $354 per ton in 2001. This exhibit shows how many tons of steel Nucor sold
during certain years from 1970 to 2006. It is interesting to see that Nucor's net income was fairly
low during the years of 2000–2002, but increased to $1,121.5 million. This is because of Nucor's
many acquisitions during the low period. Just a few years later in 2004, the price of steel was back
up to $595 per ton.
These driving forces very easily impact the steel industry's competitive structure in a bad way. These
driving forces make it very difficult for steel companies to compete in this industry.
3) The prospects for future profitability of the U.S. steel makers are very unattractive. Unless
America can successfully combat China's enormously, inexpensive, production ability, I do not see
any American steel company surviving. China just has too big of a production ability and has the
workforce to do it cheaply. Nucor will have to expand in this industry in the United States to
survive. If the WTO

Details Information Of The Components And Their Parts
In this project all the parts which may be used in our project like Frame, Shaft, Drum, Pedestal
bearing, Flywheel, Chain, Gear, Fastener. The details information of the components & their parts is
as follows.
1.10.1 Frame
The frame main component of the project. A frame is structural system that support other
components of a physical constriction. We used primary as a sours of power for the old bicycle
which included parts for washing machine. There are components are shaft, drum, pedestal bearing,
gear, chain, fasteners, flywheel, and shaft mounted are on the frame. Frame made steel or iron
material, and it is fabricated. The inner drums is attracted one side of a pedal shaft. Rotational force
turns the drum via a drive gear attached to the opposite side of the pedal shaft.
Figure 6 frame
1.10.2 Shaft
Shaft is the component for transmitting torque and rotating. It is a main base for the mounting the
flywheel, fins and both the drums. it is shown in figure. Shaft is the consists of stainless steel Alloy,
nickel Alloy 17–4 PH stainless steel, 410 Stainless steel 416 Stainless Alloy, 316/316L Stainless
Steel, Alloy 20 Stainless Steel, 15–5 Stainless Steel 416 Stainless Steel, K500 Nickel Copper Alloy,
Nickel & Special Alloys, Duplex 2205 Stainless Steel. Figure 7 Shaft
1.10.3 Drums
The drums or barrel, cask is the hollow cylinder container, traditionally made of wooden staves
bound by wooden or metal hoops and PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) & Galvanized

Alloy: Iron and Steel
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Alloy
Steel is a metal alloy whose major component is iron, with carbon content between 0.02% and
2.14% by mass.
An alloy is a metallic solid solution composed of two or more elements. Complete solid solution
alloys give single solid phase microstructure, while partial solutions give two or more phases that
may or may not be homogeneous in distribution, depending on thermal (heat treatment) history.
Alloys usually have different properties from those of the component elements.
Alloy constituents are usually measured by mass.
Theory
Alloying a metal is done by combining it with one or more other metals or non–metals that often
enhances its properties. For example, steel is stronger than ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Alloys are often made in order to alter the mechanical properties of the base metal, to induce
hardness, toughness, ductility, or other desired properties. While most metals and alloys can be work
hardened by inducing defects in their crystal structure, caused by plastic deformation, some alloys
can also have their properties altered by heat treatment. Nearly all metals can be softened by
annealing, which repairs the crystal defects, but not as many can be hardened by controlled heating
and cooling. Many alloys of aluminum, copper, magnesium, titanium, and nickel can be
strengthened to some degree by some method of heat treatment, but few respond to this to the same
degree that steel does.
At a certain temperature, the base metal of steel, iron, undergoes a change in the arrangement of the
atoms in its crystal matrix, called allotropy. This allows the small carbon atoms to enter the
interstices of the crystal. When this happens, the carbon atoms are said to be in solution, or mixed
with the iron. If the iron is cooled slowly, the carbon atoms will be forced out of solution, into the
spaces between the crystals. If the steel is cooled quickly, the carbon atoms become trapped in
solution, causing the iron crystals to deform when the crystal structure tries to change to its low
temperature state, inducing great hardness.
In practice, some alloys are used so

The Carbon Cycle And The Earth 's Climate
The carbon cycle on Earth is essentially how all organisms maintain life on our planet. According to
the article "The Carbon Cycle and The Earth's Climate," carbon is stored inside our Earth and is
released in our atmosphere, plants then combine this element with sunlight and water to go through
the process of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis allows plants to form carbohydrates that store energy
and this energy is later used to carry out life functions. Photosynthesis is also responsible for other
organisms to carry out their life functions as well because the byproduct it produces is oxygen. The
carbon cycle is not only accountable for making byproducts that organisms need to live, it is also
responsible for maintaining the climate on the planet. CO2 is a greenhouse gas that traps infrared
radiation heat in our atmosphere, it maintains temperatures on Earth so that it never gets too cold or
too hot for organisms to maintain life (Columbia University). The Carbon Cycle is responsible for
maintaining temperatures on our planet but it does need help from living organisms to aid with the
process. According to the article "What are Phytoplankton," organisms such as Phytoplankton are
responsible for the transfer of carbon dioxide from our atmosphere to our oceans, Phytoplankton
take CO2 from the atmosphere absorb it and either get eaten by other organisms or fall to the ocean
floor. This process takes greenhouse gasses from our atmosphere and puts it in the depths of our

The On The Game Of Golf
The game of golf can be incredibly intimidating to a beginner. As with most things in our
technology–rich environment, there are innumerable resources for beginners to turn to. We can
easily become overwhelmed with the different types of golf clubs and their usage. The first thing a
beginner needs to be able to understand is an overall breakdown of the clubs and their
characteristics. Next, we need to take a look at three distinct groupings that the clubs generally fall
into. Finally, what does a newbie need to take on the links? How does what we see the professionals
use on TV compare to what we should be looking for when we spend the money on our first golf
bag?
Driver, 3–wood, 5–wood, 7–wood, 9–wood, 1 through 9 iron, pitching wedge, utility wedge, gap
wedge, sand wedge, lob wedge. That's 19 clubs and that, in and of itself, is confusing. There are two
basic items that define each of the clubs: they are the angle of the club face relative to the ground,
known as loft, and the length of each club. Previously, drivers and 3–9 woods were made of a
wooden club head attached to a steel stick, but this is no longer the case, nearly all of these clubs are
now made from composite materials that range from steel to titanium and everything in between and
they are attached to a graphite shaft. A driver's loft is often adjustable, but it is usually in the range
of 10–12 degrees. This gives the face of the club an almost perpendicular angle to the ground when
used. This is important

A Study of Iron Essay
Iron is an important element to the scientific community, especially those involved in the branch of
chemistry. Consequently, humans rely on iron for many different things. Iron is diverse from all
other elements with regards to its natural occurrence, historic and contemporary uses, the origin of
its name, and when, how, where, and by whom it was discovered. It also has unique characteristic
physical and chemical properties. Without the discovery, and distinctive properties of iron, life on
Earth would never be the same as it is now. Iron occurs naturally throughout the universe in
abundance. It is found in places such as stars, including the sun, and is distinguishable in soil and
dissolved in groundwater and the ocean in small ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Iron began being widely used across Central Europe during the 8th century, and across Northern
Europe during the 6th century, and the Near Eastern Iron Age took place in two phases during the
12th and 13th century. Asia began using iron at the same time as Europe, and China used iron long
before the Common Era. In North and South America, the development of iron began right after the
rock age, skipping the Bronze Age. During the early Iron Age, iron was used to make tools when
combined with 0.3% to 1.2% by weight of carbon to form the alloy steel. Iron was used to make
houses, tools such as swords, daggers, chisels, and knives, and jewellery, among others. Iron can be
used for a wide range of resources in the contemporary world. It is the most abundant, least
expensive, and most used of all metals. It is vital to human and animal life, and humans use it in a
variety of devices to make life convenient. It is combined with other elements to make steel or other
compounds for many commercial uses, the most common of which include making fuels, lubricants,
automobiles, machine tools, hulls of large ships, building parts, machine parts, cooking pots and
pans, cutlery, surgical equipment, and aircraft. Iron (III) "is used in the treatment of sewage, as a dye
for cloth, as a coloring agent for paint, an additive in animal feed, and in the manufacture of printed

Reflecting On Impact Of Iron
Reflecting on impact of Iron
Iron is part of the most found elements in the earth. Around 5.6% of the earth's crust has been
composed of it, and almost the entire core of the earth. In addition, Iron has been discovered about
5000 years ago, and the name comes from the Scandinavian word "iarn". [1]
For this essay, my task is to describe the impact of Iron on society. Furthermore, I will research
about the chemical and physical properties of Iron, the obtaining of Iron, and the uses through
history and lastly I will compare the metal with the metals that were used beforehand, and what
impact the discovery had on society. For this essay, my research question is: "How has the discovery
of Iron affected the society?" In my opinion the discovery of Iron didn't have such a great affection
for the society and how they handled, because the people only changed from bronze to another like
metal. Everything they could do before, could be done with the Iron too. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Iron is a bright and shiny white metal that is strong, ductile, malleable and soft. The color of the
surface of Iron is regularly affected by corrosion, as it easily rusts because it easily combines with
the oxygen in the air when moisture is present, but in absolute dry air, the Iron doesn't rust. [3] The
metal is ductile, because it can easily be stretched or pulled into a thin line/wire. Iron is malleable,
because it is possible to be bent and shaped. Iron can also be easily magnetized. The metal is
likewise a very good conductor of electricity and heat. [4] At room temperature the metal is solid,
the melting point is 1535.1 oC, and the boiling point is 3000oC.

Taking a Look at Heavy Metals
Heavy metals are elements that exhibit metallic properties. It mainly includes the transition metals,
basic metals, some metalloids, lanthanides, and actinides. Many different definitions have been
proposed–some based on density, some on atomic number or atomic weight, and some on chemical
properties or toxicity (Duffus, 2002). Example for some heavy metal are iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper
(Cu), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd) etc.
Iron is important as a mineral in human body (part of haemoglobin) and also part of many enzymes
and proteins. Deficient amount of iron in human body will cause anaemia while excess amount of
iron may cause iron poisoning or hemochromatosis. Zinc is a metal which known as essential trace
element as very little amount of it is necessary for human health. Zinc is important for cellular
metabolism, catalytic activity of enzyme, immune system, synthesis of protein, wound healing, cell
division and DNA synthesis (Sandstead, 1994; Solomons, 1998; Prasad, 1995). However, excess
amount of zinc may lead to remarkable health problems such as depressed immune system, stomach
cramp, vomiting, nausea and anaemia and skin irritation.
Cadmium (II) ions are known of its toxicity in trace amount may result in poor health effect.
Cadmium can be found easily in contaminated food or water. Workers of metal refining or smelting
factory or cadmium product manufacturing have a high possibility to be exposed to cadmium. Long
term exposure of cadmium lead to

The Titanic In The Sea Of Titanic
Introduction The titanic was one of the supreme distinguished, British passenger liners; it was
commissioned by the white star and was manufactured in Harland and Wolff shipyard, which is
situated in Belfast. The manufactures of historic ship started work on the date 31st March 1909. The
titanic was an iconic structure, it was the most quickest and most impressive liner created during
that era. After three years passing, the titanic construction had been completed, the "deluxe
streamline machine" was ready to set sail from Southampton to New York, on–board was many
civilians which included stingy millionaires to heartbroken emigrants, all in searching for a new life
in the USA. Whilist the voyage was taking its toll on the fifth day, the titanic was making an
instantaneous progress across the Atlantic Ocean. The commander of the vessel had set a new course
as he had previously heard previous ships, commentary that ice will be in the titanic path. During
the night of Sunday 14th February 1912, temperatures, severely destabilised, the sky was clear and
the sea was calm like a floating river, all these influential conditions made ice in the sea, difficult to
sea in the ocean. At 11:40pm on the same day, a lookout spotted a gigantic ice berg in the path of
barge and he sounded the alarm, the alarm came too late, as 40 seconds later the iceberg slashing a
series of holes on the side of the hull, the titanic had six section which were meant to be water tight
but they were

Tungsten Research Paper
Tungsten is a chemical element with atomic number 74 and symbol of W. The word tungsten comes
from the language Swedish which means heavy stone. This is a rare, hard metal under normal
conditions when it's uncombined. Tungsten is found naturally on Earth only in chemical compounds.
It was identified as a new element in 1781. Its ores contain wolframite and scheelite. The element is
remarkable for its robustness. It has the highest melting point of all the elements. Also its high
density of 19.3 times that of gold or even water. Polycrystalline tungsten is an intrinsically hard and
brittle material because of its weak grain boundaries, making it difficult to work with. However,
pure single–crystalline tungsten can be cut with a hard–steel ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
They are made due to its excellent properties in shielding. A powder form of Tungsten is used as a
filler material in composites of plastic. They are used as a substitute for lead in bullets that is also
non–toxic. It is also used in shots and radiation shields. Because this element is thermal and the
expansion is similar to borosilicate glass, it is can be used for making glass to metal seals on its
own.
In soil, the tungsten metal can oxidize the tungstate anion. It can be non–selectively or selectively
imported by prokaryotic organisms that may substitute for molybdate as it does in certain enzymes.
It affects the action of these enzymes in some cases inhibitory. Then in the others, it is positive. The
soil's chemistry ultimately determines how tungsten polymerizes with the alkaline soils because of
the monomeric tungstates. The acidic soils can cause some polymeric tungstates.
Lead and sodium tungstate were studied for their effect on earthworms and other organisms. Lead
was found to be the most lethal and harmful of the low levels and sodium tungstate. The sodium
tungstate was much less toxic but it completely went against their reproductive process and

The Use Of Secondary Steelmaking Techniques On The Control...
Introduction
The use of secondary steelmaking techniques has made a major input to the optimisation of
inclusion population for the control of modern steel properties. The development of new secondary
steelmaking techniques was due to an increasing demand for improved and consistent qualities of
high grade steels for chemical, petroleum, aerospace, and nuclear industries (Kiessling, 1989).(
pg45). Secondary steelmaking includes provision for temperature control, bath agitation, efficient
slag–metal interaction and precise addition of alloying elements and reactants. With those
technologies of secondary steelmaking process the number, size, morphology, and composition of
inclusions can be controlled (Kiessling, 1989). (pg45).
The global demand for clean steel has increased in the last years due to the demand for better
performance. There is need to develop steel with fewer inclusions to improve performance. Steel
inclusions impede performance as they may act as sources of crack growth and propagation. Some
inclusions affect steel properties such as fatigue, ductility and weldability. According to
Riyahimalayeri et al. oxide inclusions reduce the rolling contact fatigue life of steel products even
when the total oxygen content is below the 10 ppm (Riyahimalayeri, et al., 2013). Inclusions like
sulphur reduce steel toughness which hinders performance. It is imperative to develop methods that
are aimed at reducing steel inclusions for better performance. Improved steel cleanness

Advantages And Disadvantages Of TNT Mineralization
Aerobic TNT biotransformation by bacteria has been exensively researched and leads to the
reduction of 1 or 2 nitro groups. Many studies have proved that many isomers of amino–nitro–
aromatic compounds such as hydroxyl–aminodinitrotoluenes (HADNT), amino–dinitrotoluenes
(ADNT), diamino–nitrotoluenes (DANT), dinitroaniline (DNA), and polynuclear condensation
products like azoxytoluenes are the aerobic partially reduced products of TNT known to be
recalcitrant and accumulate in the environment without further mineralization (Heiss and
Knackmuss 2002, Robertson and Jjemba 2005, Ziganshin et al. 2010, Moshe et al. 2012, Khan et al.
2013). They present a serious hindrance to the effective bioremediation process (Khan et al. 2013).
They form strong ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
2013). Previous studies conducted on Phanerochaete chrysosporium proved that the TNT
mineralization to CO2 is approximately at 35% (Fernando et al. 1990), demonstrating that the
evolution of CO2 was a result of oxidation and cleavage of aromatic ring by lignin–peroxidase
enzyme (lignolytic activity). However, this activity was inhibited by the accumulation of 4 ADNT
(Michels and Gottschalk 1995) although in another study it was proved that this inhibition was due
to the 4 HADNT (Michels and Gottschalk 1995). Both NAD(P)H–dependent nitroreductase and
lignin–peroxidase enzymes are non–specific (Press 2001, Khan et al. 2013) and they are very
important in TNT degradation and removal from contaminated environment. It seems that there is a
little knowledge about the physiology of these enzymes and therefore a deep researches in that area
can significantly contribute to the existing knowledge and improve the current bioremendiation
technologies towards the complete removal of TNT from the

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