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Early World Literature
4 VIRTUE / Page 4.2 The Buddha’s Birth Stories
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The Buddha’s Birth Stories
By Lynn Cianfarani
The exterior of the Ajanta Caves where they were cut into the
stone on the side of a cliff by
the Waghur River in India. These cave monuments, which date
from the second century
BCE to about 480 or 650 CE, house depictions of Buddha and
the Jātaka Tales.
Photo courtesy of Shriram Rajagopalan / Flickr Creative Comm
ons
In one of his former lives, Buddha was born a pigeon. That is,
at least, how it is
recounted in “The Pigeon and the Crow,” one of the 547 stories
in the Jātaka Tales, a
classic work of Buddhist literature.
Each of the Jātaka Tales offers readers a moral. The pigeon
story, for instance,
highlights the dangers of greed. But the stories are more than
just fables. They are
sacred Buddhist lore, outlining the lives that Buddha passed
through before his birth as
Prince Siddhartha. Jātaka literally means “story of birth,” and in
the stories, Buddha
(referred to in the Tales as the Bodhisatta—“one seeking

enlightenment”) is born and
http://www.webtexts.com/courses/18168-
stallard/traditional_book
reborn in the form of animals, humans, and super-human beings,
all the while striving
toward enlightenment.
For Buddhists, the concept of past lives is hallowed. According
to Robert Thurman, a
professor of Indo-Tibetan Buddhist Studies at Columbia
University, “Buddhists see the
continuum of lives of all beings as a commonsense fact, not a
mystical belief.”1 Buddhist
faith teaches that ordinary humans do not remember past
existences, but enlightened
beings have the gift of recalling their former lives in detail.2
Buddhists who hear the Jātaka Tales do not necessarily take
them as a word-for-word
accounting of past events, however. Devdutt Pattanaik, a
Mumbai-based speaker,
writer, and mythology specialist, says that the Jātaka Tales “are
as real and historical to
Buddhists as the stories of Christ’s resurrection are to
Christians.”3 For most Buddhists,
whether Buddha actually lived as a pigeon is not the issue; what
matters is that Buddha
did indeed have past existences which lessons can be learned
from.
Reliable historical details of Buddha’s life—his early years as
Siddhartha Gutam, and
later, as the enlightened Buddha—are hard to come by.

According to W.S. Merwin, a
Pulitzer Prize winning poet, we don’t know how much of the
Buddha/Siddhartha story
“is pure fairy tale, and how much of it is historic fact.”4 As
with most religions, it’s the
message that guides followers.
Most scholars do accept that Siddhartha Gutam was an actual
man, born to a royal
family in India in 563 BCE. The factual events of his life,
however, remain open to
debate. According to Buddhist texts, Siddhartha married and
had a child, but became
disillusioned with palace life. He started to make trips outside
the palace and grew
distraught when he saw sickness, old age, and death.
In hopes of figuring out a way to end people’s suffering,
Siddhartha left his family and
his palace. For several years, Buddhist tradition holds,
Siddhartha practiced asceticism.
He sat in meditation and ate little; sometimes he ate nothing.
Enduring hardship,
however, only weakened him and offered little spiritual insight.
Overdoing things,
Siddhartha realized, was not the key to happiness. Siddhartha
committed himself to the
middle way, the path between extreme sacrifice and self-
indulgence.
Legend has it that after giving up his ascetic lifestyle,
Siddhartha sat under a Bodhi tree
(a type of fig tree) for deep meditation, vowing not to leave
until he reached a state of
enlightenment. After several weeks of intense meditation he had
gained a supreme

wisdom—a mental clarity that included details of his past
lives—and Siddhartha, at last,
understood things as they truly are. He thus became, Buddhists
posit, the Buddha, or
“The Awakened One.” Today, the image of the Buddha
meditating under a tree is as
symbolic to Buddhists as the image of Christ nailed to the cross
is to Christians.
After reaching enlightenment, Buddha shared his new wisdom
with five holy men. They
became his disciples, marking the beginning of the Buddhist
community. For more than
40 years, Buddha and his disciples wandered throughout India
spreading his teachings.
The Jātaka Tales, of course, were part of these teachings.
Buddha’s birth stories moved beyond India, too, traveling via
caravan routes and
eventually influencing other cultures. According to
archaeological and literary evidence
the Jātaka stories were not compiled as text until somewhere
between the 3rd century
BCE and the 5th century CE.5 Written by multiple anonymous
authors in a combination
of prose and verse, the stories are included as part of the
Buddhist canon, and continue
to be part of Buddhist teachings. Each year, the Dalai Lama
himself greets followers for
a Jātaka Tales reading. In February 2013, thousands showed up
in Dharasalama, India
to hear him recite tale 29, “A Visitor from Brahmaloka,” a story
of how a king overcomes
his wrong views and develops humility.6

The stories of the Buddha’s many varied experiences have been
shaping beliefs and
values for centuries, and have deeply influenced various
national cultures. In Thailand’s
minority Laopuan community, until relatively recently it was
customary for a woman to
stay confined at home for several days after the birth of her first
child. During this time
her husband and others would stay by her side, reading—and
sometimes chanting—the
Jātaka Tales, presumably to convey moral lessons to the wife.
This practice has been
declining, but lessons from the Jātaka Tales continue to guide
Thai society.7
The Tales have also served as the inspiration for art and
architecture throughout Asia.
The paintings and sculptures of the Ajanta Caves of India,
which date back to the 2nd
century BCE, depict Buddha and the Jātaka Tales and are a
United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage
site—a designation
given to select spots around the world considered to be of
outstanding value to
humanity.8
Photographs of the inside and outside of the Ajanta Caves. The
first shows a doorway
surrounded by architecture with depictions of the Jataka Tales,
and the second shows an
inner room with many pillars and a structure with more images
on it.

The Ajanta Caves in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra,
India.
Photo Arian Zwegers / Flickr Creative Commons
And like those cave-carved renderings of the Jātaka Tales, the
stories themselves speak
to a wider audience than just Buddhist societies. All of us can
relate to these timeless
tales of human behavior. In the five Jātaka Tales you are about
to read—Chronicles of
Kings... of Birds... of Hares—you’ll see that these birth tales
are absorbing accounts of
ancient India, intriguing pieces of literature, and enchanting
stories of kindness,
compassion, and giving.
Multiple Choice Question
What is the primary intention of the Jātaka Tales? Choose the B
EST
answer.
to humanize wild animals
to offer specific guidelines on how to successfully rule
to provide amusing stories to entertain people with
to demonstrate how to live with compassion and kindness
Which of the following details about the Buddha are accepted b
y scholars?
He was born into a privileged family in India in the sixth

century BCE.
The Dalai Lama is his modern-day incarnation.
He once lived as a pigeon.
He was crucified, just like Jesus.
1 Robert Thurman, personal communication with author,
January 2, 2014.
2 F. Max Muller, preface to
Jātakamālā or Garland of Birth Stories, trans. J.S. Speyer
(London: 2010), ix, http://www.ancient-buddhist-
texts.net/English-Texts/Garland-of-
Birth-Stories/Garland-of-Birth-Stories.pdf.
3 Devdutt Pattanaik, personal communication with author,
January 3, 2014.
4 W.S. Merwin, “The Buddha,” PBS.org, accessed January 11,
2014,
http://www.pbs.org/thebuddha/.
5 Ruwan M, Jayatunge M.D., “Psychological Aspects of Jātaka
Stories,” Buddhist
Society of Queensland. accessed January 4, 2013,
http://vgweb.org/bsq/jatpsy.htm.
6 “His Holiness the Dalai Lama Reads a Jataka Tale on the Day
of Miracles,”
Dalailama.com. accessed January 4, 2013,
http://www.dalailama.com/news/post/913-
his-holiness-the-dalai-lama-reads-a-jataka-tale-on-the-day-of-
miracles.
7 Pranee Wongthet, “The Jataka Stories and Laopuan
Worldview,” Asian Folklore
Studies, Vol. 48, No. 1 (1989): pp. 21-30,

http://www.jstor.org/stable/1178532.
8 “Ajanta Caves,” WHC.UNESCO.org. accessed January 4,
2013,
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/242.
http://www.ancient-buddhist-texts.net/English-Texts/Garland-
of-Birth-Stories/Garland-of-Birth-Stories.pdf
http://www.pbs.org/thebuddha/
http://vgweb.org/bsq/jatpsy.htm
http://www.dalailama.com/news/post/913-his-holiness-the-
dalai-lama-reads-a-jataka-tale-on-the-day-of-miracles
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1178532
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/242
4 VIRTUE / Page 4.3 Jātaka Tales: Great King Goodness
The Jātaka Tales
Translated by H.T. Francis & E.J. Thomas
Bhutanese painted thangka of the Jātaka Tales, 18th-19th
century, Phajoding monastery,
Thimphu, Bhutan.
Great King Goodness
Once on a time when Brahmadatta was reigning in Benares, the
Bodhisatta came to life
again as the child of the queen; and on his name-day they gave
him the name of Prince
Goodness (Silava). At the age of sixteen his education was
complete; and later he came
at his father’s death to be king, and ruled his people righteously

under the title of the
great King Goodness. At each of the four city-gates he built an
almonry, another in the
heart of the city, and yet another at his own palace-gates, six in
all; and at each he
distributed alms to poor travellers and the needy. He kept the
Commandments and
observed the fast-days; he abounded in patience, loving-
kindness, and mercy; and in
righteousness he ruled the land, cherishing all creatures alike
with the fond love of a
father for his baby boy.
Now one of the king’s ministers had dealt treacherously in the
king’s harem, and this
became matter of common talk. The ministers reported it to the
king. Examining into
the matter himself, the king found the minister’s guilt to be
clear. So he sent for the
culprit, and said, “O blinded by folly! You have sinned, and are
not worthy to dwell in
my kingdom; take your substance and your wife and family, and
go hence.” Driven thus
from the realm, that minister left the Kasi country, and entering
the service of the king
of Kosala, gradually rose to be that monarch’s confidential
adviser. One day he said to
the king of Kosala, “Sire, the kingdom of Benares is like a
goodly honeycomb untainted
by flies; its king is feebleness itself; and a trifling force would
suffice to conquer the

whole country.”
Hereon, the king of Kosala reflected that the kingdom of
Benares was large, and,
considering this in connexion with the advice that a trifling
force could conquer it, he
grew suspicious that his adviser was a hireling suborned to lead
him into a trap.
“Traitor,” he cried, “you are paid to say this!”
“Indeed I am not,” answered the other; “I do but speak the truth.
If you doubt me, send
men to massacre a village over his border, and see whether,
when they are caught and
brought before him, the king does not let them off scot-free and
even load them with
gifts.”
“He shews a very bold front in making his assertion,” thought
the king; “I will test his
counsel without delay.” And accordingly he sent some of his
creatures to harry a village
across the Benares border. The ruffians were captured and
brought before the king of
Benares, who asked them, saying, “My children, why have you
killed my villagers?”
“Because we could not make a living,” said they.
“Then why did you not come to me?” said the king. “See that
you do not do the like
again.”
And he gave them presents and sent them away. Back they went
and told this to the king
of Kosala. But this evidence was not enough to nerve him to the

expedition; and a
second band was sent to massacre another village, this time in
the heart of the kingdom.
These too were likewise sent away with presents by the king of
Benares. But even this
evidence was not deemed strong enough; and a third party was
sent to plunder the very
streets of Benares. And these, like their forerunners, were sent
away with presents!
Satisfied at last that the king of Benares was an entirely good
king, the king of Kosala
resolved to seize on his kingdom, and set out against him with
troops and elephants.
Now in these days the king of Benares had a thousand gallant
warriors, who would face
the charge even of a rut elephant, whom the launched
thunderbolt of Indra could not
terrify, a matchless band of invincible heroes ready at the king’s
command to reduce all
India to his sway! These, hearing the king of Kosala was
coming to take Benares, came
to their sovereign with the news, and prayed that they might be
despatched against the
invader. “We will defeat and capture him, sire,” said they,
“before he can set foot over
the border.”
“Not so, my children,” said the king. “None shall suffer because
of me. Let those who
covet kingdoms seize mine, if they will.” And he refused to
allow them to march against
the invader.

Then the king of Kosala crossed the border and came to the
middle-country; and again
the ministers went to the king with renewed entreaty. But still
the king refused. And
now the king of Kosala appeared outside the city, and sent a
message to the king bidding
him either yield up the kingdom or give battle. “I fight not,”
was the message of the king
of Benares in reply; “let him seize my kingdom.”
Yet a third time the king’s ministers came to him and besought
him not to allow the king
of Kosala to enter, but to permit them to overthrow and capture
him before the city. Still
refusing, the king bade the city-gates be opened, and seated
himself in state aloft upon
his royal throne with his thousand ministers round him.
Entering the city and finding none to bar his way, the king of
Kosala passed with his
army to the royal palace. The doors stood open wide; and there
on his gorgeous throne
with his thousand ministers around him sat the great King
Goodness in state. “Seize
them all,” cried the king of Kosala; “tie their hands tightly
behind their backs, and away
with them to the cemetery! There dig holes and bury them alive
up to the neck, so that
they cannot move hand or foot. The jackals will come at night
and give them sepulchre!”
At the bidding of the ruffianly king, his followers bound the
king of Benares and his
ministers, and hauled them off. But even in this hour not so
much as an angry thought
did the great King Goodness harbour against the ruffians; and

not a man among his
ministers, even when they were being marched off in bonds,
could disobey the king, so
perfect is said to have been the discipline among his followers.
So King Goodness and his ministers were led off and buried up
to the neck in pits in the
cemetery, the king in the middle and the others on either side of
him. The ground was
trampled in upon them, and there they were left. Still meek and
free from anger against
his oppressor, King Goodness exhorted his companions, saying,
“Let your hearts be
filled with naught but love and charity, my children.”
How did King Goodness respond to the threat from the king of
Kosala?
He sent a minister out to neighboring kingdoms to wrangle up
support.
He did nothing.
He mustered up a thousand warriors to repel the invasions led
by the king of
Kosala.
He begged the king of Kosala to leave his people be.
Now at midnight the jackals came trooping to the banquet of
human flesh; and at sight
of the beasts the king and his companions raised a mighty shout
all together, frightening
the jackals away. Halting, the pack looked back, and, seeing no
one pursuing, again

came forward. A second shout drove them away again, but only
to return as before. But
the third time, seeing that not a man amongst them all pursued,
the jackals thought to
themselves, “These must be men who are doomed to death.”
They came on boldly; even
when the shout was again being raised, they did not turn tail.
On they came, each
singling out his prey, the chief jackal making for the king, and
the other jackals for his
companions. Fertile in resource, the king marked the beast’s
approach, and, raising his
throat as if to receive the bite, fastened his teeth in the jackal’s
throat with a grip like a
vice! Unable to free its throat from the mighty grip of the king’s
jaws, and fearing death,
the jackal raised a great howl. At his cry of distress the pack
conceived that their leader
must have been caught by a man. With no heart left to approach
their own destined
prey, away they all scampered for their lives.
Seeking to free itself from the king’s teeth, the trapped jackal
plunged madly to and fro,
and thereby loosened the earth above the king. Hereupon the
latter, letting the jackal
go, put forth his mighty strength, and by plunging from side to
side got his hands free!
Then, clutching the brink of the pit, he drew himself up, and
came forth like a cloud
scudding before the wind. Bidding his companions be of good
cheer, he now set to work
to loosen the earth round them and to get them out, till with all
his ministers he stood
free once more in the cemetery.

Now it chanced that a corpse had been exposed in that part of
the cemetery, which lay
between the respective domains of two goblins; and the goblins
were disputing over the
division of the spoil.
“We can’t divide it ourselves,” said they; “but this King
Goodness is righteous; he will
divide it for us. Let us go to him.” So they dragged the corpse
by the foot to the king, and
said, “Sire, divide this man and give us each our share.”
“Certainly I will, my friends,” said the king. “But, as I am dirty,
I must bathe first.”
Straightway, by their magic power, the goblins brought to the
king the scented water
prepared for the usurper’s bath. And when the king had bathed,
they brought him the
robes which had been laid out for the usurper to wear. When he
had put these on, they
brought his majesty a box containing the four kinds of scent.
When he had perfumed
himself, they brought flowers of diverse kinds laid out upon
jewelled fans, in a casket of
gold. When he had decked himself with the flowers, the goblins
asked whether they
could be of any further service. And the king gave them to
understand that he was
hungry.
So away went the goblins, and returned with rice flavoured with
all the choicest
flavours, which had been prepared for the usurper’s table. And

the king, now bathed
and scented, dressed and arrayed, ate of the dainty fare.
Thereupon the goblins brought
the usurper’s perfumed water for him to drink, in the usurper’s
own golden bowl, not
forgetting to bring the golden cup too. When the king had drunk
and had washed his
mouth and was washing his hands, they brought him fragrant
betel to chew, and asked
whether his majesty had any further commands. “Fetch me,”
said he, “by your magic
power the sword of state which lies by the usurper’s pillow.”
And straightway the sword
was brought to the king. Then the king took the corpse, and
setting it upright, cut it in
two down the chine, giving one-half to each goblin. This done,
the king washed the
blade, and girded it on his side.
Having eaten their fill, the goblins were glad of heart, and in
their gratitude asked the
king what more they could do for him. “Set me by your magic
power,” said he, “in the
usurper’s chamber, and set each of my ministers back in his own
house.”
“Certainly, sire,” said the goblins; and forthwith it was done.
Now in that hour the
usurper was lying asleep on the royal bed in his chamber of
state. And as he slept in all
tranquillity, the good king struck him with the flat of the sword
upon the belly. Waking
up in a fright, the usurper saw by the lamp-light that it was the
great King Goodness.
Summoning up all his courage, he rose from his couch and said:
“Sire, it is night; a

guard is set; the doors are barred; and none may enter. How
then came you to my
bedside, sword in hand and clad in robes of splendour?”
Then the king told him in detail all the story of his escape. Then
the usurper’s heart was
moved within him, and he cried, “O king, I, though blessed with
human nature, knew
not your goodness; but knowledge thereof was given to the
fierce and cruel goblins,
whose food is flesh and blood. Henceforth, I, sire, will not plot
against such signal virtue
as you possess.” So saying, he swore an oath of friendship upon
his sword and begged
the king’s forgiveness. And he made the king lie down upon the
bed of state, while he
stretched himself upon a little couch.
On the morrow at daybreak, when the sun had risen, his whole
host of every rank and
degree was mustered by beat of drum at the usurper’s command;
in their presence he
extolled King Goodness, as if raising the full-moon on high in
the heavens; and right
before them all, he again asked the king’s forgiveness and gave
him back his kingdom,
saying, “Henceforth, let it be my charge to deal with rebels; rule
thou thy kingdom, with
me to keep watch and ward.” And so saying, he passed sentence
on the slanderous
traitor, and with his troops and elephants went back to his own
kingdom.
Seated in majesty and splendour beneath a white umbrella of

sovereignty upon a throne
of gold with legs as of a gazelle, the great King Goodness
contemplated his own glory
and thought thus within himself: “Had I not persevered, I should
not be in the
enjoyment of this magnificence, nor would my thousand
ministers be still numbered
among the living. It was by perseverance that I recovered the
royal state I had lost, and
saved the lives of my thousand ministers. Verily, we should
strive on unremittingly with
dauntless hearts, seeing that the fruit of perseverance is so
excellent.” And therewithal
the king broke into this heartfelt utterance:
Toil on, my brother; still in hope stand fast;
Nor let thy courage flag and tire.
Myself I see, who, all my woes o’erpast,
Am master of my heart’s desire.
Thus spoke the Bodhisatta in the fulness of his heart, declaring
how sure it is that the
earnest effort of the good will come to maturity. After a life
spent in right-doing he
passed away to fare thereafter according to his deserts.
Response Board Question
Compare and contrast the virtues offered in this story with your
own.
No response saved yet.
Originally published in Jātaka Tales, translated by H.T. Francis
and E.J. Thomas
(Cambridge University Press, 1912). Public domain.

4 VIRTUE / Page 4.4 Jātaka Tales: The Golden Goose
The Golden Goose
Once upon a time when Brahmadatta was reigning in Benares,
the Bodhisatta was born
a brahmin, and growing up was married to a bride of his own
rank, who bore him three
daughters named Nanda, Nandavati and Sundarinanda. The
Bodhisatta dying, they
were taken in by neighbours and friends, whilst he was born
again into the world as a
golden goose endowed with consciousness of its former
existences. Growing up, the bird
viewed his own magnificent size and golden plumage, and
remembered that previously
he had been a human being. Discovering that his wife and
daughters were living on the
charity of others, the goose bethought him of his plumage like
hammered and beaten
gold and how by giving them a golden feather at a time he could
enable his wife and
daughters to live in comfort. So away he flew to where they
dwelt and alighted on the
top of the central beam of the roof. Seeing the Bodhisatta, the
wife and girls asked where
he had come from; and he told them that he was their father who
had died and been
born a golden goose, and that he had come to visit them and put
an end to their
miserable necessity of working for hire.

“You shall have my feathers,” said he, “one by one, and they
will sell for enough to keep
you all in ease and comfort.” So saying, he gave them one of his
feathers and departed.
And from time to time he returned to give them another feather,
and with the proceeds
of their sale these brahmin-women grew prosperous and quite
well-to-do. But one day
the mother said to her daughters, “There’s no trusting animals,
my children. Who’s to
say your father might not go away one of these days and never
come back again? Let us
use our time and pluck him clean next time he comes, so as to
make sure of all his
feathers.” Thinking this would pain him, the daughters refused.
The mother in her greed
called the golden goose to her one day when he came, and then
took him with both
hands and plucked him. Now the Bodhisatta’s feathers had this
property that if they
were plucked out against his wish, they ceased to be golden and
became like a crane’s
feathers. And now the poor bird, though he stretched his wings,
could not fly, and the
woman flung him into a barrel and gave him food there.
As time went on his feathers grew again (though they were plain
white ones now), and
he flew away to his own abode and never came back again.

Why did the woman and her three daughters need help from the
goose?
Their greed had landed them into poverty.
After their family patriarch died, they had no means of support.
The daughters were too young to work.
They didn’t have enough animals to raise a flock of geese.
4 VIRTUE / Page 4.5 Jātaka Tales: The Foolhardy Jackal
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The Foolhardy Jackal
Once on a time when Brahmadatta was reigning in Benares, the
Bodhisatta was a
maned lion and dwelt at Gold Den in the Himalayas. Bounding
forth one day from his
lair, he looked North and West, South and East, and roared
aloud as he went in quest of
prey. Slaying a large buffalo, he devoured the prime of the
carcass, after which he went
down to a pool, and having drunk his fill of crystal water turned
to go towards his den.
Now a hungry jackal, suddenly meeting the lion, and being
unable to make his escape,
threw himself at the lion’s feet. Being asked what he wanted,
the jackal replied, “Lord,
let me be your servant.”
“Very well,” said the lion; “serve me and you shall feed on
prime meat.” So saying, he
went with the jackal following to Gold Den. Thenceforth the
lion’s leavings fell to the

jackal, and he grew fat.
Lying one day in his den, the lion told the jackal to scan the
valleys from the mountain
top, to see whether there were any elephants or horses or
buffaloes about, or any other
animals of which he, the jackal, was fond. If any such were in
sight, the jackal was to
report and say with due obeisance, “Shine forth in thy might,
Lord.” Then the lion
promised to kill and eat, giving a part to the jackal. So the
jackal used to climb the
heights, and whenever he espied below beasts to his taste, he
would report it to the lion,
and falling at his feet, say, “Shine forth in thy might, Lord.”
Hereon the lion would
nimbly bound forth and slay the beast, even if it were a rutting
elephant, and share the
prime of the carcass with the jackal. Glutted with his meal, the
jackal would then retire
to his den and sleep.
Now as time went on, the jackal grew bigger and bigger till he
grew haughty. “Have not I
too four legs?” he asked himself. “Why am I a pensioner day by
day on others’ bounty?
Henceforth I will kill elephants and other beasts, for my own
eating. The lion, king of
beasts, only kills them because of the formula, ‘Shine forth in
thy might, Lord.’ I’ll make
the lion call out to me, ‘Shine forth in thy might, jackal,’ and
then I’ll kill an elephant for
myself.”
Accordingly he went to the lion, and pointing out that he had
long lived on what the lion

had killed, told his desire to eat an elephant of his own killing,
ending with a request to
the lion to let him, the jackal, couch in the lion’s corner in Gold
Den whilst the lion was
to climb the mountain to look out for an elephant. The quarry
found, he asked that the
lion should come to him in the den and say, “Shine forth in thy
might, jackal.” He
begged the lion not to grudge him this much.
Said the lion, “Jackal, only lions can kill elephants, nor has the
world ever seen a jackal
able to cope with them. Give up this fancy, and continue to feed
on what I kill.” But say
what the lion could, the jackal would not give way, and still
pressed his request. So at
last the lion gave way, and bidding the jackal couch in the den,
climbed the peak and
thence espied an elephant in rut. Returning to the mouth of the
cave, he said, “Shine
forth in thy might, jackal.” Then from Gold Den the jackal
nimbly bounded forth, looked
around him on all four sides, and, thrice raising its howl, sprang
at the elephant,
meaning to fasten on its head. But missing his aim, he alighted
at the elephant’s feet.
The infuriated brute raised its right foot and crushed the
jackal’s head, trampling the
bones into powder. Then pounding the carcass into a mass, and
dunging upon it, the
elephant clashed trumpeting into the forest.

Seeing all this, the Bodhisatta observed, “Now shine forth in
thy might, jackal,” and
uttered this stanza:
Your mangled corpse, your brains mashed into clay,
Prove how you’ve shone forth in your might to-day.
Thus spake the Bodhisatta, and living to a good old age he
passed away in the fulness of
time to fare according to his deserts.
How do the themes in the Jātaka Tales compare to the themes
explored in stories
with similar structures? Before you answer, think about stories
that are similar to
the Jātaka Tales in tone, length, intent, etc.
4 VIRTUE / Page 4.6 Jātaka Tales: The Hare’s Self-Sacrifice
The Hare’s Self-Sacrifice
Once upon a time when Brahmadatta was reigning in Benares,
the Bodhisatta came to
life as a young hare and lived in a wood. On one side of this
wood was the foot of a
mountain, on another side a river, and on the third side a
border-village. The hare had
three friends, a monkey, a jackal and an otter. These four wise

creatures lived together
and each of them got his food on his own hunting-ground, and
in the evening they again
came together. The hare in his wisdom by way of admonition
preached the Truth to his
three companions, teaching that alms are to be given, the moral
law to be observed, and
holy days to be kept. They accepted his admonition and went
each to his own part of the
jungle and dwelt there.
And so in the course of time the Bodhisatta one day observing
the sky, and looking at
the moon knew that the next day would be a fast-day, and
addressing his three
companions he said, “To-morrow is a fast-day. Let all three of
you take upon you the
moral precepts, and observe the holy day. To one that stands
fast in moral practice,
almsgiving brings a great reward. Therefore feed any beggars
that come to you by giving
them food from your own table.” They readily assented, and
abode each in his own place
of dwelling.
On the morrow quite early in the morning, the otter sallied forth
to seek his prey and
went down to the bank of the Ganges. Now it came to pass that
a fisherman had landed
seven red fish, and stringing them together on a withe, he had
taken and buried them in
the sand on the river’s bank. And then he dropped down the
stream, catching more fish.
The otter scenting the buried fish, dug up the sand till he came
upon them, and pulling
them out cried thrice, “Does anyone own these fish?” And not

seeing any owner he took
hold of the withe with his teeth and laid the fish in the jungle
where he dwelt, intending
to eat them at a fitting time. And then he lay down, thinking
how virtuous he was! The
jackal too sallied forth in quest of food and found in the hut of a
field-watcher two spits,
a lizard and a pot of milk-curd. And after thrice crying aloud,
“To whom do these
belong?” and not finding an owner, he put on his neck the rope
for lifting the pot, and
grasping the spits and the lizard with his teeth, he brought and
laid them in his own lair,
thinking, “In due season I will devour them,” and so lay down,
reflecting how virtuous
he had been.
On what basis did the hare argue for feeding anyone in need on
a day of
fasting?
Those who feed people in need will be rewarded.
Certain animals had the responsibility to do good deeds.
Feeding people on a fasting day is the ultimate test of faith.
Giving food away to strangers is a proven strategy for
converting them.
The monkey also entered the clump of trees, and gathering a
bunch of mangoes laid
them up in his part of the jungle, meaning to eat them in due

season, and then lay down,
thinking how virtuous he was. But the Bodhisatta in due time
came out, intending to
browse on the kusa-grass, and as he lay in the jungle, the
thought occurred to him, “It is
impossible for me to offer grass to any beggars that may chance
to appear, and I have no
sesame, rice, and such like. If any beggar shall appeal to me, I
shall have to give him my
own flesh to eat.” At this splendid display of virtue, Sakka’s
white marble throne
manifested signs of heat. Sakka on reflection discovered the
cause and resolved to put
this royal hare to the test.
First of all he went and stood by the otter’s dwelling-place,
disguised as a brahmin, and
being asked why he stood there, he replied, “Wise Sir, if I could
get something to eat,
after keeping the fast, I would perform all my ascetic duties.”
The otter replied, “Very
well, I will give you some food,” and as he conversed with him
he repeated the first
stanza:
Seven red fish I safely brought to land from Ganges flood,
brahmin, eat thy fill, I pray, and stay within this wood.
The brahmin said, “Let be till to-morrow. I will see to it by and
by.” Next he went to the
jackal, and when asked by him why he stood there, he made the
same answer. The
jackal, too, readily promised him some food, and in talking with
him repeated the
second stanza:

A lizard and a jar of curds, the keeper’s evening meal,
Two spits of roasted flesh withal I wrongfully did steal:
Such as I have I give to thee: brahmin, eat, I pray,
If thou shouldst deign within this wood a while with us to stay.
Said the brahmin, “Let be till to-morrow. I will see to it by and
by.” Then he went to the
monkey, and when asked what he meant by standing there, he
answered just as before.
The monkey readily offered him some food, and in conversing
with him gave utterance
to the third stanza:
An icy stream, a mango ripe, and pleasant greenwood shade,
‘Tis thine to enjoy, if thou canst dwell content in forest glade.
Said the brahmin, “Let be till to-morrow. I will see to it by and
by.” And he went to the
wise hare, and on being asked by him why he stood there, he
made the same reply. The
Bodhisatta on hearing what he wanted was highly delighted, and
said, “Brahmin, you
have done well in coming to me for food. This day will I grant
you a boon that I have
never granted before, but you shall not break the moral law by
taking animal life. Go,
friend, and when you have piled together logs of wood, and
kindled a fire, come and let
me know, and I will sacrifice myself by falling into the midst of
the flames, and when my
body is roasted, you shall eat my flesh and fulfill all your
ascetic duties.” And in thus
addressing him the hare uttered the fourth stanza:

Nor sesame, nor beans, nor rice have I as food to give,
But roast with fire my flesh I yield, if thou with us wouldst live.
Sakka, on hearing what he said, by his miraculous power caused
a heap of burning coals
to appear, and came and told the Bodhisatta. Rising from his
bed of kusa-grass and
coming to the place, he thrice shook himself that if there were
any insects within his
coat, they might escape death. Then offering his whole body as
a free gift he sprang up,
and like a royal swan, alighting on a cluster of lotuses, in an
ecstasy of joy he fell on the
heap of live coals. But the flame failed even to heat the pores of
the hair on the body of
the Bodhisatta, and it was as if he had entered a region of frost.
Then he addressed
Sakka in these words: “Brahmin, the fire you have kindled is
icy-cold: it fails to heat
even the pores of the hair on my body. What is the meaning of
this?”
“Wise Sir,” he replied, “I am no brahmin. I am Sakka, and I
have come to put your virtue
to the test.”
The Bodhisatta said, “If not only thou, Sakka, but all the
inhabitants of the world were
to try me in this matter of almsgiving, they would not find in
me any unwillingness to
give,” and with this the Bodhisatta uttered a cry of exultation
like a lion roaring.
Then said Sakka to the Bodhisatta, “O wise hare, be thy virtue
known throughout a
whole seon.” And squeezing the mountain, with the essence thus

extracted, he daubed
the sign of a hare on the orb of the moon. And after depositing
the hare on a bed of
young kusa-grass, in the same wooded part of the jungle, Sakka
returned to his own
place in heaven. And these four wise creatures dwelt happily
and harmoniously
together, fulfilling the moral law and observing holy days, till
they departed to fare
according to their deeds.
Your Turn
List at least three ways in which the hare (Bodhisatta) was virtu
ous in
this story.
Still Your Turn
Like the Bhagavad Gita and the Qur’an, the Jātaka Tales are
considered sacred texts meant to impart a message to an audienc
e.
However, the literary style of the Jātaka Tales is very different t
han the
other two texts. Describe at least two of these differences.

4 VIRTUE / Page 4.7 Confucius Tells All
Confucius Tells All
By Edward Slingerland
The Analects, or Lunyu (lit. “ordered sayings”), purports to be a
record of the teachings
of Kongzi and his disciples. Kongzi is more commonly known
in the West by the
latinization “Confucius,” bestowed upon him by Jesuit
missionaries in the 18th century;
his traditional dates are 551–479 B.C.E. The Analects has been
traditionally viewed as a
coherent and accurate record of the teachings of the Master,
recorded during his
lifetime or perhaps shortly after his death, but this view of the
text began to be called
into question by the philologists of the Qing Dynasty, and
modern textual critics have
argued convincingly that the text actually consists of different
chronological strata,
assembled by an editor or series of editors, probably
considerably after the death of
Confucius.
Not very much is known about the life of Confucius. Most of
the traditional details are
derived from a biography in the Record of the Historian,
compiled around 100 B.C.E.
by the Grand Historian Sima Qian, much of which clearly
consists of legend and literary
invention. Some modern scholars have attempted to construct
coherent chronologies of
Confucius’ life from a variety of early sources and to separate

potential facts from clear
fiction, but so little can be known for sure that it seems best to
stick to whatever facts we
might glean from the Analects itself. Confucius was clearly a
native of Lu (18.2), of
humble economic background (9.6), and seems to have been a
member of the scholar-
official (shi) class, the lowest of the three classes of public
office holders.
Originally referring to an aristocratic warrior, shi had, by the
time of Confucius, come to
refer to a class of people who filled the middle and lower ranks
of state governments,
primarily in civil posts. Like Confucius, it seems that a subset
of these scholar-officials
were also ru. This term, which later came to mean “Confucian,”
appears only once in the
Analects (6.13) and referred in Confucius’ time to a class of
specialists concerned with
transmitting and preserving the traditional rituals and texts of
the Zhou Dynasty.
Mastery of the Zhou classics and traditional ritual etiquette was
a valued skill in public
officials and led many aspiring scholar-officials to seek out ru-
like training for the sake
of acquiring public office and—most importantly—the salary
and public prestige that
went along with it. This was only one of many contemporary
phenomena that troubled
Confucius, who felt that training in traditional Zhou cultural

forms should be pursued
as an end in itself.
A statue of Confucius in the Confucian Temple in Beijing.
Photo courtesy of David Morrow / Wikimedia Commons
Pre-Confucian Background
Traditional Chinese historiography presents the Xia Dynasty as
the first of the legendary
dynasties of the Golden Age, supposedly founded by the
legendary sage-king Yu. Yu is
also credited with taming the floods of the Yellow River,
thereby making what we now
think of as north-central China habitable for the Chinese people.
The earliest Chinese
civilization for which we have archeological and written
evidence, however, is the Shang
Dynasty (sometimes alternately referred to as the Yin Dynasty),
the traditional dates of
which are 1751–1122 B.C.E. It is from the Shang that we have
the first written records
from China, in the form of so-called “oracle bones.” These
oracle bones are pieces of ox
scapula or tortoise shells used in divination. Questions
concerning the proper course of
action or requests for things such a rain, directed to the spirits
of the Shang ancestors,
were written upon them, and heat was then applied. The answer
from the ancestors—
yes, this military campaign will be successful or no, rain will
not be forthcoming—were
revealed in the resulting pattern of cracks decoded by the
diviner, who was often the
Shang king himself.

Often the ancestors were asked to intercede with the being who
wielded the greatest
power of all over the Shang people, the ur-ancestor known as
the “Lord on High”
(shangdi). The Lord on High seems originally to have been a
nonhuman god who
gradually came to be viewed as the first human ancestor of the
Shang people, and
therefore—by virtue of seniority—the most powerful of the
ancestor spirits. The Lord on
High and the other ancestor spirits of the Shang were viewed as
dwelling in a kind of
netherworld somewhere above the human realm (hence the Lord
“on High”), from
which vantage point they continued to monitor the behavior of
their descendants,
receive sacrificial offerings, hear questions and requests, and
control all the phenomena
seen as lying beyond human control (weather, health and
sickness, success or failure in
battle, etc.). Establishing and maintaining a good relationship
with these spirits—
especially the most powerful of them, the Lord on High—was
one of the primary
concerns of the Shang ruler. In the oracle bones we find a
special term, de, referring to
the power accrued by a ruler who, through timely and
appropriate sacrifices,
successfully established and preserved such a relationship with
the ancestors. We will
translate this term as “Virtue,” with the caveat that the reader
should keep in mind the
original sense of the Latin virtus—the particular “power”
residing in a person or thing,

preserved in modern English in such expressions as, “By virtue
of his great intelligence,
he was able to solve the problem.” Virtue in the early Shang
context refers to a kind of
attractive, charismatic power residing in a ruler who had won
the endorsement of the
ancestral spirits. This power could be perceived by others,
serving as a visible mark of
the spirits’ favor, and its attractive qualities allowed the ruler to
both win and retain
supporters.
Sometime near the end of the second millennium B.C.E., a
people known as the Zhou
invaded the Shang realm and deposed the last of the Shang
kings. The traditional date
of the conquest is 1122 B.C.E., but this has been the subject of
great dispute and the
conquest may in fact have occurred over a period of time rather
than in one fell swoop.
In any case, what is clear is that the Zhou people were very
eager to identify with the
religious and political systems of their predecessors.
The religious worldview of the Zhou borrowed heavily from the
dynasty that they
replaced. One reflection of the Zhou eagerness to identify with
the Shang was their
adoption of the Shang high god, the Lord on High, who was
conflated with and
eventually replaced by their own tribal god, Tian. Early graphic
forms of Tian seem to
picture a massive, striding, anthropomorphic figure, who is
from the earliest times
associated with the sky. Hence “Heaven” is a fairly good
rendering of Tian, as long as

the reader keeps in mind that “Heaven” refers to an
anthropomorphic figure—someone
who can be communicated with, angered, or pleased—rather
than a physical place.
Heaven possessed all of the powers of the Lord on High and in
addition had the ability
to charge a human representative on earth with the “Mandate”
(Ming) to rule. Ming
refers literally to a command issued by a political superior to an
inferior or a decree
issued by a ruler; in a metaphorical and religious sense, it refers
to Heaven’s command
to its proxy on earth, the king, to rule the human world. Just as
the Lord on High sent
blessings down to those of his descendants who performed the
sacrifices correctly,
Heaven was believed to grant the Mandate to the ruler who
maintained ritual
correctness. The Book of Odes and Book of Documents claim
that the Shang lost the
Mandate because of gross ritual improprieties and general
immorality, which motivated
the Lord on High/Heaven to withdraw the Mandate and give it
to the Zhou. In this way,
the Zhou rulers presented their motivation for conquering the
Shang as merely the
desire to enact Heaven’s will, rather than any selfish desire for
power on their part.
Similarly, since the holder of the Mandate was believed to also
receive Virtue from
Heaven as a sign of its favor, early texts present the conquest as
relatively effortless—
King Wu simply arrived on the battlefield with his troops and

the awesome power of his
Virtue caused most of the opposing armies to immediately
submit to him. This is the
origin of two themes in Chinese religious thought that were
inherited by Confucius: only
someone who is selfless and sincere will receive Virtue from
Heaven, and political order
is properly brought about only through the charismatic, non-
coercive power of Virtue—
the need to exert force viewed as evidence that a ruler does not
truly enjoy Heaven’s
favor.
In Chinese tradition and the teachings of Confucius, how is “Vir
tue”
understood?
as a quality that attracts the attention of the ancestors
as an ideal of perfection that is inevitably out of reach
as a power endowed to rulers who had behaved in a proper way
as a synonym for moral excellence
Confucianism
Shang ritual consisted primarily of sacrificial offerings to the
spirits of the ancestors,
and the main concern was that the sacrifices were performed
properly—that the food
and drink offered were of sufficient quality, that the proper
words were intoned, etc. By
Zhou times, the scope of ritual had grown significantly,
encompassing not only
sacrificial offerings to the spirits, but also aspects of the Zhou
kings’ daily lives that we

might be tempted to label as “etiquette,” the manner in which
one dressed, took one’s
meal, approached one’s ministers, etc. In addition, proper
performance of ritual duties
became more than a matter of simply observing external forms
because in order for
ritual practice to be acceptable to Heaven, it was necessary that
the king perform it with
sincerity. We thus see in the Zhou beginnings of a concern with
internal state of mind—
a demand that one’s emotions and thoughts match one’s external
behavior—that
becomes a primary theme in the thought of Confucius.
It was not until well into the Han Dynasty, however, that
Confucius was finally officially
recognized as a great sage by the rulers of China, at which time
the book that purports to
be the record of his teachings, the Analects, became required
reading for any educated
Chinese person. Although Confucianism was eclipsed during the
Sui and Tang
Dynasties by Buddhism, it continued during this period to exert
a powerful influence on
the Chinese mind, and it was officially revived in the Song
Dynasty by the so-called
“neo-Confucian” school. During the Ming Dynasty the so-called
“Four Books”
assembled by Zhu Xi (1130–1200) as the core of Confucian
teachings—the Analects and
the Mencius, along with two chapters from the Record of Ritual
called the “Great
Learning” and the “Doctrine of the Mean,” all accompanied by

Zhu Xi’s commentary—
became the basis of China’s civil service examination, and were
therefore memorized by
every educated Chinese person from 1313 until the last
nationwide exam in 1910.
Similar national exams in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam assured
the hold of the Analects
on the minds of the educated classes in those nations as well.
Therefore, although the
Master had little influence during his own lifetime, the cultural
legacy he left to East
Asia is difficult to overestimate. As Simon Leys has observed,
“no book in the entire
history of the world has exerted, over a longer period of time, a
greater influence on a
larger number of people than this slim little volume” (1997:
xvi).
What accounts for the modern importance of the Analects in Chi
nese
culture?
China experienced a golden age while it was ruled by
Confucius, so adherence to
his sayings is seen as the key to creating the nation’s next
golden age.
Because Confucius was considered the son of God, everything
he preached is
considered holy.
For nearly 700 years, every educated Chinese person was
expected to have
memorized the Analects.
The 20th-century Chinese dictator Mao Zedong forced all
Chinese citizens to read

Confucius.
The essay above has been adapted from the introduction to Conf
ucius Analects
(Hackett Publishing, 2003).
4 VIRTUE / Page 4.8 Analects: Book 1
Analects
By Confucius
Translated by Edward Slingerland
Pages from the Analects of Confucius.
Book 1
One of the central themes of this book is that learning (xue) has
more to do with actual
behavior than academic theory, and that virtuous public behavio
r as an adult is
rooted in such basic familial virtues as filial piety (xiao) and res
pect for elders (ti) (lit.
“being a good younger brother”).
1.6 The Master said, “A young person should be filial when at h
ome and
respectful of his elders when in public. Conscientious and trust
worthy, he
should display a general care for the masses but feel a particular
affection

for those who are Good. If he has any strength left over after ma
nifesting
these virtues in practice, let him devote it to learning the cultura
l arts
(wen).”
There is some debate about how to understand the term wen
(“writing” “culture”) here,
but it most likely refers to a set of cultural practices such as
those later formalized as the
so-called “six arts” of ritual, music, archery, charioteering,
calligraphy, and mathematics
in which any cultured person was trained (see 7.6). Liu Baonan
notes that the purpose
of this passage is to emphasize that “manifesting filial piety and
respect for elders in
one’s behavior is the primary concern, while the study of the
cultural arts is secondary”;
as Yin Tun puts it, “Virtuous behavior is the root, while the
cultural arts are the
branches; only by exhausting both root and branches, and
knowing which is primary
and which secondary, can one enter into virtue.” This theme is
reinforced in 1.7 below.
1.7 Zixia said, “Imagine someone who recognizes and admires
worthiness
and therefore changes his lustful nature, who is able to fully exh
aust his
strength in serving his parents and extend himself to the utmost
in serving
his lord, and who is trustworthy in speech when interacting with

friends
and associates. Even if you said of such a person, ‘Oh, but he is
not learned
(xue),’ I would still insist that it is precisely such qualities that
make one
worthy of being called ‘learned.’”
Many commentators believe the first line to be a reference to
proper relations between
the sexes, which makes the four qualities mentioned map nicely
to the “four great
human relationships”: husband-wife, child-parent, minister-lord,
and friend-friend. As
You Zuo explains, “During the Three Dynasties, ‘learning’' had
solely to do with
illuminating human relations. One able to master the four
relationships (mentioned in
this passage) can be said to have a deep understanding of human
relations. In learning
this as the Way, can anything be added to it? Zixia was famous
for his culture and
learning, so to have him speaking like this gives us a good sense
of what the ancients
meant when they spoke of ‘learning.’” Alternately, yise
(rendered above as “changing
one’s lustful nature”) could also be understood as “thinking
lightly of sex/physical
appearance.”
1.8 The Master said, “If a gentleman is not serious, he will not i
nspire awe,
and what he learns will be grasped only superficially.
Let your actions be governed by dutifulness and trustworthiness
, and do
not accept as a friend one who is not your equal. If you have co

mmitted a
transgression, do not be afraid to change your ways.”
“Seriousness” (zhong; lit. “heaviness”) seems here to refer to a
kind of genuine
emotional commitment to the Confucian Way. Kong Anguo
reports the opinion that
“what this means is that if one is not able to be sincere and
serious, one will lack a
demeanor that would inspire respect in others, and will also be
unable to firmly grasp
the underlying ethical principles of what one is taught.” In the
second half, we see again
the emphasis upon improving one’s actual behavior in one’s
interactions with others.
The sentiment that one should not accept a friend who is not
one’s equal might seem a
bit puzzling (or even offensive) to someone not acquainted with
the idea of “character-
friendship” in the Aristotelian sense, but what Confucius means
by a “friend” (you) here
is a person who shares one’s moral aspirations (cf. 9.30, 16.4,
16.5). One is to compare
oneself with other people in general in order to evaluate one’s
moral progress (4.17,
7.22, 16.11), but the fellowship provided by a friend in virtue
combines a powerful spur
to further moral development with a deeply felt solidarity of
purpose—an important
solace during the long and arduous process of self-cultivation.
As Confucius explains in
15.10, the practice of Goodness is like learning a craft, and one
“sharpens one’s tools” by
seeking out the company of like-minded souls. Similarly, a true

friend in virtue serves as
a support and comfort—the gentleman “relies upon his friends
for support in becoming
Good” (12.24).
1.9 Master Zeng said, “Take great care in seeing off the decease
d and
sedulously maintain the sacrifices to your distant ancestors, and
the
common people will sincerely return to Virtue.”
The target audience for this saying seems to be rulers or
potential rulers, the message
being that the key to ordering the state is paying attention to
one’s own behavior (a
theme often repeated in Books 12 and 13). As Cheng Shude
observes,
By the time of the Spring and Autumn Period, education in
ritual had sadly
declined, and cruelty to one’s parents had become prevalent
among the common
people. Therefore, Master Zeng rebuked those in power by
noting that if they
would merely take care in seeing off their deceased and
sedulously maintain the
sacrifices to their distant ancestors, the common people would
naturally become
aware of their own meanness and be moved to return to
kindness. As the Record of
Ritual says, “Cultivate the ancestral temples, respectfully
perform the ancestral
sacrifices, and thereby teach the common people to maintain
filial piety.”
1.11 The Master said, “When someone’s father is still alive, obs

erve his
intentions; after his father has passed away, observe his conduct
. If for
three years he does not alter the ways of his father, he may be c
alled a filial
son.”
Three years (usually understood as into the third year, or twenty
five months) is the
standard mourning period for a parent. As Kong Anguo
explains, “When his father is
still alive, the son is not able to act as he wants [because he
must obey the father’s
commands], so one can only observe his intentions in order to
judge his character. It is
only once his father has passed away that the son can learn
about his character by
observing his own actions. As long as the filial son is in
mourning, his sorrow and
longing is such that it is as if the father were still present, and
this is why he does not
alter the ways of his father.” Yin Tun clarifies, “If the ways of
his father are in
accordance with the Way, it would be perfectly acceptable to go
his entire life without
changing them. If they are not in accordance with the Way,
though, why does he wait
three years to change them? Even in the latter case, the filial
son goes three years
without making any changes because his heart is blocked by a
certain reluctance.” In
this passage, we see hints of the priority given to familial
affection and loyalty over
considerations of what is more abstractly “right” that is

expressed more starkly in 13.18.
1.13 Master You said, “Trustworthiness comes close to rightnes
s, in that
your word can be counted upon. Reverence comes close to ritual
propriety,
in that it allows you to keep shame and public disgrace at a dist
ance. Simply
following these virtues, never letting them out of your sight—
one cannot
deny that this is worthy of respect.”
Described here are secondary virtues that allow one to live a
respectable life, but that
lack the flexibility and subtlety of the primary virtues. In
explaining why
trustworthiness (xin) is only “close” to rightness, Liu Baonan
cites Mencius 4:B:11 “The
great person is not always necessarily true to his word (xin),
because he is concerned
only with rightness,” explaining that “trustworthiness must
always be practiced with an
eye toward what is right” Huang Kan illustrates the potential
tension between
trustworthiness and rightness with the story of the legendary
paragon of
trustworthiness, Wei Sheng, who once promised to meet a girl
under a river bridge,
come hell or high water. Unfortunately there was a great storm
the next day, and the
high water did come: the girl stayed at home, but Wei Sheng
obstinately refused to
abandon the appointed meeting place and so was drowned. “This
is an example of
trustworthiness not according with what is appropriate to the
situation (yi),where in

fact it would be best if one did not keep one’s word,” Huang
Kan concludes. Similarly,
the feeling of reverence—although the root of ritual propriety—
can in its raw form
motivate actions that do not accord with the subtly-tuned
dictates of ritual propriety.
1.14 The Master said, “The gentleman is not motivated by the d
esire for a
full belly or a comfortable abode. He is simply scrupulous in be
havior and
careful in speech, drawing near to those who possess the Way in
order to be
set straight by them. Surely this and nothing else is what it mea
ns to love
learning.”
We see here the first expression of a theme that will be repeated
throughout the
Analects (cf. 4.16, 7.12, 8.12, 14.1, 14.24, 15.32): the true lover
of the Way is not
concerned with externalities such as fine, abundant food or
other material comforts.
The general theme of Book 1—that learning pertains to one’s
actual deportment rather
than to theoretical knowledge—is also reinforced. As Wang Shu
comments: “The
primary focus of students in ancient times was to cultivate
themselves by being
meticulous in speech and careful in action, rather than merely
memorizing, reciting,
and composing texts...Students nowadays, on the other hand,
devote themselves

exclusively to memorizing, reciting, and composing texts with
the sole purpose of
passing the civil service exams and obtaining official positions.
Very few of them ever
get around to paying careful attention to their actual behavior or
speech. Perhaps this is
why they pale in comparison to the ancients.” For the
importance of being careful with
regard to one’s speech, cf. 2.13, 4.22, 4.24, 12.3, 14.20, and
14.27.
While it might be argued that these writings are relevant to ever
yone, they
were intended for:
people with some degree of power who were likely in
government.
the poor, the least-educated, and the most in need.
leaders in the Confucian church.
women.
In the section above, what types of behavior is Confucius
implicitly criticizing?
Originally published in Confucius Analects, translated by Edwar
d Slingerland
(Hackett Publishing, 2003). Reprinted with permission.

4 VIRTUE / Page 4.9 Analects: Books 4 and 6
Book 4
Many of the passages in this book concern the supreme virtue of
Goodness. Those who
are truly Good love the Confucian Way and embody it in a wu-
wei fashion—
completely unselfconsciously and effortlessly—
as opposed to those who pursue the
Way because of ulterior motives. Such true gentlemen require n
othing from the world
but the genuine joy and satisfaction they derive from virtue, as
opposed to “petty
people” who are motivated by considerations of profit or other e
xternal goods. This
book also contains a series of statements (4.19–
4.21) on filial piety that flesh out the
treatment in Book 1.
4.4 The Master said, “Merely set your heart sincerely upon Goo
dness and
you will be free of bad intentions.”
4.9 The Master said, “A scholar-official who has set his heart u
pon the Way,
but who is still ashamed of having shabby clothing or meager ra
tions, is not
worth engaging in discussion.”
4.14 The Master said, “Do not be concerned that you lack an off
icial
position, but rather concern yourself with the means by which y
ou might
become established. Do not be concerned that no one has heard

of you, but
rather strive to become a person worthy of being known.”
Again we see a distaste for self-assertion, self-aggrandizement,
and contention for
external goods. The gentleman focuses solely upon achieving
the internal goods of the
Confucian Way. External recognition should and may follow,
but is subject to the
vagaries of fate and is not inevitable (especially in a disordered
or corrupt age), and in
any case is not a worthy object of concern. Cf. 1.16, 12.20,
14.30, 15.19.
4.16 The Master said, “The gentleman understands rightness, w
hereas the
petty person understands profit.”
4.17 The Master said, “When you see someone who is worthy, c
oncentrate
upon becoming their equal; when you see someone who is unwo
rthy, use
this as an opportunity to look within yourself.”
4.19 The Master said, “While your parents are alive, you should
not travel
far, and when you do travel you must keep to a fixed itinerary.”
Going on an extended journey would entail neglecting one’s
filial duties. As for the issue
of itinerary, Huang Kan comments:

The “Summary of Ritual Propriety” [chapter of the
Record of Ritual] says, “The
ritual propriety proper to a son dictates that when he goes out,
he must inform his
parents, and that when he returns, he must report to them
personally, and that in
all of his travels he must keep to a fixed itinerary...If one
travels and does not have
a fixed itinerary, this will cause one’s parents undue worry.”
4.23 The Master said, “Very few go astray who comport themsel
ves with
restraint.”
4.24 The Master said, “The gentleman wishes to be slow to spea
k, but quick
to act.”
4.25 The Master said, “Virtue is never solitary; it always has ne
ighbors.”
Book 6
Much of the book is dedicated to discussions of the various virt
ues that characterize the
perfected Confucian gentleman, and it is therefore no surprise t
hat most of the
passages consist of descriptions of the behavior of historical or
contemporary
individuals, usually coupled with moral judgments delivered by
Confucius. This sort of
teaching by means of moral models is a crucial component of an
y virtue ethic: positive
exemplars teach one about the virtues and provide behavioral m
odels for the student
to emulate, while negative examples teach one about vice and se

rve as cautionary
tales.
6.11 The Master said, “What a worthy man was Yan Hui! Living
in a narrow
alley, subsisting on a basket of grain and gourd full of water—
other people
could not have born such hardship, yet it never spoiled Hui’s jo
y. What a
worthy man was Hui!”
Here again we see the idea that the true gentleman, sustained by
the internal goods of
the Confucian Way, is indifferent to externalities (cf. 1.14, 4.2,
4.5, 4.9, 7.12, 7.16, 15.32).
Zhou Dunyi comments, “Master Yan simply focused upon what
was important and
forgot what was trivial. When you focus upon what is important,
your heart is at peace;
when your heart is at peace, you will find satisfaction in all
things.” This idea of focusing
on the important rather than the trivial links 6.11 with its
partner passage 6.12.
6.19 The Master said, “A person survives by being upright. If y
ou try leading
a crooked life, only blind luck will allow you to get by.”
This seems to be a partner passage to the exasperated 6.16:
despite the depravity of the
current age, moral rectitude will see one through. As Ma Rong
comments, “The point is
that rectitude and uprightness are what allow one to live in the
world and come to a

natural end.” Liu Baonan elaborates, “A crooked person
expends all of his energy
deceiving himself in order to deceive other people. This is what
it means to turn yourself
into a monster, to make your life unlivable. If you are not
punished by your superiors,
you will surely suffer some natural misfortune—only sheer luck
would allow you to
escape this fate.”
The Master teaches that the key to governing a peaceful and pro
sperous
community is which of the following?
a ruler whose internal life is well ordered and moral
a thriving economy
swift punishment for bad behavior
a democratic system with checks and balances
6.20 The Master said, “One who knows it is not the equal of one
who loves
it, and one who loves it is not the equal of one who takes joy in
it.”
The “it” referred to is most likely the Confucian Way. There are
several slightly different
ways to take this passage, but what is being referred to is the
increasing level of
unselfconsciousness and ease that characterizes the true
Confucian gentleman. Bao
Xian takes the “it” in the more narrow sense of learning: “One
who knows about
learning lacks the sincerity of one who loves learning, and one
who loves learning lacks

the depth of one who takes joy in it.” Zhang Shi invokes an
analogy to food:
It is like the five cultivated grains. “One who knows it” knows
that they are edible.
“One who loves it” has eaten them and found them delicious.
“One who takes joy in
it” has found them delicious and has moreover eaten his fill. If
you know it but are
not able to love it, this means that your knowledge is not yet
complete, and if you
love it but are not able to take joy in it, this means that your
love has not yet been
consummated. Is not [joy in the Way] what strengthened the
resolve of the
ancients and allowed them to go forward without rest?
6.30 Zigong said, “If there were one able to broadly extend his
benevolence
to the common people and bring succor to the multitudes, what
would you
make of him? Could such a person be called Good?”
The Master said, “Why stop at Good? Such a person should sure
ly be called
a sage! Even someone like Yao or Shun would find such a task
daunting.
Desiring to take his stand, one who is Good helps others to take
their stand;
wanting to realize himself, he helps others to realize themselves
. Being able
to take what is near at hand as an analogy could perhaps be call
ed the

method of Goodness.”
Which of the following does the Master consistently teach?
Free will is a beautiful thing.
Your actions define who you are, whatever your internal state.
Proper behavior is dependent on life circumstances.
Proper attitude leads to proper actions which leads to a good
reputation; thus,
attitude is the most important aspect of a person’s life.
Select any one of the above Analects NOT accompanied by a
commentary and
explain it in your own words.
4 VIRTUE / Page 4.10 Analects: Books 7 and 12
Book 7
A discernible common theme in this book is the importance of a
properly directed and
sufficiently intense will or intention, which requires a focus upo
n the goods internal to
Confucian practice. Such a focus leads to a sense of joy that ren
ders one immune to the
allure of externalities.

7.11 The Master remarked to Yan Hui, “It is said, ‘When he is e
mployed, he
moves forward; when he is removed from office, he holds himse
lf in
reserve.’ Surely this applies only to you and me?”
Zilu interposed, “If you, Master, were to lead the three armies i
nto battle,
who would you want by your side?”
The Master replied, “I would not want by my side the kind of pe
rson who
would attack a tiger barehanded or attempt to swim the Yellow
River,
because he was willing to ‘die without regret.’ Surely I would w
ant someone
who approached such undertakings with a proper sense of trepid
ation, and
who came to a decision only after having thoroughly considered
the
matter.”
The first remark refers to the virtue of timeliness ( shi):
responding flexibly and
appropriately to the situation with which one is confronted. As
Kong Anguo puts it, it is
the ability to “advance when it is appropriate to advance, and
remain still when it is
appropriate to remain still.” Such sensitivity to context and
effortless grace is the
hallmark of an accomplished gentleman. Most likely Confucius’
comment was intended
not only to praise Yan Hui, but also to indicate to Zilu the areas
in which he might best
develop himself morally. Zilu misses the point, though;
presumably jealous of this

praise for Yan Hui, he tries to win approval from the Master for
his own characteristic
reckless courage (cf. 5.7). Of course, it is precisely Zilu’s
recklessness that the Master
was trying to rein in with his initial statement, and so the
Master is forced to explicitly
reprimand him.
7.16 The Master said, “Eating plain food and drinking water, ha
ving only
your bent arm as a pillow—
certainly there is joy to be found in this! Wealth
and eminence attained improperly concern me no more than the
floating
clouds.”
7.17 The Master said, “If I were granted many more years, and c
ould devote
fifty of them to learning, surely I would be able to be free of ma
jor faults.”
7.20 The Master said, “I am not someone who was born with kn
owledge. I
simply love antiquity, and diligently look there for knowledge.”
7.21 The Master did not discuss prodigies, feats of strength, dis
orderly
conduct, or the supernatural.
Confucius’ sole object of concern was self-cultivation—he did
not waste time on

irrelevant frivolities. As Wang Bi explains,
“Prodigies” refers to strange or unusual events; “feats of
strength” refer to things
like Ao’s ability to handle warships or Wu Huo being able to
lift a thousand
pounds; “disorderly conduct” refers to a minister killing his
lord, or a son killing
his father; and “the supernatural” refers to the service of the
ghosts and spirits.
These things either have nothing contribute to one’s moral
education, or are simply
things the Master found distasteful to talk about.
For another comment on Ao, see 14.5; Wu Huo was a famous
strong man (cf. Mencius
6:B:2). For more on topics that the master did not deign to
discuss, cf. 5.13.
7.28 The Master said, “No doubt there are those who try to inno
vate
without acquiring knowledge, but this is a fault that I do not pos
sess. I
listen widely, and then pick out that which is excellent in order
to follow it;
I see many things, and then remember them. This constitutes a s
econd-best
sort of knowledge.”
7.36 The Master said, “Extravagance leads to presumption, whil
e frugality
leads to shabbiness. Compared to presumption, though, shabbine
ss is to be
preferred.”
7.37 The Master said, “The gentleman is self-possessed and rela

xed, while
the petty man is perpetually full of worry.”
Artist Zhang Huan stands looking at his sculpture,
Q Confucius No. 2, at the Rockbund Art
Museum in Shanghai, China. Silicone, steel, carbon fiber, and
acrylic, 2011.
Photo courtesy of Zhang Huan
Book 12
As Legge observes, this book conveys “lessons on perfect virtue
[ren], government, and
other questions of morality, addressed in conversation by Confu
cius chiefly to his
disciples. The different answers, given about the same subject t
o different questioners,
show well how the sage suited his instruction to the characters a
nd capacities of the
parties with whom he had to do” (1991a: 250). A prominent the
me is the contrast
between Confucian rule by Virtue and personal example as oppo
sed to rule by force or
coercive laws.
12.1 Yan Hui asked about Goodness.
The Master said, “Restraining yourself and returning to the rites
(keji fuli)
constitutes Goodness. If for one day you managed to restrain yo
urself and
return to the rites, in this way you could lead the entire world b
ack to

Goodness. The key to achieving Goodness lies within yourself
—how could it
come from others?”
Yan Hui asked, “May I inquire as to the specifics?”
The Master said, “Do not look unless it is in accordance with rit
ual; do not
listen unless it is in accordance with ritual; do not speak unless
it is in
accordance with ritual; do not move unless it is in accordance w
ith ritual.”
Yan Hui replied, “Although I am not quick to understand, I ask
permission
to devote myself to this teaching.”
Liu Baonan’s commentary on the second half of 12.1 is very
helpful:
Looking, listening, speaking, and moving are all things that
come from oneself, not
from others, which is why the key to achieving Goodness lies
within oneself and
does not come from others...If only I am able to restrain myself
and return to
ritual, whenever I am confronted with something that is not in
accordance with
ritual, I will have within myself the means to restrain my eyes
and not look at it,
restrain my ears and not listen to it, restrain my mouth and not
speak of it, and
restrain my heart and not put it into action. This is all that is
meant by “restraining

oneself and returning to ritual.”
As Brooks and Brooks observe, “the four ‘details’ (trivialized in
the Three Monkeys of
later art) make two pairs: do not promote impropriety either
passively (by seeing or
hearing it) or actively (by saying or doing it)” (1998: 89).
12.2 Zhonggong asked about Goodness.
The Master said, “When in public, comport yourself as if you w
ere receiving
an important guest, and in your management of the common peo
ple,
behave as if you were overseeing a great sacrifice. Do not impo
se upon
others what you yourself do not desire. In this way, you will enc
ounter no
resentment in your public or private life.”
Zhonggong replied, “Although I am not quick to understand, I a
sk
permission to devote myself to this teaching.”
12.6 Zizhang asked about perceptiveness.
The Master replied, “He who does not base his actions upon sla
nders that
try to seep into one’s mind, or accusations that accumulate like
dirt on
one’s skin, may be called ‘perceptive.’ Indeed, such a person co
uld even be
called ‘farsighted.’”
12.7 Zigong asked about governing.

The Master said, “Simply make sure there is sufficient food, suf
ficient
armaments, and that you have the confidence of the common pe
ople.”
Zigong said, “If sacrificing one of these three things became un
avoidable,
which would you sacrifice first?”
The Master replied, “I would sacrifice the armaments.”
Zigong said, “If sacrificing one of the two remaining things bec
ame
unavoidable, which would you sacrifice next?”
The Master replied, “I would sacrifice the food. Death has alwa
ys been with
us, but a state cannot stand once it has lost the confidence of the
people.”
12.9 Duke Ai said to Master You, “The harvest was poor and I c
annot satisfy
my needs. What should I do?”
Master You said, “Why do you not try taxing the people one par
t in ten?”
“I am currently taxing them two parts in ten, and even so I cann
ot satisfy
my needs. How could reducing the tax to one part in ten help?”
Master You answered, “If the common people’s needs are satisfi
ed, how
could their lord be lacking? If the common people’s needs are n

ot satisfied,
how can their lord be content?”
According to the Annals, the traditional ten percent tithe on
agricultural production was
doubled by Duke Xuan of Lu in 593 B.C.E., and then continued
as standard practice. It
is possible that this exchange between Duke Ai and Master You
took place during the Lu
famine of 484 B.C.E. (Year 14 of Duke Ai’s reign), which
occurred after back-to-back
plagues of locusts in 484 and 483 B.C.E. Master You is thus
suggesting a return to a
taxation rate over one hundred years old—quite a radical
cutback. Probably the best
commentary on this passage is a story from the
Garden of Persuasions:
Duke Ai of Lu asked Confucius about governing. Confucius
replied, “The purpose of
the government is to make the common people rich.” Duke Ai
asked, “What do you
mean by that?” Confucius said, “Lighten the burden of levies
and taxes, and this
will make the common people rich.” The Duke replied, “If I did
that, then I myself
would become poor.” Confucius responded, “An ode says, ‘All
happiness to our
gentleman-ruler/Father and mother of his people’ [Ode 251]. I
have never seen a
situation where the children were rich and the parents poor.”
(844)
The point, of course, is that if the Duke comported himself as

the parent of his people,
as he properly should, his sole concern would be for their
welfare, not his own financial
needs.
12.16 The Master said, “A gentleman helps others to realize thei
r good
qualities, rather than their bad. A petty person does the opposite
.”
12.18 Ji Kangzi was concerned about the prevalence of robbers i
n Lu and
asked Confucius about how to deal with this problem.
Confucius said, “If you could just get rid of your own excessive
desires, the
people would not steal even if you rewarded them for it.”
The Analects is one of various works throughout history said to
have
articulated a version of “the golden rule.” Which of the followin
g sayings of
Confucius on this page BEST encapsulates the message of the g
olden rule?
“Extravagance leads to presumption, while frugality leads to
shabbiness.”
“A gentleman helps others to realize their good qualities, rather
than their bad. A
petty person does the opposite.”
“Do not impose upon others what you yourself do not desire.”
“The wise are not confused, the Good do not worry, and the
courageous do not
fear.”

How has Confucius been depicted by the writer(s) who collected
and
assembled these sayings? Choose the BEST answer.
as an exceptionally wise man
as a government official giving a typical bureaucratic outlook
as a divine figure sharing wisdom from God
as a humble religious leader
Which of the following is a recurring focus and concern of Conf
ucius
throughout the Analects? Choose the BEST answer.
irrelevant frivolities
self-discipline
craftsmen
spiritual matters
What behaviors promoted by Confucius are considered virtuous
in your own
culture, and which are actually NOT seen as virtuous? Provide
at least one example
of each.

4 VIRTUE / Page 4.11 Blessed Are the Cheesemakers
Blessed Are the Cheesemakers
By Grace Labatt
The Sermon on the Mount has been a core—maybe the core—
text of Christian ethics
ever since it was recorded sometime in the first century CE. In
this critical passage from
the New Testament, Jesus announces to his disciples the tenets
of Christian life, starting
with a series of eight Beatitudes (sayings that begin with
“Blessed are…”). These are
followed by several of the principle texts of Christianity,
including the Lord’s Prayer, the
Golden Rule, and the culmination of Matthew 5: “Be perfect,
therefore, as your heavenly
Father is perfect.”
The Sermon appears in chapters 5 through 7 of the Gospel of
Matthew, the first book of
the New Testament. It is Jesus’s first sermon to appear in the
Bible, and it materializes
early in the Gospel, after a recounting of Jesus’s birth, baptism,
and early preaching
years. It’s unclear who wrote the Book of Matthew, but
according to the text Matthew
was a tax collector-turned-disciple of Jesus from the town of
Capernaum, on the shore
of the Sea of Galilee. The actual author of Matthew may have
been an unknown scribe
who based his writings on oral and written traditions.1

Depiction of St. Matthew writing, from the Lindisfarne Gospels
(ca. 710-721). The
unidentified figure behind the curtain is commonly understood
to represent a closing of
the Old Testament and its teachings, as the book in his hand is
shut, while the open book
in St. Matthew’s lap symbolizes a literal and figurative
“opening” of the New Testament to
the world. Scholars speculate that the juxtaposition is meant to
represent the changing of
belief and the fulfillment of the Hebrew Bible prophecy about
the coming of the Messiah.
Image courtesy of the British Library / Flickr Creative Common
s
Over the past two millennia, the Sermon on the Mount has been
central to Biblical
Studies, with its ambiguities inviting deep scrutiny. Bible
scholar Hans Dieter Betz
wrote, with perhaps a trace of chagrin, “Despite centuries of
serious scholarship, this
text has so far remained a pièce de résistance, and the key to its
proper interpretation
has yet to be found.”2 Interpretations have ranged from St.
Augustine’s in the fourth
century CE—in which the sayings of the Sermon are declared to
“perfectly guide the life
of those who may be willing to live according to them”3—to
Betz’s more tempered view.
Having evaluated the Sermon for its literary genre and tradition,
Betz reached the

conclusion that it falls in the category of “diatribe literature”:
works founded on
principles of training and practice rather than on immutable
law.4
Why is the Sermon on the Mount considered such an important
Christian
text? Choose the BEST answer.
because it offers the key to salvation
because it is Jesus’s only sermon in the Bible
because it contains so many of Christianity’s most important
teachings
because it is contained within the first Gospel of Matthew
After all, as Robert Guelich, a former professor at the Fuller
Theological Seminary in
California, asked, “Can one today love the enemy and live with
anger, evil thoughts, the
guarantee of one’s word, the recourse to legal justice, or even
divorce?”5 That is, are the
teachings of the Sermon realistically practicable? Can we really
“be perfect”?
Some clues to what, exactly, Jesus was prescribing may be
found by looking at the
Sermon’s context, and in particular its relationship to the Old
Testament. Much of what
Jesus says during the Sermon refers directly to the Jewish Bible,
in a manner that
honors the earlier laws while moving beyond them. “[Jesus]
grants the old text its

sanctity and its perpetual force, but he always assumes that in
an important sense it is
not complete itself,” literary critic Frank Kermode noted.6
There are a number of
seeming contradictions between the Old Testament laws and
Jesus’s preaching. For
instance, Jesus instructs his listeners, “If anyone strikes you on
the right cheek, turn the
other also,” a considerably different directive than the “eye for
an eye” mandate of
Exodus 21:24.
That relationship between the Old Testament laws and Jesus’s
Sermon—which is one of
transformation and expansion, and of honor, reflection, and
response—suggests the
subjective, personalized relationship with Jesus that is
fundamental to Christianity.
“The SM is not ‘law’ to be obeyed,” Betz wrote, “but theology
to be intellectually
appropriated and internalized, in order then to be creatively
developed and
implemented in concrete situations of life.”7 The perfection
Jesus counsels, then, is far
from an enfeebling, impossible goal. It is instead something to
aspire to in everyday
situations. Its role in Jesus’s venerated sermon affirms the
challenging, interpretive
nature of his words, which in turn makes clear why it is that the
Sermon has had such a
central role in Christianity.
Which of the following BEST sums up scholarly views on the S
ermon on the

Mount’s meaning?
Scholars almost unanimously insist that the
Sermon on the Mount is about
cultivating perfection.
Scholars remain divided on the Sermon’s meaning, and,
accordingly, consider it
open to interpretation.
Scholars generally defer to St. Augustine’s interpretation of the
Sermon.
Scholars have found the Sermon on the Mount too impenetrable
to form a
meaningful opinion about.
1 Dennis C. Duling, “The Gospel of Matthew,” in
The Blackwell Companion to the New
Testament (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2010), 296.
2 Hans Dieter Betz, “The Sermon on the Mount: A Foundation
for Understanding”
(book review), Journal of Biblical Literature vol. 103, no. 3
(Sept. 1984), pp. 47-48.
3 St. Augustine of Hippo, “On the Sermon of the Mount, Book
I.” New Advent.org.
Revised and edited by Kevin Knight, from
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, First Series
vol. 6, ed. Philip Schaff and trans. William Findlay (Buffalo,
NY: Christian Literature
Publishing Co., 1888).
http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/16011.htm.
4 Hans Dieter Betz, “The Sermon on the Mount: Its Literary

Genre and Function,” The
Journal of Religion vol. 59, no. 3 (July 1979), pp. 285-297.
5 Robert A. Guelich, “Sermon on the Mount,”
The Oxford Companion to the Bible , ed.
Bruce M. Metzger and Michael D. Coogan (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1993),
687-689.
6 Frank Kermode, in R. Alter and F. Kermode, eds.
The Literary Guide to the Bible
(Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1990), p. 388.
7 Betz, “The Sermon on the Mount: Its Literary Genre and
Function.”
http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/16011.htm
4 VIRTUE / Page 4.12 Christian Bible: Matthew 5
The Christian Bible
A man reads the Bible on an iPad mini.
Max Rossi / Reuters
Matthew 5
The Beatitudes
When Jesus saw the crowds, he went up the mountain; and after
he sat down, his
disciples came to him. 2Then he began to speak, and taught
them, saying:

3 “Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of
heaven.
4 “Blessed are those who mourn, for they will be comforted.
5 “Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the earth.
6 “Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness,
for they will be filled.
7 “Blessed are the merciful, for they will receive mercy.
8 “Blessed are the pure in heart, for they will see God.
9 “Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called children
of God.
10 “Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness’
sake, for theirs is the
kingdom of heaven.
11 “Blessed are you when people revile you and persecute you
and utter all kinds of evil
against you falsely on my account. 12Rejoice and be glad, for
your reward is great in
heaven, for in the same way they persecuted the prophets who
were before you.
Starting with verse 3, there are a series of sayings that begin wit
h the
phrase, “Blessed are...” These sayings are known as the Beatitu
des. Who is
meant to be blessed in this passage?
those who would seem to be unlucky or vulnerable
those who are the most religious

those who are angry
those who are the most successful and powerful in society
Salt and Light
13 “You are the salt of the earth; but if salt has lost its taste,
how can its saltiness be
restored? It is no longer good for anything, but is thrown out
and trampled under foot.
14 “You are the light of the world. A city built on a hill cannot
be hid. 15No one after
lighting a lamp puts it under the bushel basket, but on the
lampstand, and it gives light
to all in the house. 16In the same way, let your light shine
before others, so that they
may see your good works and give glory to your Father in
heaven.
The Law and the Prophets
17 “Do not think that I have come to abolish the law or the
prophets; I have come not to
abolish but to fulfill. 18For truly I tell you, until heaven and
earth pass away, not one
letter, not one stroke of a letter, will pass from the law until all
is accomplished.
19Therefore, whoever breaks one of the least of these
commandments, and teaches
others to do the same, will be called least in the kingdom of
heaven; but whoever does
them and teaches them will be called great in the kingdom of
heaven. 20For I tell you,

unless your righteousness exceeds that of the scribes and
Pharisees, you will never enter
the kingdom of heaven.
Concerning Anger
21 “You have heard that it was said to those of ancient times,
‘You shall not murder’; and
‘whoever murders shall be liable to judgment.’ 22But I say to
you that if you are angry
with a brother or sister, you will be liable to judgment; and if
you insult a brother or
sister, you will be liable to the council; and if you say, ‘You
fool,’ you will be liable to the
hell of fire. 23So when you are offering your gift at the altar, if
you remember that your
brother or sister has something against you, 24leave your gift
there before the altar and
go; first be reconciled to your brother or sister, and then come
and offer your gift.
25Come to terms quickly with your accuser while you are on the
way to court with him,
or your accuser may hand you over to the judge, and the judge
to the guard, and you will
be thrown into prison. 26Truly I tell you, you will never get out
until you have paid the
last penny.
Concerning Adultery
27 “You have heard that it was said, ‘You shall not commit
adultery.’ 28But I say to you
that everyone who looks at a woman with lust has already
committed adultery with her
in his heart. 29If your right eye causes you to sin, tear it out and
throw it away; it is

better for you to lose one of your members than for your whole
body to be thrown into
hell. 30And if your right hand causes you to sin, cut it off and
throw it away; it is better
for you to lose one of your members than for your whole body
to go into hell.
Concerning Divorce
31 “It was also said, ‘Whoever divorces his wife, let him give
her a certificate of divorce.’
32But I say to you that anyone who divorces his wife, except on
the ground of
unchastity, causes her to commit adultery; and whoever marries
a divorced woman
commits adultery.
Concerning Oaths
33 “Again, you have heard that it was said to those of ancient
times, ‘You shall not swear
falsely, but carry out the vows you have made to the Lord.’
34But I say to you, Do not
swear at all, either by heaven, for it is the throne of God, 35or
by the earth, for it is his
footstool, or by Jerusalem, for it is the city of the great King.
36And do not swear by your
head, for you cannot make one hair white or black. 37Let your
word be ‘Yes, Yes’ or ‘No,
No’; anything more than this comes from the evil one .
Concerning Retaliation

38 “You have heard that it was said, ‘An eye for an eye and a
tooth for a tooth.’ 39But I
say to you, Do not resist an evildoer. But if anyone strikes you
on the right cheek, turn
the other also; 40and if anyone wants to sue you and take your
coat, give your cloak as
well; 41and if anyone forces you to go one mile, go also the
second mile. 42Give to
everyone who begs from you, and do not refuse anyone who
wants to borrow from you.
Love for Enemies
43 “You have heard that it was said, ‘You shall love your
neighbor and hate your enemy.’
44But I say to you, Love your enemies and pray for those who
persecute you, 45so that
you may be children of your Father in heaven; for he makes his
sun rise on the evil and
on the good, and sends rain on the righteous and on the
unrighteous. 46For if you love
those who love you, what reward do you have? Do not even the
tax collectors do the
same? 47And if you greet only your brothers and sisters, what
more are you doing than
others? Do not even the Gentiles do the same? 48Be perfect,
therefore, as your heavenly
Father is perfect.
Beginning at verse 21, a number of sayings start with the
phrase, “You have heard it
said that...” Why does Jesus use this phrasing to make his
point?

Scripture quotations are from the New Revised Standard Versio
n of the Bible,
copyright © 1989 the National Council of the Churches of Chris
t in the USA. Used by
permission. All rights reserved.
4 VIRTUE / Page 4.13 Christian Bible: Matthew 6
Matthew 6
Concerning Almsgiving
“Beware of practicing your piety before others in order to be
seen by them; for then you
have no reward from your Father in heaven.
2 “So whenever you give alms, do not sound a trumpet before
you, as the hypocrites do
in the synagogues and in the streets, so that they may be praised
by others. Truly I tell
you, they have received their reward. 3But when you give alms,
do not let your left hand
know what your right hand is doing, 4so that your alms may be
done in secret; and your
Father who sees in secret will reward you.
Concerning Prayer
5 “And whenever you pray, do not be like the hypocrites; for
they love to stand and pray
in the synagogues and at the street corners, so that they may be

seen by others. Truly I
tell you, they have received their reward. 6But whenever you
pray, go into your room
and shut the door and pray to your Father who is in secret; and
your Father who sees in
secret will reward you.
7 “When you are praying, do not heap up empty phrases as the
Gentiles do; for they
think that they will be heard because of their many words. 8Do
not be like them, for
your Father knows what you need before you ask him.
9 “Pray then in this way:
Our Father in heaven,
hallowed be your name.
10 Your kingdom come.
Your will be done,
on earth as it is in heaven.
11 Give us this day our daily bread.
12 And forgive us our debts,
as we also have forgiven our debtors.
13 And do not bring us to the time of trial,
but rescue us from the evil one.
14For if you forgive others their trespasses, your heavenly
Father will also forgive
you; 15but if you do not forgive others, neither will your Father

forgive your
trespasses.
Orthodox Christians read Bibles as they pray in front of one of
11 monolithic rock-cut
churches ahead of Orthodox Easter in Lalibela, Ethiopia.
Goran Tomasevic / Reuters
Concerning Fasting
16 “And whenever you fast, do not look dismal, like the
hypocrites, for they disfigure
their faces so as to show others that they are fasting. Truly I tell
you, they have received
their reward. 17But when you fast, put oil on your head and
wash your face, 18so that
your fasting may be seen not by others but by your Father who
is in secret; and your
Father who sees in secret will reward you.
Concerning Treasures
19 “Do not store up for yourselves treasures on earth, where
moth and rust consume and
where thieves break in and steal; 20but store up for yourselves
treasures in heaven,
where neither moth nor rust consumes and where thieves do not
break in and steal.
21For where your treasure is, there your heart will be also.
The Sound Eye
22 “The eye is the lamp of the body. So, if your eye is healthy,

your whole body will be
full of light; 23but if your eye is unhealthy, your whole body
will be full of darkness. If
then the light in you is darkness, how great is the darkness!
Serving Two Masters
24 “No one can serve two masters; for a slave will either hate
the one and love the other,
or be devoted to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve
God and wealth.
Do Not Worry
25 “Therefore I tell you, do not worry about your life, what you
will eat or what you will
drink, or about your body, what you will wear. Is not life more
than food, and the body
more than clothing? 26Look at the birds of the air; they neither
sow nor reap nor gather
into barns, and yet your heavenly Father feeds them. Are you
not of more value than
they? 27And can any of you by worrying add a single hour to
your span of life? 28And
why do you worry about clothing? Consider the lilies of the
field, how they grow; they
neither toil nor spin, 29yet I tell you, even Solomon in all his
glory was not clothed like
one of these. 30But if God so clothes the grass of the field,
which is alive today and
tomorrow is thrown into the oven, will he not much more clothe
you—you of little faith?
31Therefore do not worry, saying, ‘What will we eat?’ or ‘What
will we drink?’ or ‘What
will we wear?’ 32For it is the Gentiles who strive for all these
things; and indeed your

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