A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 1 This Guide contains aids to the pronunciation of communities and organizations listed in the Excel Database “Guide to Indigenous Organizations and Services in British Columbia” (Previously known as The Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia). The original Pronunciation Guide was created with input from First Nations and other Aboriginal organizations, as well as from the First Peoples’ Cultural Council. British Columbia has a vast wealth of First Nations languages and cultures. There are 7 distinct language families, completely unrelated to each other. Within these families there are 34 different First Nations languages and at least 93 different dialects (varieties) of those languages. Besides these 34 living languages, at least three languages which were spoken in British Columbia are now sleeping.1 All of these languages contain a rich inventory of sounds, many of which are not found in English. When preparing this Guide, we asked representatives to help us understand how to pronounce the traditional name of their community or organization. The pronunciation equivalents we have developed here are meant as an introductory guide. The final authority on a pronunciation rests with the community. We encourage you to gain a first-hand understanding of how a name is pronounced by speaking directly with, and being guided by, representatives from each community. Please note that many sounds in First Nations’ languages do not occur in English and so cannot be expressed using the English writing system. Additionally, there are often multiple variations of a pronunciation based on dialectal and other differences. The pronunciations represented below come as close as possible to the correct pronunciation, while being restrained to the English alphabet. A few of the letter combinations below are used to represent specific sounds not found in English. These are: “wh” represents a breathy ‘wh’ sound that is pronounced with friction in the throat. “thl” represents a breathy ‘l’ sound with friction in the mouth, similar to the l in ‘athlete’ “ts” at the beginning of a word sounds like the ‘ts’ in ‘cats’ First Nation communities and organizations continue to adopt Indigenous names distinct from anglicized versions or non-indigenous names. You will also find we have included several names that are cross- referenced with traditional or alternative names in brackets that may not appear in the Excel database, but may continue to be used in communities. For more information about First Nations’ languages in Bri.

1. A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and
Organizations
in BC
The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September
2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in
British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from
this version due to periodic updates that have
occurred since then. For changes, please email:
[email protected]
1
This Guide contains aids to the pronunciation of communities
and organizations listed in the Excel Database
“Guide to Indigenous Organizations and Services in British
Columbia” (Previously known as The Guide to
Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia).
The original Pronunciation Guide was created
with input from First Nations and other Aboriginal
organizations, as well as from the First Peoples’ Cultural
Council.
British Columbia has a vast wealth of First Nations languages
and cultures. There are 7 distinct language
families, completely unrelated to each other. Within these
families there
are 34 different First Nations languages and at least 93 different
dialects (varieties) of those
languages. Besides these 34 living languages, at least three
languages which were spoken in

2. British Columbia are now sleeping.1 All of these languages
contain a rich inventory of sounds, many of
which are not found in English.
When preparing this Guide, we asked representatives to help us
understand how to pronounce the
traditional name of their community or organization. The
pronunciation equivalents we have developed
here are meant as an introductory guide. The final authority on
a pronunciation rests with the community.
We encourage you to gain a first-hand understanding of how a
name is pronounced by speaking directly
with, and being guided by, representatives from each
community.
Please note that many sounds in First Nations’ languages do not
occur in English and so cannot be
expressed using the English writing system. Additionally, there
are often multiple variations of a
pronunciation based on dialectal and other differences. The
pronunciations represented below come as
close as possible to the correct pronunciation, while being
restrained to the English alphabet. A few of the
letter combinations below are used to represent specific sounds
not found in English. These are:
“wh” represents a breathy ‘wh’ sound that is pronounced with
friction in the throat.
“thl” represents a breathy ‘l’ sound with friction in the mouth,
similar to the l in ‘athlete’
“ts” at the beginning of a word sounds like the ‘ts’ in ‘cats’
First Nation communities and organizations continue to adopt
Indigenous names distinct from anglicized

3. versions or non-indigenous names. You will also find we have
included several names that are cross-
referenced with traditional or alternative names in brackets that
may not appear in the Excel database, but
may continue to be used in communities.
For more information about First Nations’ languages in British
Columbia, please visit the First Peoples’
Cultural Council’s website (www.fpcc.ca), or the First Peoples’
Language Map of B.C.
(http://www.maps.fphlcc.ca/).
1 This information is taken from FPCC’s paper “Recognizing
the Diversity of BC's First Nations Languages”
https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/governments/indigenous-
people/aboriginal-organizations-services
http://www.fpcc.ca/
http://www.maps.fphlcc.ca/
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and
Organizations
in BC
The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September
2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in
British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from
this version due to periodic updates that have
occurred since then. For changes, please email:
[email protected]
2

4. Your comments and suggestions for improvement are welcome.
Please email:
[email protected]
Socio-Economic Partnerships Branch
Ministry of Indigenous Relations and Reconciliation
Name of Organization Alternate or Previous Name
Pronunciation
?aqam St. Mary's Band
?Esdilagh First Nation Alexandria Indian Band ess-dey-la
Ahousaht First Nation a-howz-at
Ahousaht Holistic Centre a-howz-at
Aitchelitz Band a-che-leetz
Akisqnuk First Nation Columbia Lake First Nation a-kissk-nook
Akisqnuk Health Resource Centre a-kissk-nook
Alberni Clayoquot Métis Association may-tee
Ashcroft and District Métis Association may-tee
A-Tlegay Fisheries Society at-le-gay
Ayas Men Men Child & Family Services ay-es mun mun
BC Métis Association May-tee
Bonaparte Indian Band bone-eh-part
Boothroyd Band booth-roid
Boundary Community Métis Association Boundary Community
Métis
Association
Boundary Community Métis Association may-tee
Cariboo Chilcotin Métis Association may-tee
Carrier Chilcotin Tribal Council carry-er chill-ko-tin
Carrier Sekani Family Services carry-er sek-an-ee
Carrier Sekani Tribal Council carry-er sek-an-ee
Cayoose Creek Band kai-yuse creek
Champagne and Aishihik First Nations sham-pane and eh-

5. zhee-ack
Chawathil First Nation formerly Hope Indian Band cha-wah-
thul
Cheam First Nation chee-am
Chemainus First Nation see Stz’uminus First Nation Cha-main-
us
Cheslatta Carrier Nation chess-la-ta
Chilliwack Métis Association may-tee
Ch'nook Indigenous Business Education Chi-nook
Chrysalis Society Kris-Sull-Iss
Columbia Valley Métis Association may-tee
mailto:[email protected]
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and
Organizations
in BC
The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September
2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in
British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from
this version due to periodic updates that have
occurred since then. For changes, please email:
[email protected]
3
Conayt Friendship Society kon-ate or kun-ate
Conayt Housing kon-ate or kun-ate
Coqualeetza Cultural Education Centre co-ka-leetz-a
Council of the Haida Nation hy-dah
Cowichan Tribes cow-i-chin
Cowichan Valley Métis Nation cow-i-chin / may-tee
Cwenengitel Aboriginal Society kwa-nin-cha-tul

6. Dana Naye Ventures da-na-nay
Da'naxda'xw First Nation Tanakteuk Indian Band da-naw-dawh
Daylu Dena Council formerly Lower Post First Nation day-lou
den-a
Dene Tsaa Tse K'Nai First Nation see Prophet River First
Nation de-ne tsah tsay k-nai
Denisiqi Services Society den-ne-se-kai
Ditidaht First Nation formerly Nitinaht First Nation dee-tee-dot
Dzawada'enuxw First Nation formerly Tsawataineuk First
Nation
dza-wah-day-noowh
Dze L K'ant Friendship Centre Society zel-kant
Ehattesaht First Nation ee-hat-a-sut
Elk Valley Métis Association may-tee
En'owkin Centre Okanagan Indian Educational
Resources Society
en-ow-kin
Esk'etemc ess-ke-tem
Esquimalt Nation es-kwai-malt
Fort Nelson Métis Society may-tee
Fort St. John Métis Society may-tee
Fraser Valley Métis Association may-tee
Gitanmaax Band Council git-n-max
Gitanyow Band Council git-n-yow
Gitanyow Hereditary Chiefs' Office git-n-yow
Gitga'at First Nation Hartley Bay Band Council git-gat
Gitksan Watershed Authorities gicks-san
Gitksan Wet’suwet’en Education Society gicks-san wet-so-a-
den
Gitmaxmak’ay Nisga’a Prince Rupert/Port
Edward Society

7. git-ma-mgai nis-gah
Gitsegukla Band Council gits-a guk-la
Gitwangak Band Council git-wan-gawk
Gitxaala Nation formerly Kitkatla First Nation git-gath-la
Gitxsan Child and Family Services Society gicks-san
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and
Organizations
in BC
The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September
2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in
British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from
this version due to periodic updates that have
occurred since then. For changes, please email:
[email protected]
4
Gitxsan Government Commission gicks-san
Gitxsan Health Society gicks-san
Gitxsan Hereditary Chiefs' Office gicks-san
Gitxsan Treaty Society gicks-san
Gitxsan Unlocking Aboriginal Justice gicks-san
Gitxsan Watershed Authorities gicks-san
Golden Ears Métis Society may-tee
Gwa'sala-'Nakwaxda'xw Nation Tsulquate Band gwa-sal-a
nawk-wa-dawh
Gwawaenuk Tribe gwah-way-ee-nook
Gya' Wa' Tlaab Healing Centre Society geeya-wah-tlawb

8. Hagwilget Village Council hag-wil-git
Haida Child and Family Services Society hy-day gwai
Haida Gwaii Community Futures hy-day gwai
Haida Gwaii Restorative Justice, c/o Haida
Tribal Society
hy-day gwai
Haisla Nation Council Haisla Nation, Kitamaat Village
Council
High-sla
Halalt First Nation hull-alt
Ha-Shilth-Sa Newspaper ha-shilth-sa
Heiltsuk Cultural Education Centre helts-uk
Heiltsuk Kaxla Society helts-uk kaks-la
Heiltsuk Nation formerly Bella Bella Indian Band helts-uk
Heiltsuk Tribal Council helts-uk
Hesquiaht First Nation hesh-qwee-at
Hiiye'yu Lelum (House of Friendship)
Society
he-yay-ya lay-lum
Homalco First Nation hoe-mall-co
Hulitan Family and Community Services
Society
hull-eet-n
Hul'qumi'num Treaty Group hull-kuh-mee-num
Hupacasath First Nation ho-putch-eh-set

9. Huu-ay-aht Development Corporation ho-ay-at
Huu-ay-aht First Nations ho-ay-at
In-SHUCK-ch Nation in-shuck-sh
Interior Métis Child and Family Services may-tee
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and
Organizations
in BC
The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September
2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in
British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from
this version due to periodic updates that have
occurred since then. For changes, please email:
[email protected]
5
Iskut Band Council isk-cut or Alternate of is-
koot
Island Métis Family and Community
Services Society
may-tee
K’ómoks First Nation co-mox
Ka:'yu:'k't'h'/Che:k:tles7et'h' First Nation Kyuquot Native Tribe
kai-you-cut / sheh-kluh-szet
alternatively kai-you-cut
/chek-tluh-set

10. Kackaamin Family Development Centre
Association
ka-kaah-min
Kanaka Bar Indian Band can-a-ka bar
Kaska Dena Council kas-ka
Katzie First Nation kat-zee
Kekinow Native Housing Society kee-kin-oh
Kekuli Centre keh-koo-lee
Kelowna Métis Association may-tee
Kikino Métis Children & Family Services kee-kin-oh
Ki-Low-Na Friendship Society key-low-nah
Kispiox Band Council kiss-pea-ox
Kitasoo Band Council Klemtu Band ki-ta-soo
Kitkatla First Nation see Gitxaala Nation kit-cat-la
Kitselas First Nation kit-sel-us
Kitselas Treaty and Resource Office kit-sel-us
Kitsumkalum First Nation kits-um-kale-um
Kitsumkalum Health Centre kits-um-kale-um
Kitsumkalum Treaty Office kits-um-kale-um
Klahoose First Nation kla-hoose
Kluskus Indian Band see Lhoosk’uz Dené Nation looze-k’ U z
Knucwentwecw Society kanuk-when-twah
Kootenay South Métis Society may-tee
Ksan Historical Village and Museum Ka-san (also gicks-san?)
Ktunaxa Kinbasket Aboriginal Training
Council (KKATC)
te-nawh-ha Kinbasket
Ktunaxa Kinbasket Treaty Council te-nawh-ha Kinbasket
Ktunaxa Nation Council (KNC) te-nah-ha alternatively k-

11. too-nah-ha
Ktunaxa/Kinbasket Child & Family
Services
te-nah-ha / kinbasket
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and
Organizations
in BC
The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September
2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in
British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from
this version due to periodic updates that have
occurred since then. For changes, please email:
[email protected]
6
KUU-US Crisis Line Society
koo-us
Kwadacha Nation Fort Ware Indian Band kwa-da-chuh
Kwakiutl Band Council kwa-gul
Kwakiutl District Council kwa-gul
Kwakiutl District Council Health (KDC
Health)
kwa-gul

12. Kwantlen First Nation Fort Langley Band kwant-len
Kwaw-kwaw-apilt First Nation kwa-kwa-plit
Kwiakah First Nation kway-ka
Kwikwasut'inuxw Haxwa'mis First Nation quick-wa-sut-uh-
nook / ha-
kwuh-meesh
Kwikwetlem First Nation kwee-kwet-lum
Kw'umut Lelum Child & Family Services kwa-mut lay-lum
Laich-Kwil-Tach Treaty Society lee-kwa-ta
Laichwiltach Family Life Society lee-kwa-ta
Lake Cowichan First Nation cow-i-chin
Lalum'utul' Smun'eem Child and Family
Services
lay-lum-atul smah-nawm
LÁU,WELNEW Tribal School lhay-wull-nough
Lax Kw'alaams Band lacks-qwah-lambs
Laxgalts'ap Village Government lax-galt-sap
Leq’á:mel First Nation la-cam-el
Lheidli-T'enneh Band clayt-clay den-ay
Lheidli-T'enneh Natural Resource Office clayt-clay den-ay
Lhoosk’uz Dené Nation looze-k' U z den-ay
Lhtako Dene Nation Red Bluff Band Office lah-ta-ko den-ay
Liard First Nation lee-ard
Lil'wat Nation lil-watt
Little Shuswap Indian Band shoo-shwahp
Lower Similkameen Indian Band si-mil-kuh-meen
Lyackson First Nation lye-ack-son
Maa-Nulth First Nations maw-nawlth
Maiyoo Keyoh Society My-you Kay-yo
M'akola Housing Society ma-ko-la
Mamalilikulla First Nation Mamalilikulla-Qwe'Qwa'Sot'Em

13. Band
ma-ma-leelah-kwalah kwe-
kwah-sum
Matsqui First Nation mats-sqwee
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and
Organizations
in BC
The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September
2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in
British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from
this version due to periodic updates that have
occurred since then. For changes, please email:
[email protected]
7
Métis Commission for Children and
Families of BC

14. may-tee
Métis Community Services Society of BC may-tee
Métis Employment and Training Program may-tee
Métis Family Services may-tee
Métis Matters Radio Show may-tee
Métis Nation BC may-tee
Métis Nation Columbia River Society may-tee
Métis Nation of Greater Victoria may-tee
Métis Women of British Columbia may-tee
Metlakatla Governing Council met-la-cat-la
Metlakatla Treaty Office met-la-cat-la
Mid-Island Métis Nation Association may-tee
MIKI'SIW Métis Association may-tee
Moccasin Flat's Métis Society may-tee
Mowachaht/Muchalaht First Nation mo-which-it/much-a-lit
Musgamagw Tsawataineuk Tribal Council moos-ga-muk zow-
wa-dane-
nook
Musqueam Indian Band mus-kwee-um
Nadleh Whut'en Band nad-lee woo-ten
Nak'azdli Alternate Justice Centre na-caused-lee
Nak'azdli Band Necosli Band na-caused-lee
‘Namgis Community Services nhum-geez
‘Namgis First Nation nhum-geez
‘Namgis Health Centre nhum-geez
Nanoose Te'mexw Treaty Association
na-noose tey-muck
Nat'oot'ten Nation see Lake Babine Nation nad-oo-ten
Naut’sa mawt Resources Group, Inc. nawt-saw-mawt
Naut'sa mawt Tribal Council nawt-saw-mawt

15. Nawican Friendship Centre now-i-kin
Nazko First Nation nazz-co
Nazko Treaty Office nazz-co
Nee-Tahi-Buhn Indian Band knee-tie-boon
Nelson and Area Métis Society may-tee
Nenqayni Wellness Centre Society nen-ky-knee
Neskonlith Indian Band ness-con-lith
New Aiyansh Village Government new eye-annch
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and
Organizations
in BC
The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September
2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in
British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from
this version due to periodic updates that have
occurred since then. For changes, please email:
[email protected]
8
Nezul Be Hunuyeh Child & Family Services
Society
nezul bay hun-yeah
Nicola Valley & District Métis Society may-tee
Nicomen Indian Band ni-kuh-men
NIL/TU,O Child & Family Services Society neeth-two-wa
Nisga’a Lisims Government nis-gah liss-ums
Nis'ga’a Ts’amiks Vancouver Society nis-gah tsa-miks
Nisga’a Valley Health Authority nis-gah

16. Nisga’a Village of Gingolx nis-gah / gin-gol-lix
Nisga'a Child & Family Services nis-gah
Nisga'a Village of Gitwinksihlkw nis-gah / git-win-silk
Nitinaht First Nation see Ditidaht First Nation dee-tee-dot
Nlaka'pamux Nation Tribal Council ent-la-cap-um
Nlha'7kapmx Child & Family Services ent-la-cap-um
Nooaitch Indian Band new-ich
North Cariboo Métis Association may-tee
North East Métis Association may-tee
North Fraser Métis Association may-tee
North Island Métis Nation may-tee
North West BC Métis Association may-tee
Northern Shuswap Tribal Council Northern Secwepemc te
Quelmucw
shoo-shwahp
Northwest BC Métis Association may-tee
N'Quatqua First Nations neh-qwa-qwa
Nuchatlaht First Nation new-chat-lat
Nupqu Development Corporation noop-ku
Nuu-chah-nulth new-chaw-nulth
Nuu-chah-nulth Child and Family Services new-chaw-nulth
Nuu-chah-nulth Economic Development
Corporation
new-cha-nulth
Nuu-chah-nulth NIHB new-chaw-nulth
Nuu-chah-nulth Tribal Council new-chaw-nulth
Nuxalk Nation Bella Coola First Nation new-hawk
Office of the Wet'suwet'en wet-so-a-den
Okanagan Métis & Aboriginal Housing
Society
may-tee

17. OoknaKane Friendship Centre ooka-na-cane
Osoyoos Indian Band oh-soy-use
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and
Organizations
in BC
The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September
2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in
British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from
this version due to periodic updates that have
occurred since then. For changes, please email:
[email protected]
9
Oweekeno Nation See Wuikinuxv Nation whee-kin-au
Pacheedaht First Nation pah-chee-dat
Pauquachin First Nation paw-kwi-chin
Pauquachin Health Centre paw-kwi-chin
Penelakut Tribe pen-el-a-cut
Popkum First Nation c/o Sto:lo Nation pop-kwum
Powell River Métis Society may-tee
Prince George Métis Community
Association
may-tee
Prince Rupert & District Metis Community may-tee
Prophet River First Nation Dene Tsaa Tse K'Nai First Nation
de-ne tsah tsay k-nai
Qayqayt First Nation New Westminster Indian Band key-kite

18. Qualicum First Nation kwal-i-come
Quatsino First Nation quat-see-know
Quesnel Tillicum Society Native
Friendship Centre
qwi-nel till-i-kum
Quw'utsun Syuw’entst Lelum' Culture and
Education Centre
ko-whuts-sun swhents lay-
lum
Qwallayuw Head Start qkwell-eye-you
Rocky Mountain Métis Association may-tee
Saik'uz First Nation sigh-cuz
Sal'i'shan Institute sal-i-shan
Salmon Arm Métis Association may-tee
Saulteau First Nation so-tow
Scia'new First Nation Beecher Bay First Nation chee-a-new
Scia'new Treaty Office chee-a-new
Scw'exmx Child and Family Services
Society
shwa-come
Scw'exmx Community Health Services
Society
shwa-come
Sechelt Indian Band Child & Family
Services
see-shelt

19. Secwepemc Child and Family Services
Agency
sec-wep-emc
Secwepemc Cultural Education Society sec-wep-emc
Semiahmoo First Nation semi-ah-moo
Sexqeltqin Health Centre se-kell-keen
Shackan Indian Band shack-n
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and
Organizations
in BC
The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September
2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in
British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from
this version due to periodic updates that have
occurred since then. For changes, please email:
[email protected]
10
shíshálh Nation Sechelt Indian Band see-shelt
Shuswap Family Resource and Referral
Centre
shoo-shwahp
Shuswap Indian Band shoo-shwahp
Shuswap Nation Tribal Council shoo-shwahp
Shxw’?whámél First Nation shwah-ham-ul
Shxwha:y Village Skway First Nation shwhy

20. Simpcw First Nation North Thompson Indian Band sim-ka
Siska Indian Band sis-ka
Skatin Nations skah-teen
Skawahlook First Nation skow-look
Skidegate Band Council skid-eh-get
Skin Tyee Nation skin-tye-ee
Skowkale First Nation skow-cale
Skuppah Indian Band scup-pa
Skwah First Nation skwah
Skway First Nation see Shxwha:y Village sh-why
Slelemw Child Development Centre sull-ay-mu
Sliammon Development Corporation sly-am-mon
Snaw-Naw-As First Nation see Nanoose First Nation snaw-naw-
as
Snaza'ist Discovery Centre snaw-zay-ist
Snc'c'amala?tn Okanagan Indian Band
Early Childhood Education Centre
sun-chich-she-mall-it-ton
Snuneymuxw First Nation snue-ney-mowck
Snuneymuxw First Nation Health Centre snue-ney-mowck
Songhees Nation song-geez
Songhees Treaty Office song-geez
Soowahlie Indian Band sue-wall-e
South Okanagan Similkameen Métis
Association
si-mil-kuh-meen
Southern Stl'atl'imx Health Society stat-lee-um
Splatsin Spallumcheen Indian Band spla-cheen
Spuzzum First Nation spuz-zum
Sqewlets First Nation Scowlitz First Nation scow-litz
Squamish Nation squa-mish
Squamish Ocean Canoe Family squa-mish

21. Squiala First Nation skwai-all-a
Stellat'en First Nation stull-a-tin
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and
Organizations
in BC
The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September
2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in
British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from
this version due to periodic updates that have
occurred since then. For changes, please email:
[email protected]
11
Stitsma Employment Centre schtitz-ma
Sto:lo Aboriginal Skills and Employment
Training
staw-low
Sto:lo Nation Community Development
Department and Qwi:Qwelstom
staw-low
Sto:lo Nation Health Services staw-low
Sto:lo Nation Society staw-low
Sto:lo Tribal Council staw-low
Stó:lo Xwexwilmexw Treaty Association Staw-low
Sts'ailes formerly Chehalis Indian Band sta-ay-liss
Stswecem'c -Xgat'tem First Nation Canoe Creek Band St-wet-

22. lem hight-lem
Stu''ate LeLum Secondary School stu-eight lay-lum
Stz’uminus First Nation Chemainus First Nation sha-main-us
Sulsila Lelum Wellness Centre Society sawl-see-la-lee-lum
Sumas First Nation sue-mas
Tahltan Band tall-tan
Tahltan Health and Social Services
Authority
tall-tan
Takla Lake First Nation tack-lah
Taku River Tlingit First Nation ta-koo-river tling-get
Tale'awtxw Aboriginal Capital Corporation tah-la-hout
Tansi Friendship Centre Society tawn-say
Te'mexw Treaty Association tey-muck
T'exelc Treaty Williams Lake Indian Band teh-huwl
Tillicum Lelum Aboriginal Friendship
Centre
till-i-kum lay-lum
T'it'q'et Administration tilth-kit
Tla’amin Health Tla'amin Community Health
Services
sly-am-mon
Tla'amin Nation sly-am-mon
Tla-o-qui-aht First Nation klay-o-kwee-at
Tlatlasikwala First Nation Nuwitti Band tla-tla-see-kwa-la
Tl'azt'en Nation tlaz-den
Tl'etinqox-T'in Government Office kleh-deen-ko-teen
Tlowitsis Nation tlow-eet-sees
Toosey Indian Band two-zee
Toquaht Nation tow-kwat

23. Tri-River Métis Association may-tee
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and
Organizations
in BC
The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September
2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in
British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from
this version due to periodic updates that have
occurred since then. For changes, please email:
[email protected]
12
Tsartlip First Nation sart-lip
Tsartlip Health Centre sart-lip
Tsawout First Nation say-out
Tsawout Health say-out
Tsawwassen First Nation tsa-wah-sen
Tsay Keh Dene Band say-kay-denay
TseK'hene First Nation see McLeod Lake Indian Band tse-kan-
ay
Ts’elxwéyeqw Tribe Management chil-kway-uhk
Tseshaht First Nation say-shot
Tseshaht Health Clinic say-shot
Tseshaht Youth Centre say-shot
Ts'ewulhtun Health Centre of the
Cowichan Tribes
say-wool-tun / cow-i-chin
Tseycum First Nation say-come

24. Tŝideldel First Nation Alexis Creek Indian Band tsigh-dell-dell
Tsilhqot'in National Government sill-ko-teen
Tsimshian First Nations Treaty Society sim-she-an
Ts'kw'aylaxw First Nation Pavilion Indian Band tisk-why-lah
Tsleil-Waututh Nation Burrard Band sail-wha-tooth
T'Sou-ke Nation tsa-awk
Tsow-Tun Le Lum Society Residential
Substance Abuse Treatment Centre
sow-tun-lay-lum
Tsq'escen' Canim Lake Band chess-ken
Two Rivers Métis Society may-tee
Tzeachten First Nation chee-ack-ten
Uchucklesaht Tribe u-chuk-les-at
Ulkatcho First Nations ul-kat-cho
U'mista Cultural Centre oo-miss-ta
Usma Nuu-Chah-Nulth Family and Child
Services
us-mah new-cha-nulth
United Canadian Métis Nation Vancouver Métis Citizens
Society
may-tee
Vancouver Métis Community Association may-tee
Vernon & District Métis Association may-tee
Waceya Métis Society may-tee
Wachiay Friendship Centre Society wha-chey
Wazdidadilh Aboriginal Infant & Family
Development Program
woss-did-a-duh

25. A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and
Organizations
in BC
The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September
2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in
British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from
this version due to periodic updates that have
occurred since then. For changes, please email:
[email protected]
13
We Wai Kai First Nation wee-wa-kai
Wei Wai Kum First Nation wee-wha-come
Wet'suwet'en First Nation wet-so-a-den
Whe-La-La-U Area Council we-lala-you
Whispering Pines / Clinton Band - the
Pellt'iq't People
pel-tighk
Wilp Si'Satxw Community Healing Centre wilp-s-sat
Wilp Wilxo'oskwhl Nisga’a Institute wilp will-kosk-wuh
WSÁNE? School Board wh-say-nuch
Wuikinuxv Nation Oweekeno Nation whee-kin-au
Wuikinuxv-Kitasoo-Nuxalk Tribal Council whee-kin-au; kit-a-
soo; new-
hawk
Xat'súll First Nation Soda Creek hat-sull
Xaxli'p Band Fountain Band hawk-leap

26. Xaxli'p Health Centre hawk-leap
Xeni Gwet'in First Nations Government Nemaiah Band hon-ay
gwi-teen
Xolhemet Society o-le-met
Xyolhemeylh Child and Family Services yoth-me
Yakweakwioose Band ya-kweek-we-oos
Yekooche First Nation yeh-koo-chee
Yinka Déné Language Institute ying-kaw denay
Yunesit'in Government you-neh-seh-teen
Yuu?u?i??at? Government formerly Ucluelet First Nation u-
clew-let
Environmentalism
This page intentionally left blank
Environmentalism
David Peterson del Mar
ISBN: 978-1-4082-5558-2
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A CIP catalogue record for this book can be obtained from the
British Library

27. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Peterson del Mar, David, 1957–.
Environmentalism / David Peterson del Mar.
p. cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4082-5558-2 (pbk.)
1. Environmentalism–History. 2. Nature conservation–History.
3. Natural areas–History. I. Title.
Ge195.P478 2011
333.7209–dc22
2011001745
Set in 10/13.5pt Berkeley Book by 35
The right of David Peterson del Mar to be identified as author
of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
2006
2006, 2012
This edition published 2012
Introduction to the series
History is narrative constructed by historians from traces left by
the past.

28. Historical enquiry is often driven by contemporary issues and,
in conse-
quence, historical narratives are constantly reconsidered,
reconstructed and
reshaped. The fact that different historians have different
perspectives on
issues means that there is also often controversy and no
universally agreed
version of past events. Seminar Studies was designed to bridge
the gap between
current research and debate, and the broad, popular general
surveys that
often date rapidly.
The volumes in the series are written by historians who are not
only familiar
with the latest research and current debates concerning their
topic, but who
have themselves contributed to our understanding of the subject.
The books
are intended to provide the reader with a clear introduction to a
major topic
in history. They provide both a narrative of events and a critical
analysis of
contemporary interpretations. They include the kinds of tools
generally
omitted from specialist monographs: a chronology of events, a
glossary of
terms and brief biographies of ‘who’s who’. They also include
bibliographical
essays in order to guide students to the literature on various
aspects of the
subject. Students and teachers alike will find that the selection
of documents
will stimulate discussion and offer insight into the raw
materials used by

29. historians in their attempt to understand the past.
Clive Emsley and Gordon Martel
Series Editors
This page intentionally left blank
Contents
Acknowledgements x
Publisher’s acknowledgements xi
Chronology xii
Who’s who xiv
Glossary xvii
Map xxiii
PART ONE ANALYSIS AND ASSESSMENT 1
1 INTRODUCTION 3
2 DOMESTICATING THE WILD 6
Background 7
The birth of conservation 8
Nostalgia and nature loving 10
The birth of nature tourism 12
Pets 14
Environmentalism in the colonies and early US 15
3 INDUSTRIAL NATURE LOVING 18
The spread of conservation and preservation 19
Nature and nation 21
Wild nature 26

30. Domesticating the wild 28
4 THE FRIENDLY WILD OF POST-WAR AFFLUENCE 32
Background 33
American suburbs 34
The friendly wild 35
Meaning and ecology 38
5 THE COUNTER-CULTURE’S NATURE 41
Prosperity and alienation 41
Wild = good 43
Nature loving goes mainstream 45
Farley Mowat and the world we have lost 46
Mother nature’s sons: Cousteau and Denver 48
6 EPIPHANIES 50
Silent Spring 51
Green surge 52
Western Europe 53
The rest of the West 56
Green nationalism 58
7 RADICAL DEPARTURES 60
Background 60
Deep ecology 62
Bioregionalism and ecofeminism 64
Friends of the Earth 65
Greenpeace and Earth First! 67
8 THWARTED 70
Background 70
Western European Greens 72
Central and Eastern Europe 74

31. Backlash and accommodation 75
Success stories 79
Divisions 81
9 EXTREME NATURE LOVING 83
Wilderness and technology 84
Wild playgrounds 85
Consuming nature 87
Aquariums and dogs 90
Freeing Keiko and finding Nemo 93
10 ASSESSMENT 95
viii ENVIRONMENTALISM
PART TWO DOCUMENTS 99
1 Beowulf 100
2 William Wordsworth, Tintern Abbey 102
3 The Cruelty to Animals Act of 1835 106
4 George Perkins Marsh, Man and Nature 108
5 Anna Sewell, Black Beauty 109
6 William Morris, News from Nowhere 111
7 Robert Baden-Powell, Scouting for Boys 112
8 John Muir, My First Summer in the Sierras 115
9 J.R.R. Tolkien, The Fellowship of the Ring 116
10 Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac 118
11 Rachel Carson, Silent Spring 120
12 Farley Mowat, Never Cry Wolf 121
13 Edward Abbey, Desert Solitaire: A Season in the Wilderness
123
14 Richard Adams, Watership Down 124
15 Donella H. Meadows et al., The Limits to Growth: A Report

32. for
the Club of Rome’s Project on the Predicament of Mankind 126
16 Arne Naess, ‘The Shallow and the Deep, Long-Range
Ecology
Movements’ 128
17 Endangered Species Act of 1973 133
18 Where You At? A Bioregional Quiz 133
19 Earth First! Action in Oregon, 1985 134
20 United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development,
Rio de Janeiro, 1992 137
21 Petra Kelly, ‘Creating an Ecological Economy’ 138
22 Kyoto Protocol, 1997 139
23 Bjørn Lomborg, The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring
the
Real State of the World 142
24 ‘10 Steps to Animal Communication’ 145
25 Al Gore, An Inconvenient Truth: The Planetary Emergency
of
Global Warming and What We Can Do About It 147
26 Rural Manifesto of the Countryside Alliance, 2009 149
27 Report of the League Against Cruel Sports, 2010 150
GUIDE TO FURTHER READING 152
REFERENCES 159
INDEX 169
Contents ix

33. Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Gordon Martel, both for inviting me to write
this book and
for insisting that I do so boldly. He also straightened many
kinks in my prose
and reasoning. Josie O’Donoghue at Pearson was very helpful
throughout the
revision process.
This book depends on the work of many researchers and writers.
I am
particularly indebted to Michael Bess, Jon Katz, Roderick
Frazier Nash,
Jennifer Price, Harriet Ritvo, Keith Thomas, and Meredith
Veldman.
As always, Wendy del Mar has been a wonderfully warm and
supportive
life partner. Peter, my son, allows me to see the whole world
with new eyes.
Publisher’s acknowledgements
We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce
copyright material:
Photographs
Plate 1. The Bridgeman Art Library and Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston,
Massachusetts, USA (Henry Lillie Pierce Fund). Plate 2.

34. Maurice Branger/
Roger-Viollet. Plate 3. Three Lions/Getty Images. Plate 4.
NASA. Plate 5.
Weyler/Greenpeace. Plate 6. Gary Crabbe/Alamy Ltd. Plate 7.
Arco Images
GmbH/Alamy Ltd. Plate 8. Painting by Nantucket Artist, Louis
Guarnaccia.
Map
Map from An Inconvenient Truth, Bloomsbury Publishing Plc
(Al Gore 2006)
Text
Poetry on pages 100–2 adapted by David Breeden from
Beowulf; Extract on
pages 115–6 from My First Summer in the Sierras, Houghton
Mifflin ( John Muir
1911); Extract on pages 121–2 from Never Cry Wolf,
McCelland & Stewart
Ltd (Mowat, F 1963); Extract on pages 138–9, Reprinted from
Thinking
Green! Essays on Environmentalism, Feminism, and
Nonviolence (1994)
by Petra K. Kelly with permission of Parallax Press, Berkeley,
California,
www.parallax.org; Extract on pages 142–5 from The Skeptical
Environmentalist:
Measuring the Real State of the World, Cambridge University
Press (1998)
pp. 330–332, Copyright Bjorn Lomborg 2001, published by
Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, reproduced with permission; Extract on page 69,
Copyright 1999,
from the book Animal Talk by Penelope Smith, Reprinted with

35. permission of
Beyond Words Publishing, Inc., Hillsboro, Oregon. All rights
reserved.
In some instances we have been unable to trace the owners of
copyright material,
and we would appreciate any information that would enable us
to do so.
http://www.parallax.org
Chronology
1669 French Forest Ordinance
1761 Jean Jacques Rousseau, The New Heloise
1798 William Wordsworth, Tintern Abbey
1824 Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals founded
in England
1831 British Association for the Advancement of Science
founded
1854 Henry David Thoreau, Walden
1859 First dog show held in England
1864 George Perkins Marsh, Man and Nature
1872 Yellowstone National Park established in the US
1877 Anna Sewell, Black Beauty

36. 1879 Royal National Park established in New South Wales,
Australia
1885 Banff National Park established in Canada
1889 Society for the Protection of Birds founded in Great
Britain
1892 Sierra Club founded in the US
1895 National Trust founded in Great Britain
1902 Beatrix Potter, The Tale of Peter Rabbit
1905 Federation of Rambling Clubs founded in England
1907 Boy Scouts founded in England
1914 France’s first national park
1917 Spain’s first national park
1920 First national park in the Soviet Union
1934 Germany becomes the first nation to protect wolves
1942 Disney’s Bambi
1949 Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac
1952 London smog
Chronology xiii

37. 1956 Dam on Colorado River blocked in US
1962 Rachel Carson, Silent Spring
1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty
1964 Wilderness Act in US
1967 Torrey Canyon oil spill
1968 Edward Abbey’s Desert Solitaire
Paul Ehrlich, The Population Bomb
The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau premieres
Sweden’s Environmental Protection Law
1969 Radical student protests in western Europe
Friends of the Earth founded in the US
1970 Earth Day
1971 Greenpeace founded in Canada
1972 Club of Rome, Limits to Growth
Arne Naess coins the term ‘deep ecology’
West Germany’s Council of Environmental Experts established
United Nations Stockholm Conference on the Human
Environment
1973 British Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution

38. established
Peter Singer coins the term ‘animal liberation’
1975 Great Barrier Reef Marine Park founded
1978 Toxic wastes found at Love Canal in US
1980 Earth First! founded in US
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals founded in US
1983 West Germany’s Green Party wins representation in the
Bundestag
1986 Accident at Chernobyl nuclear power plant in the Soviet
Union
1987 World Commission on the Environment stresses
sustainable development
1989 The Green Parties of the United Kingdom and France win
15 and
10 per cent of the vote, respectively, in European elections
1991 Founding of the People of Color Environmental
Leadership in the US
1992 United Nations Rio de Janeiro Summit
1998 Keiko returns to Iceland
2004 Hunting Act passes UK Parliament
2006 Release of An Inconvenient Truth

39. Who’s who
Abbey, Edward (1927–1989): US novelist and essayist, radical
environmentalist.
Adams, Richard (1920– ): British writer whose best known book
(Watership
Down, 1972) expressed sympathy for rabbits victimized by
human development.
Bookchin, Murray, aka Lewis Herber, (1921–2006): US
socialist and a
leading social ecologist who linked social and environmental
exploitation.
Brower, David (1912–2000): US environmentalist, founder of
Friends of
the Earth.
Buffon, George Louis Leclerc de (1707–1788): French scientist
and author,
perhaps the most prominent naturalist of the eighteenth century.
Carson, Rachel (1907–1964): US biologist and writer, author of
Silent Spring,
the book that jump-started the modern environmental movement
after it
appeared in 1962.
Clements, Frederic Edward (1874–1945): US botanist and
pioneering
ecologist who emphasized climax communities and other
expressions of
ecological stability.

40. Cousteau, Jacques (1910–1997): Popular French oceanographer
who
achieved great fame on television.
Denver, John (1943–1997): Popular US country singer who
celebrated wild
places.
Foreman, Dave (1947– ): US environmentalist who left the
Sierra Club to
help found the much more radical Earth First!
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (1749–1832): German Romantic
poet, philoso-
pher, and scientist who greatly influenced European artists and
scholars.
Goodall, Jane (1934– ): English primate researcher whose work
on the
human-like characteristics of chimpanzees has enjoyed a wide
readership
outside of academia.
Kelly, Petra (1947–1992): Charistmatic West German Green
Party leader.
Leopold, Aldo (1887–1948): US ecologist, author of A Sand
County
Almanac, promulgated the ‘land ethic,’ which anticipated Deep
Ecology.
Linnaeus, Carl (1707–1778): Swedish scientist whose elaborate
system

41. of nested classification dominated natural history well into the
nineteenth
century.
Lomborg, Bjørn (1965– ): Danish scholar whose The Skeptical
Environ-
mentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World, first
published in 1998, seeks
to debunk more alarmist assessments of environmental health
and world
poverty.
Marsh, George Perkins (1801–1882): Pioneering US
conservationist,
particularly of forests, author of Man and Nature.
McTaggart, David (1932–2001): Canadian radical
environmentalist who
headed Greenpeace for many years.
Morris, William (1834–1896): Leading English socialist,
designer, and
author who urged a return to rural places and values rather than
embracing
industrialization.
Mowat, Farley (1921– ): Widely read Canadian author of many
nature
books.
Muir, John (1838–1914): US wilderness advocate, writer,
founding presi-
dent of the Sierra Club.
Naess, Arne (1912–2009): Norwegian philosopher, founder of
Deep Ecology.

42. Pinchot, Gifford (1865–1946): Influential forester and the
founding head of
the US Forest Service.
Potter, Beatrix (1866–1943): British author of children’s books
featuring
animals that dressed and acted like humans, starting with The
Tale of Peter
Rabbit.
Redford, Robert (1936– ): US actor, entrepreneur, outdoor
enthusiast,
conservationist.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1712–1778): Swiss-born French writer
and philoso-
pher, perhaps the leading Romantic celebrant of nature of the
eighteenth
century.
Schumacher, E.F. (1911–1977): British economist, author of
Small is
Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered, a highly influential
book published
in 1973 whose thesis is in its title.
Who’s who xv
Seton, Ernest Thompson (1860–1946): Born in England to
Scottish parents
who soon moved to Canada, he moved to the US as an adult and
was a
widely read naturalist and observer of animals.

43. Sewell, Anna (1820–1878): English writer whose sole novel,
Black Beauty,
appeared in 1877 and stimulated a great deal of sympathy for
the plight of
horses.
Singer, Peter (1946– ): Australian philosopher and leading
intellectual of the
animal-rights movement.
Snyder, Gary (1930– ): US poet, radical environmentalist,
leading propo-
nent of bioregionalism.
Tansley, Arthur George (1871–1955): English botanist and
ecologist
who pointed out that communities of plants did not necessarily
evolve in
predictable or stable ways.
Thoreau, Henry David (1817–1862): US transcendentalist,
nature advo-
cate, author of Walden.
Tolkien, J.R.R. (1892–1973): English scholar of literature but
much better
known as author of the wildly popular Lord of the Rings, a
series of novels set
in the fictional past and celebrating nature.
Turner, J.M.W. (1775–1851): Perhaps the leading landscape
painter of
England during the nineteenth century whose work strongly
reflected
Romanticism.

44. Wordsworth, William (1770–1850): English Romantic poet and
champion
of hiking, nature loving.
xvi ENVIRONMENTALISM
Glossary
Animal Liberation Animal-rights movements date back to the
early
nineteenth century. More radical groups formed in the later
decades of the
twentieth century, such as the Animal Liberation Front. These
groups have
both advocated more extreme forms of animal rights, such as
vegetarianism,
and have protested medical research and other forms of animal
cruelty.
Anthropomorphism The practice of imputing human
characteristics and
motives to non-humans. The thickly-drawn line between humans
and
animals began to blur with the spread of pet ownership in
eighteenth-century
Europe, and by the turn of the twentieth century wild animals
who spoke,
wore clothes, and formed human-like families were common in
children’s
and adult literature alike. Though modern ecologists are critical
of anthro-
pomorphism, the belief that animals are essentially people
continues to

45. shape western culture and inspire environmental movements.
Audubon Society This US organization formed in 1905 and led
the fight
against killing birds for their ornamental plumage. In recent
decades it has
become one of America’s largest organizations devoted to
preserving wildlife
habitat, and it has also fostered the hobby of birdwatching.
Bambi This Disney animated movie, based on Sigmund
Salzmann’s novel of
the same name, appeared in 1942. Its protagonist is a young
deer, and it pits
the creatures of the forest against evil hunters.
Boy Scouts Founded by Robert Baden Powell in 1907, the
scouting movement
quickly spread across the western world. It combined military
organization
with outdoor life. It targeted growing numbers of middle-class
boys who would
otherwise have little experience with camping and other aspects
of rural life.
Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament This organization appeared
in 1958 in
Great Britain and spread quickly. Members engaged in many
demonstrations
and lobbying efforts before the organization declined in the
1960s. It became
popular again early in the 1980s.
Chernobyl The 1986 accident at this Ukrainian (then part of the

46. Soviet
Union) nuclear power plant was the most serious in the history
of the world
and provoked widespread concern and protests inside and
outside the
Soviet Union.
Club of Rome This international think tank formed in 1968 to
consider
global political issues. Its most influential publication was
Limits to Growth,
which appeared in 1972 and argued for a widespread
commitment to sus-
tainability rather than continued growth so that the earth could
restore its
environmental equilibrium.
Conservation This broad term became common in the nineteenth
century as
western nations sought to use natural resources such as timber
and water
more wisely and rationally.
Counter-culture The counter-culture blossomed in the mid-
1960s, as
growing numbers of young people rejected the verities of
growth and con-
formity that had long resided at the centre of western
civilization. Although
nurturing radical political movements attacking capitalism,
imperialism,
and racism, the counter-cultural movement was often amorphous
and
more focused on altering people’s consciousnesses than
political structures.
Affinity for nature resided at the heart of the counter-cultural

47. movement and
was expressed symbolically – through having long hair, for
example.
Deep Ecology Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess coined this
term early in
the 1970s. Deep Ecologists argue that humans must be
understood as part
of, rather than separate from, the rest of nature. Deep Ecology
implies and
argues that conventional environmental movements and
philosophies are
shallow by comparison inasmuch as they accept western
civilization’s dualistic
assumption of a human/nature divide and therefore cannot get at
the roots
of why modern humans exploit the nonhuman world.
Earth Day Conceived as a national ‘teach-in’ on the
environment, Earth Day
drew approximately 20 million people – mostly students –
across the US on
April 22, 1970. Probably the biggest demonstration of its very
eventful era,
it was much more celebratory and less shrill than protests
having to do with
war or racism. Subsequent American Earth Day celebrations
were smaller but
spread to other countries.
Earth First! This radical environmental organization emerged in
the 1980s
and quickly spread across much of the western world. Its
members often
participated in creative demonstrations to preserve wilderness
and reduce

48. humanity’s footprint.
Ecofeminism This movement emerged in the 1970s as part of
the growing
radical environmentalist impulse. As its name implies, it
combines feminism
xviii ENVIRONMENTALISM
and environmentalism. Like so-called ‘cultural feminists,’
ecofeminists argue
that women’s biological and psychological processes make them
uniquely
close to nature and that misogyny and hatred of nature share a
common,
masculine root, namely western civilization’s mania for
domination of the
natural and the feminine.
Ecology This scientific field of study arose early in the
twentieth century
and emphasized the relationship between elements of an
environment that
had been studied or approached discretely. Ecologists
understood forests, for
example, as a complex organism whose various parts – plants,
mammals,
insects, soils, bacteria – acted in concert with and relation to
each other.
Many environmentalists since the 1960s have embraced
varieties of ecolog-
ical thought.
Ecotourism This movement emerged in the 1970s and expressed

49. the desires
of many western peoples to enjoy exotic travel in an
environmentally respon-
sible manner. In its pure form, ecotourism is environmentally
and socially
sustainable, respectful of both the integrity of local ecosystems
and busi-
nesses. In practice, any form of tourism ordinarily creates a
great deal of
pollution, and businesses have commonly claimed the
ecotourism label
without substantially altering their practices.
Enlightenment This multi-faceted intellectual and cultural
movement
swept across much of Europe in the eighteenth century.
Proponents of the
Enlightenment shared optimism over human capacity to master
and mani-
pulate the non-human environment.
Federation of Rambling Clubs This organization of groups
concerned with
preserving people’s access to the British countryside formed in
1905, an
effort that had begun nearly a century before. Many Britons
believed that
they should have a right to hike across private property.
Forestry This term refers to the scientific and systematic
management of
forests that emerged in Germany in the eighteenth century and
spread across
the western world. It was at first concerned primarily with the
rational use
of timber and later with maintaining forests to prevent flooding

50. and erosion
and, more recently, as part of sustaining healthy ecosystems.
Friends of the Earth This organization began in the US in the
1970s before
spreading across the globe to become one of the world’s most
influential
environmental groups. By 2002 Friends of the Earth had a total
of 5,000
local groups in 68 countries. Friends of the Earth addressed a
multiplicity of
issues, many of them highly controversial: nuclear power, acid
rain, trapping
fur-bearing animals, toxic waste, over-packaging, and much
more.
Glossary xix
Global warming Scientists had long hypothesized that
industrialization,
through the production of CO2, could lead to global warming by
trapping
warm air in the earth’s atmosphere. The theory gained traction
from
scientists and then from a growing proportion of the public and
politicians
late in the twentieth century. By the 1980s scientists and
policymakers alike
commonly identified global warming as the most serious
environmental
problem confronting the planet.
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Australians created this park in
1975 to

51. protect the world’s largest reef. The reef had by then become a
very popular
tourist destination.
Greenpeace This radical group emerged in 1969 in Canada and
soon flour-
ished across the western world. It combined both large numbers
of members
and contributors and a dedicated corps of activists who engaged
in creative
and highly publicized protests against such activities as nuclear
testing,
whaling, and pollution.
Kyoto Protocol The plan resulting from the United Nations’
conference in
Japan in 1997 which focused on halting climate change. Nearly
all western
nations agreed to work toward limiting their emissions of
greenhouse gases.
Minimal-impact camping This variety of camping emerged in
the 1970s as
part of the solution to overcrowding in North America’s back
country. Hiking
and camping more carefully served to increase popular areas’
carrying cap-
acities, allowing more people to enjoy them without degrading
the environ-
ment. Low-impact camping entailed using established camping
areas, not
using wood for fuel, and carefully disposing of all waste
products.
National Trust Founded in 1895 by prominent philanthropists,
this soon

52. became the leading organization devoted to preserving natural
and historical
landscapes in Great Britain. It has focused on landscapes
heavily shaped by
humans and on buildings and remained strong and influential at
the turn of
the twenty-first century.
Nationalism This movement emphasized pride of country,
including its
natural features, and emerged across the western world in the
nineteenth
century. It often led to the preservation of places and species
deemed intrinsic
to a nation’s identity.
Parks Parks in areas considered wild became common in the
United States,
Canada, and Australia during the late nineteenth and early
twentieth
centuries and soon spread to Europe.
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) Founded
by Ingrid Newkirk
in the US, PETA had become perhaps the most successful
environmental
xx ENVIRONMENTALISM
organization in the world by the turn of the twenty-first century.
PETA’s
well-developed websites attack pet stores that take insufficient
care of their
animals, animal experimentation, circuses, factory farms, the

53. fur industry,
and fishing, among other activities. PETA blends idealism and
pragmatism.
Its leaders advocate and practise veganism, a form of
vegetarianism that
abjures the eating or use of any animal product, but they also
work to
improve the conditions under which animals such as chickens
and cattle
are raised and slaughtered.
Preservation This broad term emerged late in the nineteenth
century as
growing numbers of people in the western world advocated
setting aside and
protecting lands considered particularly scenic.
Recycling Re-manufacturing material such as paper, metal, and
plastic. It
became common during the 1970s and soon became one of the
most widely
practised forms of conservation, particularly in Europe.
Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit This 1992 United Nations’
conference on the
environment was the largest to date, with 17,000 attendees and
representa-
tives from 172 governments. It explored interrelated problems
of world
poverty, development, pollution, and climate change. The
government rep-
resentatives agreed to join in a global partnership of sustainable
development
and pledged to reduce greenhouse gases, an agreement that was
refined five
years later, at Kyoto, Japan.

54. Romanticism Romanticism emerged from the eighteenth century
Enlightenment
and acted as a counterweight to its more scientific, rational
aspects. Proponents
of Romanticism emphasized the importance of emotion, of
feeling, and
Romantic poets, painters, composers and philosophers
commonly turned to
nature for inspiration and material.
Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
(RSPCA) Founded
in 1824 in London, this organization quickly gained the backing
of influential
people, and in 1840 Queen Victoria allowed it to include
‘Royal’ in its title.
For several decades the society focused on encouraging the
enforcement of
legislation penalizing the abuse of working animals. Later in the
nineteenth
century the RSPCA paid increasing attention to the abuse of
pets and sport-
ing or fighting animals. It spread to much of the British Empire.
Sea Birds Preservation Act This piece of 1869 British
legislation was a land-
mark in the movement toward protecting selected species of
birds.
Sierra Club Founded in 1892 and headed for many years by
John Muir,
the Sierra Club was for many decades the principal advocate of
large parks
and wilderness preservation in the US. It emerged as a potent
political

55. force in the 1960s before being joined by and in some respects
eclipsed by
Glossary xxi
more radical movements. But it remains a strong political force
with a large
membership.
Smoke abatement Concern over air pollution in England grew
along with
industrialization. Strong, effective measures to improve urban
air quality did
not appear until the 1950s, however.
Student movement The student movement emerged across the
western
world in the 1960s on burgeoning university and college
campuses. It soon
focused on broad issues such as war, imperialism and
environmentalism.
The protection of nature implied a critique of both the older
generation and
the status quo. The student movement faded in the 1970s,
though campuses
would remain a fertile ground for groups concerned with social
and environ-
mental reform.
Suburbanization Suburbs began to ring England’s cities in the
first half of the
nineteenth century as improved forms of transit allowed more
and more
prosperous families to live farther away from where they

56. worked and
shopped. This process accelerated with the invention of electric
trolley cars
and of course privately-owned automobiles, and by the 1950s
more people
lived around than inside many large cities of the western world.
Suburban
developments appealed to families who desired to live closer to
nature and
often featured extensive plantings of trees and shrubs and other
landscape
features deemed natural.
Sustainable development This term became popular late in the
1980s and
implied a compromise or rapprochement between economic
development
and environmental protection.
Woodcraft Movement This broad movement emerged in Britain,
…