Computer Applications and its use in Dentistry.pptx

ComputerApplications
anditsuseinDentistry
Presented by- Dr. Ritu Randad
Second Year MDS
08/March/2020 1

Contents in the presentation
◦ Introduction about computer.
◦ History of computers
◦ How does computer work?
◦ Parts of computers
◦ Characteristics of computer
◦ Advantages and disadvantages
2

3
◦ Various applications in computer
◦ Use of application in dentistry
◦ Conclusion
◦ References

Introduction..
◦ Being a modern-day person we must know about computers. This is because they
are an integral part of our everyday existence. Be it school, banks, shops, railway
stations or hospitals, computers are present everywhere, making our work easier
and faster for us. As they are such integral parts of our lives, we must know what
they are and how they function.
4

◦ Today we are living in the world of computers ,when the first real computer has
been invented our life has changed so much that we can call it real digital
revolution. The first well-known computer in the world was ENIAC, the Electronic
Numerical Integrator And Calculator.
◦ ENIAC took up an entire room, generated quite a bit of heat, and did much less
work than a standard PC or laptop of today. Still, for its time, it was a huge leap
forward. Computers progressed from punch-card programming to actual written
programs with commands built in.
5
Brathwait, Richard, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911, 11th edition, Cambridge
University Press.

◦ Computer is an electronic device that can calculate. However, modern computers
can do a lot more than just calculate. Computer is an electronic device that
receives input, stores or processes the input as per user instructions and provides
output in desired format.
◦ A computer is a machine that can be instructed to carry out sequences
of arithmetic or logical operations automatically via computer programming.
6

Computers are used as control systems for a
wide variety of industrial and consumer devices.
This includes simple special purpose devices
like microwave ovens and remote controls,
factory devices such as industrial
robots and computer-aided design, also
general-purpose devices like personal
computers and mobile devices such
as smartphones.
7
Brathwait, Richard, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911, 11th
edition, Cambridge University Press.

Modern computers have the ability to follow generalized sets of operations,
called programs. These programs enable computers to perform an extremely wide range
of tasks.
 A "complete" computer including the hardware, the operating system (main software),
and peripheral equipment required and used for "full" operation can be referred to as
a computer system.
This term may as well be used for a group of computers that are connected and work
together, in particular a computer network or computer cluster.
8
Brathwait, Richard, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911, 11th edition, Cambridge University Press.

9
◦ According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first known use of the word "computer" was in
1613 in a book called The Yong Mans Gleanings by English writer Richard Braithwait.
◦ This usage of the term referred to a human computer, a person who carried out calculations or
computations. The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century.
During the latter part of this period women were often hired as computers because they could be
paid less than their male counterparts.
◦ By 1943, most human computers were women.
Brathwait, Richard, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911, 11th edition, Cambridge University
Press.

◦ The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of "computer" in the 1640s, meaning
"one who calculates"; this is an "agent noun from compute".
◦ The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean "'calculating machine' (of
any type) is from 1897." The Online Etymology Dictionary indicates that the "modern use" of the
term, to mean "programmable digital electronic computer" dates from "1945 under this name.
10
Brathwait, Richard, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911, 11th edition, Cambridge University
Press.

History of computers..
1. Pre – 20th century: Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-
one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick.
The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog "computer", according to Derek J.
de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions.
◦ The sector, a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, trigonometry, multiplication
and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots, was developed in the late 16th
century
◦ The planimeter was a manual instrument to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing over it with a
mechanical linkage.
11
Michael Mahoney, The History of Computing in the History of Technology Annals of the History of Computers, Volume: 10 , Issue: 2 , April-
June 1988 )

2. First computing device: Charles Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and polymath,
originated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered the "father of the
computer", he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th
century.
After working on revolutionary difference engine, designed to aid in navigational calculations,
in 1833 he realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Engine, was possible. The
input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cards.
The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, control flow in the form of conditional
branching and loops, and integrated memory, making it the first design for a general-purpose
computer.
12
Michael Mahoney, The History of Computing in the History of Technology
Annals of the History of Computers, Volume: 10 , Issue: 2 , April-June 1988 )

3. Analog computers: During the first half of the 20th century, many
scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers,
which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis
for computation. However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the
versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers.
◦ The first modern analog computer was a tide-predicting machine, invented by Sir
William Thomson in 1872.
◦ Analog computers remained in use during the 1950s in some specialized applications
such as education and aircraft.
13
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

4. Digital computers: Early digital computers were electromechanical; electric switches drove
mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These devices had a low operating speed and
were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric computers, originally using vacuum
tubes. The Z2, created by German engineer Konrad Zuse in 1939, was one of the earliest
examples of an electromechanical relay computer.
◦ In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3, the world's first working
electromechanical programmable, fully automatic digital computer.
14

◦ Mobile computers: The first mobile computers were heavy and ran from main powering supply. The
50lb IBM 5100 was an early example. Later portables such as the Osborne 1 and Compaq Portable were
considerably lighter but still needed to be plugged in.
◦ The first laptops, such as the Grid Compass, removed this requirement by incorporating batteries – and with
the continued miniaturization of computing resources and advancements in portable battery life, portable
computers grew in popularity in the 2000s. The same developments allowed manufacturers to integrate
computing resources into cellular mobile phones by the early 2000s.
15

◦ These smartphones and tablets run on a
variety of operating systems and recently
became the dominant computing device on
the market. These are powered by System on a
Chip (SoCs), which are complete computers
on a microchip the size of a coin.
16

How does computer work??
17
Computer input is called data and the output obtained after processing it, based
on user’s instructions is called information. Raw facts and figures which can be
processed using arithmetic and logical operations to obtain information are
called data.
Professor Matthieu Guitton, Computer in Human Behavior, ISSN: 0747-5632

18
The processes that can be applied to data are of two types −
•Arithmetic operations − Examples include calculations like addition, subtraction, differentials, square
root, etc.
•Logical operations − Examples include comparison operations like greater than, less than, equal to,
opposite, etc.
The corresponding figure for an actual computer looks something like this −

Parts of computer..
The basic parts of a computer are as follows −
◦ Input Unit − Devices like keyboard and mouse that are used to input data and instructions to the computer are
called input unit.
◦ Output Unit − Devices like printer and visual display unit that are used to provide information to the user in
desired format are called output unit.
◦ Control Unit − As the name suggests, this unit controls all the functions of the computer. All devices or parts
of computer interact through the control unit.
◦ Arithmetic Logic Unit − This is the brain of the computer where all arithmetic operations and logical
operations take place.
◦ Memory − All input data, instructions and data interim to the processes are stored in the memory. Memory is of
two types – primary memory and secondary memory. Primary memory resides within the CPU whereas
secondary memory is external to it.
20
Fedrick M, Basics of Computer Hardware and Software, American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy, Volume 50,
Issue 4, 1 April 1993, Pages 717–724.

◦ Control unit, arithmetic logic unit and memory are together called the central processing
unit or CPU.
◦ Computer devices like keyboard, mouse, printer, etc. that we can see, and touch are
the hardware components of a computer.
◦ The set of instructions or programs that make the computer function using these hardware parts
are called software. We cannot see or touch software. Both hardware and software are necessary
for working of a computer.
21
American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy, Volume 50, Issue 4, 1 April 1993, Pages 717–
724,

Characteristics of computer..
◦ Speed − Typically, a computer can carry out 3-4 million instructions per second.
◦ Accuracy − Computers exhibit a very high degree of accuracy. Errors that may occur are usually due to inaccurate
data, wrong instructions or bug in chips – all human errors.
◦ Reliability − Computers can carry out same type of work repeatedly without throwing up errors due to tiredness
or boredom, which are very common among humans.
22
American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy, Volume 50, Issue 4, 1 April 1993, Pages
717–724,

◦ Versatility − Computers can carry out a wide range of work from data entry and ticket booking
to complex mathematical calculations and continuous astronomical observations. Input in the
necessary data with correct instructions, computer will do the processing.
◦ Storage Capacity − Computers can store a very large amount of data at a fraction of cost of
traditional storage of files. Also, data is safe from normal wear and tear associated with paper.
23
American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy, Volume 50, Issue 4, 1 April 1993, Pages 717–
724,

Advantages and disadvantages..
Advantages
◦ Computers can do the same task repetitively
with same accuracy.
◦ Computers do not get tired or bored.
◦ Computers can take up routine tasks while
releasing human resource for more intelligent
functions.
Disadvantages
◦ Computers have no intelligence; they follow the
instructions blindly without considering the
outcome.
◦ Regular electric supply is necessary to make
computers work, which could prove difficult
everywhere especially in developing nations.
24
American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy, Volume 50, Issue 4, 1
April 1993, Pages 717–724,

Various
application
of computer
in daily life..
25
◦ Home : Computers are used at homes for
several purposes like online bill payment,
watching movies or shows at home, home
tutoring, social media access, playing games,
internet access, etc. They provide
communication through electronic mail. They
help to avail work from home facility for
corporate employees. Computers help the
student community to avail online educational
support.
Youngjin Yoo, Computing in Everyday Life: A Call for Research on
Experiential Computing June 2010 34(2):213-231

26
◦ Medical fields : Computers are used in
hospitals to maintain a database of
patients’ history, diagnosis, X-rays, live
monitoring of patients, to detect cancer ,
bony related diseases etc.
◦ Surgeons nowadays use robotic surgical
devices to perform delicate operations, and
conduct surgeries remotely. Virtual reality
technologies are also used for training
purposes. It also helps to monitor the fetus
inside the mother’s womb.

27
Education : Computers are used in education
sector through online classes, online
examinations, referring e-books, online tutoring,
etc. They help in increased use of audio-visual
aids in the education field.
Government: n government sectors, computers
are used in data processing, maintaining a
database of citizens and supporting a paperless
environment. The country’s defense
organizations have greatly benefitted from
computers in their use for missile development,
satellites, rocket launches, etc.

◦ Science and engineering :
Computers with high performance are
used to stimulate dynamic process in
Science and Engineering.
Supercomputers have numerous
applications in area of Research and
Development (R&D). Topographic
images can be created through
computers. Scientists use computers to
plot and analyze data to have a better
understanding of earthquakes.
28

◦ The various applications on computer that one can use Microsoft Word, Excel, PowerPoint, MS-
Access, Publisher etc. to create professional looking documents, charts, calculation, reports, and
presentations in high speed and accuracy.
◦ Today, Microsoft Office applications are used in according to me almost 90% official works
around the world in private and government offices. It is so much popular due to its flexible
features, easier methods to create and collaborate in official works.
29
M. Atiquazzam, Journal of Network and Computer Applications, ISSN: 1084-8045

30
◦ Microsoft Word: – To create and edit documents
such as resume, applications, and letters, school or
college assignments professionally.
◦ Microsoft Excel: – To perform daily life and
business calculation by using logical and mathematical
formulas in the spreadsheet. It’s a complete financial
management application used by millions of people
online and offline. It is very well used in data and
information analytics by using filters, conditional
formatting, and goal seek and pre-defined templates
etc.
◦ Microsoft PowerPoint: – To create presentations
using slides to present data and information in
meetings, seminars.
M. Atiquazzam, Journal of Network and Computer Applications, ISSN: 1084-
8045

◦ Microsoft Access: – You can use MS Access to create database and program to track and
manage data and information. It means you can create a database of students, a database of your
employees and customer records.
◦ Microsoft outlook- You can use Microsoft Outlook in computer and online as you use Gmail. It
is used to send and receive official and personal mail. In this, you can manage your day to day task
and save important contacts.
31
M. Atiquazzam, Journal of Network and Computer Applications, ISSN: 1084-
8045

Use of applications in dentistry..
◦ MAXILLOFACIAL RADIOLOGY : In the field of clinical medicine, a large number of
Artificial Intelligence models are being developed for automatic prediction of disease
risk, detection of abnormalities/pathologies, diagnosis of disease, and evaluation
of prognosis. Radiology is seen to offer more straightforward access for AI into
medicine due to its nature of producing digitally coded images that can be more easily
translated into computer language.
◦ In the field of dental and maxillofacial radiology (DMFR), pre-clinical studies have
been reporting on AI diagnostic models to exactly locate root canal orifices and detect
vertical root fractures and proximal dental caries with generally favorable findings.
32
Hung K, Montalvao C, Tanaka R, Kawai T, Bornstein MM. The use and performance of artificial intelligence applications in dental and
maxillofacial radiology: A systematic review. Dentomaxillofac Radiol. 2020 Jan;49(1):20190107. doi: 10.1259/dmfr.20190107. Epub 2019
Aug 14. PMID: 31386555; PMCID: PMC6957072.

◦ Imaging modalities used in DMFR are mostly based on X-rays that are mainly used to judge
the hard tissue conditions, the majority of the AI models proposed in these studies were
developed to solve clinical issues regarding teeth and jaws. Initially, 2D images including
periapical, panoramic and cephalometric radiographs were predominately used to build
computer-aided programs for the assistance of clinical diagnosis.
◦ The four main applications of computers in Maxillofacial Radiology includes finding
automatic localization of cephalometric landmarks, diagnosis of osteoporosis (bony defects),
classification/segmentation of the maxillofacial cysts and/or tumors, and identification of
periodontitis/periapical disease.
33
Hung K, Montalvao C, Tanaka R, Kawai T, Bornstein MM. The use and performance of artificial intelligence
applications in dental and maxillofacial radiology: A systematic review. Dentomaxillofac Radiol. 2020
Jan;49(1):20190107. doi: 10.1259/dmfr.20190107. Epub 2019 Aug 14. PMID: 31386555; PMCID:
PMC6957072.

◦ ORAL IMPLANTOLOGY:- with the development of
implant techniques, medical imaging has been modernized
with digital intraoral radiography, digital panoramic
radiography, X-ray computed tomography (CT), and the
wider application of cone-beam computed tomography
(CBCT) . Imaging is of fundamental relevance, not only for
the planning and realization of dental implant projects, but
also for implant monitoring .
◦ One of the aims of such monitoring is to characterize and
understand the etiology of implant loss to improve its
treatment.
◦ The digital data helps in showing normal osteointegration
presents metabolic activity similar to that of the
surrounding healthy bone and periodontium.
34
Benouaich V, Hitzel A, Armand S. Relevance of functional imaging in dental implantology. J Clin Exp Dent. 2018 Oct
1;10(10):e1011-e1016. doi: 10.4317/jced.54816. PMID: 30386508; PMCID: PMC6203899.

◦ ORTHODONTICS:- Orthodontic records are one of the main
milestones in orthodontic therapy. Therefore, Records are essential
not only for diagnosis and treatment planning but also for follow-up
of the case, communicating with colleagues, and evaluating the
treatment outcomes.
◦ 3D imaging provided more detailed and realistic diagnostic
information about the craniofacial hard as well as soft tissue and
allowed to perform easier, faster, and more reliable 3D analyses.
◦ First, most of 3D imaging systems are non-invasive, and, therefore,
repeat of images are not of ethical matter. Second, all images may
also be stored in digital forms, consequently archiving is much
more practical, and extra space need for storage is handled in this
way. The development of software programs enables to precisely
and reliably analyze the 3D data. Furthermore, thanks to
opportunities such as zooming and rotation function, software
programs are really user-friendly.
35
Erten O, Yılmaz BN. Three-Dimensional Imaging in Orthodontics. Turk J Orthod. 2018
Sep;31(3):86-94. doi: 10.5152/TurkJOrthod.2018.17041. Epub 2018 Apr 11. PMID: 30206567;
PMCID: PMC6124883.

◦ Video Camera (4D Imaging and Video Stereophotogrammetry)
◦ To evaluate the facial morphology either two- or three-dimensionally.
However, the human face is a dynamic structure especially the nose, lip, and
mouth areas. The newest method is 4D video capturing, which can record
dynamic movements of the human face and enable to analyze the dynamics of
facial expressions. Several studies used 4D imaging in patients with Dental
crown lengthening procedures and orthognathic surgery to demonstrate
asymmetry while making facial expressions, and differences in facial motion
between individuals with and without CLP were evaluated. With these new
technologies, new attempts have been performed to create virtual patients by
superimposing facial skeleton, soft tissue, and/or dentition.
36
Erten O, Yılmaz BN. Three-Dimensional Imaging in Orthodontics. Turk J Orthod. 2018 Sep;31(3):86-94. doi:
10.5152/TurkJOrthod.2018.17041. Epub 2018 Apr 11. PMID: 30206567; PMCID: PMC6124883.

◦ FORENSIC DENTISTRY: Digital forensics could be defined as “application of computer
science and investigative procedures for a legal purpose involving the analysis of digital
evidence.” Due to software advancements and uncovering of root cause, the application of
digital forensic investigations is increasingly becoming more common, especially in mass
disasters such as terrorism, aviation, tsunamis, and earthquake. Besides this, dental radiographs
play an integral role in identification and age estimation by comparison of antemortem (AM)
with postmortem (PM) data after tentative identification of suspect.
◦ Digital radiographs have considerably reduced the errors in interpretation or incorrect
identification as with conventional radiographs.
37
Nagi R, Aravinda K, Rakesh N, Jain S, Kaur N, Mann AK. Digitization in forensic odontology: A paradigm
shift in forensic investigations. J Forensic Dent Sci. 2019 Jan-Apr;11(1):5-10. doi: 10.4103/jfo.jfds_55_19.
PMID: 31680749; PMCID: PMC6822309.

◦ Digital dental chart (DCC), a new style of dental chart, has been introduced that is constructed
using actual oral digital images and dental data, easy to upload on the internet website. It
provides a large volume of information and reproduces dental conditions very clearly in detail on
a cost-effective basis. Preserved digital evidence plays pivotal role in-person identification,
especially in disaster victim identification (DVI) in which number of victims are large, bodies
are disfigured or mutilated beyond recognition, and dental tissues are only available source for
victim identification. It is a multidisciplinary process in which numerous people of different
nationalities work together to collate information.
38
Nagi R, Aravinda K, Rakesh N, Jain S, Kaur N, Mann AK. Digitization in forensic odontology: A paradigm shift in forensic
investigations. J Forensic Dent Sci. 2019 Jan-Apr;11(1):5-10. doi: 10.4103/jfo.jfds_55_19. PMID: 31680749; PMCID: PMC6822309.

◦ DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY : Photography is the best method to collect and preserve evidence in
forensic cases, especially in the cases of human abuse and bite mark analysis. The accurate photographic
documentation of the injury is crucial as these provide a permanent record of injury to the victims, and
comparative analysis of the suspect's dentition to the bite depends on the exact capture of bite mark injury
of the victim. The cameras capture the image that is digitized by the sensor within the camera and
converted into computerized image file. Images are then transferred to the computer, on which they are
displayed, edited, e-mailed, or printed as desired. The digital photographic system allows quick
recording, exact duplication of images, and immediate retakes could be made if required. Digital images
are two types as follows: (i) bitmapped images and (ii) vector-based images produced in “pain in draw”
or “illustration” programs that mainly focus on manipulation or enhancement of images.
◦ Computerized images are more reliable, accurate with fewer errors and could not be manipulated by the
third person. These technologies are very helpful in DVI in which innumerable bodies are severely
mutilated and allow digital transfer of the images without loss of information.
39
Nagi R, Aravinda K, Rakesh N, Jain S, Kaur N, Mann AK. Digitization in forensic odontology: A paradigm shift in forensic investigations.
J Forensic Dent Sci. 2019 Jan-Apr;11(1):5-10. doi: 10.4103/jfo.jfds_55_19. PMID: 31680749; PMCID: PMC6822309.

◦ DISEASE SERVEILLANCE: Epidemiological investigations of early childhood oral health rely
upon the collection of high-quality clinical measures of health and disease. However, ascertainment
of valid and accurate clinical measures presents unique challenges among young, preschool-age
children.
◦ Clinical research protocol for the conduct of oral epidemiological examinations and surveillance
among children, implemented in ZOE 2.0, a large-scale population-based genetic epidemiologic
study of early childhood caries (ECC). The protocol was developed for the collection of information
on tooth surface-level dental caries experience and tooth-level developmental defects of the enamel
in the primary dentition. Dental caries experience is recorded using visual criteria modified from the
International Caries Detection and Assessment System (ICDAS), and measurement of
developmental defects.
40
Ginnis J, Ferreira Zandoná AG, Slade GD, Cantrell J, Antonio ME, Pahel BT, Meyer BD, Shrestha P, Simancas-Pallares MA, Joshi AR,
Divaris K. Measurement of Early Childhood Oral Health for Research Purposes: Dental Caries Experience and Developmental Defects of
the Enamel in the Primary Dentition. Methods Mol Biol. 2019;1922:511-523. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9012-2_39. PMID: 30838597;
PMCID: PMC6642073.
Use of computers in Public Health Dentistry

◦ After a dental prophylaxis children’s teeth are examined by trained and calibrated examiners in
community locations, using portable dental equipment, compressed air, and uniform artificial
light and magnification conditions. Data are entered directly onto a computer using a custom
Microsoft Access-based data entry application. The ZOE 2.0 clinical protocol has been
implemented successfully for the conduct of over 6000 research examinations to date,
contributing phenotype data to downstream genomics and other, using Microsoft Access-based,
custom-written data entry application (DEA).
41
Ginnis J, Ferreira Zandoná AG, Slade GD, Cantrell J, Antonio ME, Pahel BT, Meyer BD, Shrestha P, Simancas-Pallares MA, Joshi AR, Divaris
K. Measurement of Early Childhood Oral Health for Research Purposes: Dental Caries Experience and Developmental Defects of the Enamel
in the Primary Dentition. Methods Mol Biol. 2019;1922:511-523. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9012-2_39. PMID: 30838597; PMCID:
PMC6642073.

◦ Spatial epidemiology:- is a subfield of epidemiology focused on the study of
the spatial distribution of health outcomes; it is closely related to health geography.
◦ Specifically, spatial epidemiology is concerned with the description and examination of disease
and its geographic variations. This is done in consideration of “demographic, environmental,
behavioral, socioeconomic, genetic, and infections risk factors."
◦ the landscape of infectious disease visualization tools for public health professionals, with a
special emphasis on geographic information systems (GIS), molecular epidemiology, and
social network analysis. The objectives are to: (1) identify public health user needs and
preferences for infectious disease information visualization tools; (2) identify existing
infectious disease information visualization tools and characterize their architecture and
features; (3) identify commonalities among approaches applied to different data types; and (4)
describe tool usability evaluation efforts and barriers to the adoption of such tools.
42
Carroll LN, Au AP, Detwiler LT, Fu TC, Painter IS, Abernethy NF. Visualization and analytics tools for infectious disease
epidemiology: a systematic review. J Biomed Inform. 2014 Oct;51:287-98. doi: 10.1016/j.jbi.2014.04.006. Epub 2014 Apr 16. PMID:
24747356; PMCID: PMC5734643.

43
Disease Mapping:
•Disease mapping are visual representations of intricate geographic data that provides a
quick overview of said information. Mainly used for explanatory purposes, disease maps can
be presented to survey high-risk areas and to help policy and resource allocation in said
areas.
Geographic correlation studies:
•Geographic correlation studies attempt to study the geographical factors and their effects
on geographically differentiated health outcomes. Measured on an ecologic scale, these
factors include environmental variables (quality of surrounding space), socioeconomic and
demographic statistics (income and race), or even lifestyle choices (nutrition or diet) of the
population groups under study. This approach has the convenience of being able to employ
already available data from various surveying sources.
Prof Gerardo Chowell, Spatial epidemiology and infectious diseases, BMC, Part of Springer Nature.

Clustering, disease clusters.
Disease clusters, or spatial groupings of proximity and characteristically related
epidemics. While the term itself is relatively poorly defined, it generally “implies an excess
of cases above some background rate bounded in time and space.” Although clustering is
not the most precise method for spatial analysis, it can and has proved useful for health-
related surveillance and monitoring.
Because the statistical models used to draw up such research are complex, the data
analysis and the interpretation of results should be carried out by qualified statisticians.
Sometimes, the proliferation of errors in disease mapping has led to inefficient decision-
making, implementation of inappropriate health policies and negative impact on the
advancement of scientific knowledge.
44
Prof Gerardo Chowell, Spatial epidemiology and infectious diseases, BMC, Part of
Springer Nature.

◦ LEARNING MODULES: Pedagogical planning, and training including identification of
objectives, exploration of the degree of difficulty of caries diagnosis, periodontal disease
diagnosis–associated topics perceived by dental students and lecturers, review of the literature
regarding key concepts, and consultation of experts, is being performed using the model on 3D
platform.
◦ An educational script strategy was created based on the topics to be addressed (dental tissues,
biofilm stagnation areas, the demineralization process, caries lesion progression on occlusal
surfaces, clinical characteristics related to different stages of caries progression, and
histological correlations). Virtual 3D models were developed using the Virtual Man Project and
refined using multiple 3D software applications.
45
Lara JS, Braga MM, Zagatto CG, Wen CL, Mendes FM, Murisi PU, Haddad AE. A Virtual 3D Dynamic Model of Caries Lesion
Progression as a Learning Object for Caries Detection Training and Teaching: Video Development Study. JMIR Med Educ. 2020 May
22;6(1):e14140. doi: 10.2196/14140. PMID: 32441661; PMCID: PMC7275258.

Conclusion
◦ To summarize the importance of computers Milton H. Aronson cited from 1984 October issue
of Bioengineering ,”A professional work in any field today faces a danger of obsolescence within
his profession unless he understands the principles, practice and limitations of computers”. The
computer is not “brain ” and “smart”. It is simply obedient servant.
46

Name of the article Level of evidence Results Conclusion
Javaid M, Haleem A, Singh RP,
Suman R. Dentistry 4.0
technologies applications for
dentistry during COVID-19
pandemic. Sustainable
Operations and Computers.
3a globally there is the onset of
the fourth dentistry
revolution, and we understand
that this will change the trend
of dentistry during and post-
COVID-19 Pandemic.
Dentistry 4.0 technologies are
helpful during the COVID-19
pandemic to create
teledentistry, virtual clinical
practice and connect all dental
devices to improve health
conditions
progress towards the
integrated capabilities, patient-
centric remedies with
predicted results in an easier
way than the traditional way
of the health care industry.
47

References..
◦ Brathwait, Richard, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911, 11th edition, Cambridge University Press.
◦ Michael Mahoney, The History of Computing in the History of Technology Annals of the History of
Computers, Volume: 10 , Issue: 2 , April-June 1988 )
◦ American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy, Volume 50, Issue 4, 1 April 1993, Pages 717–724,
◦ Professor Matthieu Guitton, Computer in Human Behavior, ISSN: 0747-5632
◦ Youngjin Yoo, Computing in Everyday Life: A Call for Research on Experiential Computing June
2010 34(2):213-231
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