BurkleyFirst edition Chapter 3Psychological Origins of M.docx

Burkley
First edition
Chapter 3
Psychological Origins of Motivation
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
1
Learning Objectives (1 of 1)
3.1 Evaluate will as a psychological origin of motivation
3.1.1 Explain James's contribution to the study of will
3.1.2 Evaluate the contributions of Ludwig Lange and Narziss
Ach to the study of will
3.2 Analyze how the concept of instinct played a role in the
understanding of motivation
3.2.1 Explain Darwin's contribution to the study of instinct
3.2.2 Explain James' contribution to the study of instinct
3.2.3 Explain McDougall's contribution to the study of instinct
3.2.4 Describe alternate perspectives of instinct
3.2.5 Explain why instincts declined as an underlying concept
of motivation
Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements
2

3.3 Analyze the aspects of the concept of drive as it relates to
motivation
3.3.1 Summarize Freud's contribution to the concept of drive
3.3.2 Describe Hull's contribution to the concept of drive
3.3.3 Contrast instinct and drive as they relate to motivation
3.4 Contrast the psychological theories of personality
differences in motivation
3.5 Explain the role incentives play in regard to motivation
3.5.1 Describe Tolman's contribution to the concept of
incentives
3.6 Evaluate how thoughts or cognitions play a central role in
explaining behavior
3.6.1 Analyze the cognitive revolution in motivation
3.7 Analyze the causes that have popularized motivation
science
3.7.1 Describe motivation in the modern era
3
Introduction: Psychological Origins of Motivation
Key questions to be answered
Will
Instinct
Drive
Incentives
Cognition
The Fall and Rise of Motivation Science

Early theories on motivation examined will, which is the ability
of an agent to make choices free from constraints. A variety of
theorists examined will in a variety of settings.
Determinism states that some predetermined cause determines
all things, and that instincts are one form of determinism.
Other theorists argued that people (and animals) are motivated
by drive, which is a form of arousal that arises when a need is
deprived.
Incentives stemmed from behaviorism, which examined
incentives and learning.
In the 1970s, cognition changed the way we understand
motivation, removing it from other paradigms.
As with other disciplines, motivation has experienced rises and
falls. Currently, there is an increased interest in motivation.
4
3.1: Will (1 of 2)
3.1: Evaluate will as a psychological origin of motivation
What is “will”?
Make choices free from constraint
Plato’s chariot rider
How did will emerge in the field?
Focus on internal control
Focus on resisting temptation
Wilhelm Wundt
3.1.1: James's Contributions to the Study of Will
3.1.1: Explain James's contribution to the study of will
What was James’s contribution to the study of will?
Founder of psychology
Deliberate vs. decisive
Will vs. effort
Volition vs. nolition

3.1: Evaluate will as a psychological origin of motivation
Point 1 – What is “will”?
Will is sometimes known as willpower or free will.
Point 2 – How did will emerge in the field?
In the late 1800s, the Victorians were searching for secular
reasons to retain morality and social order. Samuel Smiles
wrote Self-Help in 1859.
Victorians were obsessed with guarding themselves from
temptation, especially sexual and hedonistic ones. The
temperance movement emerged during this time.
Wundt believed that involuntary actions always start out first as
voluntary actions that require a great deal of will.
3.1.1: James's Contributions to the Study of Will
3.1.1: Explain James's contribution to the study of will
Point 1 – What was James’s contribution to the study of will?
James called automatic responses ideo-motor action. However,
many times we make a conscious decision to pursue a course of
action, and this involves will. Volitional acts begin with a
deliberative step, followed by the decisive step.
To keep an effort sustained, we must continually hold our goal
in mind and not let it fade.
He argued that there are two types of will: impulsions
(volitions) and inhibitions (nolitions). Too much volition is
explosive will, and too much nolition is obstructed will. What
are some examples of these different behaviors?
5

3.1: Will (2 of 2)
3.1.2: Contributions of Other Pioneers
3.1.2: Evaluate the contributions of Ludwig Lange and Narziss
What was Lange’s contribution to the study of will?
Experimental study of motivation
What was Ach’s contribution to the study of will?
Experimental study of will
Associative equivalent
Hillgruber—difficulty law of motivation
The decline of will
Effect of World War I
Progressive Movement
Desire for biological constructs
3.1.2: Contributions of Other Pioneers
3.1.2: Evaluate the contributions of Ludwig Lange and Narziss
Point 1 – What was Lange’s contribution to the study of will?
Lange was the first to officially conduct the first experiment of
motivation, using a “control hammer” to measure the time when
people responded to a stimulus.
Point 2 – What was Ach’s contribution to the study of will?
Ach required participants to memorize nonsensical pairs of
syllables and asked them to override habits with new pairings.
To complete the second task successfully, the strength of one’s
will had to be stronger than the strength of habit, known as
“associative equivalent.”
Hillgruber was a student of Ach who established the difficulty
law of motivation, which states that increasing task difficulty

automatically increase the amount of effort an individual will
devote to the task.
Point 3 – The decline of will
After World War I, the idea of will began to disappear from
discourse, except in Germany, where it was strongly associated
with the Nazis.
The Progressive Movement involved people focusing more on
their external environment and not their inner will.
Scientists also found will difficult to define and measure. They
moved to instinct instead.
6
3.2: Instinct (1 of 3)
3.2: Analyze how the concept of instinct played a role in the
What is instinct?
Animal urges
Determinism
3.2.1: Darwin’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct
3.2.1: Explain Darwin's contribution to the study of instinct
Charles Darwin and instinct
Natural selection
Power of external environment
3.2.2: James’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct
3.2.2: Explain James' contribution to the study of instinct
William James’s contribution to the study of instinct
“The faculty of acting in such a way as to produce certain ends,
without foresight of the ends, and without previous education in
the performance.”
List of instincts

3.2: Analyze how the concept of instinct played a role in the
Point 1 – What is instinct?
Early philosophers were intrigued by the idea of instinct and its
influence on behavior.
Instincts represent one form of determinism in the sense that
they represent an innate predisposition to approach or avoid a
particular outcome.
3.2.1: Darwin’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct
3.2.1: Explain Darwin's contribution to the study of instinct
Point 1 – Charles Darwin and instinct
The criterion necessary for the existence of extinction of a
species is whether it promotes survival.
Darwin’s ideas caused motivation researcher to focus on the
power of external environments in shaping behavior, instead of
internal factors such as intelligence and will. His ideas placed
motivation out of philosophy and into biology.
3.2.2: James’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct
3.2.2: Explain James' contribution to the study of instinct
Point 1 – William James’s contribution to the study of instinct
James included instincts for rivalry, hunting, fear, and play.
James argued that instinct was among many other motivational
forces.
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3.2.3: McDougall’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct

3.2.3: Explain McDougall's contribution to the study of instinct
William McDougall’s contribution to the study of instinct
18 instinct “propensities”
Cognitions
Behavior
Emotions
3.2.4: Alternative Perspectives of Instinct
3.2.4: Describe alternate perspectives of instinct
What are the alternative perspectives of instinct?
Reflexes
Emotional, purposive (teleological)
3.2.3: McDougall’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct
3.2.3: Explain McDougall's contribution to the study of instinct
Point 1 – William McDougall’s contribution to the study of
instinct
McDougall believed instinct was the only motivational force
responsible for human behavior.
He argued that instincts affect cognitions by selectively
focusing our attention toward particular objects.
He believed that instincts influence our behavior by providing
energy and direction for our actions.
He also believed that instincts are intricately tied to emotions,
and that the emotional component was the core of instinct.
3.2.4: Alternative Perspectives of Instinct
3.2.4: Describe alternate perspectives of instinct
Point 1 – What are the alternative perspectives of instinct?
Some theorists argued that instincts were almost identical to

reflexes, especially when referring to animal reflexes.
Other theorists (including McDougall) thought that certain cues
in the environment elicit an instinct, and this elicits an emotion
that turns to action.
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3.2.5: The Decline of Instincts
3.2.5: Explain why instincts declined as an underlying concept
of motivation
The decline of instincts
Lack of clear criteria
Contradictions between instincts
Circular logic used to identify instincts
3.2.5: The Decline of Instincts
3.2.5: Explain why instincts declined as an underlying concept
of motivation
Point 1 – The decline of instincts
Why did the popularity of instincts lead to their downfall? What
other factors contributed to it?
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3.3: Drive (1 of 3)
3.3: Analyze the aspects of the concept of drive as it relates to
motivation
What is drive?
A form of arousal or energy when a biological need is deprived
Assumed to aversive
Primary reinforcers
Qualities of drive

Initiated by need
Organisms try to reduce drive.
Every behavior is to reduce drive.
Necessary for learning
3.3: Analyze the aspects of the concept of drive as it relates to
motivation
Point 1 – What is drive?
When we are deprived of a need, then we experience drive.
Objects or events that reduce drive are primary reinforcers.
Point 2 – Qualities of drive
A mouse who is deprived of food will learn to run a maze for
food faster than a mouse who is not deprived.
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3.3: Drive (2 of 3)
3.3.1: Freud’s Contribution to Drive
3.3.1: Summarize Freud's contribution to the concept of drive
What is Freud’s contribution to drive?
Behavior is motivated to satisfy basic biological needs
Libido
Needs are never fully satisfied
Freud’s three types of drives
Sex
Death
Self-preservation
3.3.1: Freud’s Contribution to Drive

3.3.1: Summarize Freud's contribution to the concept of drive
Point 1 – What is Freud’s contribution to drive?
Libido is the internal energy generated by basic needs.
Needs never go away and will only settle down briefly before
resurfacing.
Point 2 – Freud’s three types of drives
Freud believed that the key to mental and physical health is to
satisfy the three drives on a regular basis.
How can humor help satisfy a drive?
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3.3: Drive (3 of 3)
3.3.2: Hull’s Contribution to Drive
3.3.2: Describe Hull's contribution to the concept of drive
What is Hull’s contribution to drive?
The intensity of an organism’s behavior is determined by drive
multiplied by habit.
Nonspecific arousal
Habits
3.3.3: Instinct Versus Drive
3.3.3: Contrast instinct and drive as they relate to motivation
What is the difference between instinct and drive?
Instinct is innate.
Drive has no restrictions.
Criticisms related to drive
Not all behaviors seem to derive from biological needs.
Learning occurs without drive.
3.3.2: Hull’s Contribution to Drive

3.3.2: Describe Hull's contribution to the concept of drive
Point 1 – What is Hull’s contribution to drive?
Hull believed drive was a form of nonspecific arousal, while
habits are well-learned responses that become automatically
activated by situational cues.
Why did Hull’s theory appeal to a wide range of motivational
theorists?
3.3.3: Instinct Versus Drive
3.3.3: Contrast instinct and drive as they relate to motivation
Point 1 – What is the difference between instinct and drive?
Why was drive considered to be better at explaining motivation
than instinct?
Point 2 – Criticisms related to drive
How did incentive motives, secondary reinforcers, and
functional autonomy attempt to counteract the argument that
many behaviors do not stem from biological needs?
12
3.4: Personality
3.4: Contrast the psychological theories of personality
Theories of needs
Henry Murray—Thematic Apperception Test
Abraham Maslow—hierarchy of needs
3.4: Contrast the psychological theories of personality

Point 1 – Theories of needs
Murray identified 24 psychogenic needs and developed a
measure to assess how strong a particular need was within an
individual.
Refer to Figure 3.1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs This figure
is not listed in the template.
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Figure 3.1: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
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3.5: Incentives
3.5: Explain the role incentives play in regard to motivation
What role do incentives play in regard to motivation?
Behaviorism
Incentives
The importance of incentives
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Tolman and Honzik (1930)—maze learning
3.5.1: Tolman’s Contribution to Incentives
3.5.1: Describe Tolman's contribution to the concept of
incentives
What was Tolman’s contribution to the concept of incentives?
Focus on mental processes
Latent learning
Expectancy
Expectancy-value theory

3.5: Explain the role incentives play in regard to motivation
Point 1 – What role do incentives play in regard to motivation?
One of the core motivational components of the behaviorist
approach is that an incentive (external stimuli) can motivate an
organism to perform a particular behavior.
Point 2 – The importance of incentives
The responses that are closely followed by an incentive will be
more associated with that situation than other responses with
be.
Discuss the 1930 study of incentives and mazes. Refer to Figure
3.2: Effect of Incentives on Maze Performance.
3.5.1: Tolman’s Contribution to Incentives
3.5.1: Describe Tolman's contribution to the concept of
incentives
Point 1 – What was Tolman’s contribution to the concept of
incentives?
Tolman argued that learning occurs, so he went beyond basic
behaviorism.
Latent learning occurs without obvious incentive, while
expectancy is the perceived likelihood that the behavior will be
successful.
Expectancy-value theory states that behavior results from the
joint function of one’s expectancy and value.
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Figure 3.2: Effect of Incentives on Maze Performance

16
3.6: Cognition
3.6: Evaluate how thoughts or cognitions play a central role in
explaining behavior
How does cognition play a central role in behavior?
Cognitive maps
Cognition, not behaviorism
3.6.1: The Cognitive Revolution in Motivation
3.6.1: Analyze the cognitive revolution in motivation
The cognitive revolution
Mentalistic explanations of motivation
Human qualities
How did the cognitive revolution affect the study of motivation?
Set the stage
Lost sight of motivational, volitional, and emotional
explanations for human behavior
3.6: Evaluate how thoughts or cognitions play a central role in
explaining behavior
Point 1 – How does cognition play a central role in behavior?
Refer to Figures 3.3—A-C: Rat Maze Used to Study Cognitive
Mapping.
How did Tolman and his students demonstrate that the rats had
created cognitive maps?
3.6.1: The Cognitive Revolution in Motivation

3.6.1: Analyze the cognitive revolution in motivation
Point 1 – The cognitive revolution
New theorists in the 1970s focused on ideas such as goals,
attributions, expectations, plans, self-beliefs, and self-concept.
There was a greater focus on how humans are different from
animals by using humans and goal-setting versus animals in
mazes.
Point 2 – How did the cognitive revolution affect the study of
motivation?
Many theories, such as expectancy-value theory, still influence
the field today.
Motivation was broken into pieces and landed in different
psychological subfields.
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Figure 3.3: Rat Maze Used to Study Cognitive Mapping
18
3.7: The Fall and Rise of Motivation Science (1 of 2)
3.7: Analyze the causes that have popularized motivation
science
The rise of motivation science
Dynamic psychology
Purposive psychology
The fall of motivation science
Behaviorism
Cognition
3.7.1: Motivation in the Modern Era

3.7.1: Describe motivation in the modern era
Motivation in the modern era
Rapidly increasing in popularity
Motivation and Emotion
1990 Nebraska Symposium on Motivation
3.7: Analyze the causes that have popularized motivation
science
Point 1 – The rise of motivation science
Discuss the major milestones in motivational psychology during
the 20th century.
Point 2 – The fall of motivation science
In the 1950s and 1960s, behaviorism and cognition scattered
motivation throughout subfields, but in the 1980s, motivation
began to grow in popularity again.
3.7.1: Motivation in the Modern Era
3.7.1: Describe motivation in the modern era
Point 1 – Motivation in the modern era
A recent survey conducted by the Society for the Study of
Motivation found that 43% of articles in a top journal used
motivation-related keywords.
Motivation is growing again among scientists, scholars, and
society.
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3.7: The Fall and Rise of Motivation Science (2 of 2)
3.7.2: Reasons for Motivation’s Resurgence
3.7.2: Explain the reason motivation science has returned to the
forefront

Why is motivation growing in popularity?
Popularity of evolutionary and cross-cultural psychology
Technological advances in neuropsychology and
psychophysiology
Recognition of motivation’s practical applications
3.7.3: The New Look of Motivation
3.7.3: Describe the New Look of motivation
What characteristics are associated with modern motivation?
Interdisciplinary
Complex
Relies on midrange theories
Goal-focused
Driven by willpower
3.7.2: Reasons for Motivation’s Resurgence
3.7.2: Explain the reason motivation science has returned to the
forefront
Point 1 – Why is motivation growing in popularity?
Both evolutionary and cross-cultural psychology highlight the
importance of motives, values, and emotions in guiding
behavior.
New technology, like fMRIs, can determine brain activities
when experiencing an emotion.
Science has become more translational and application to
everyday people.
3.7.3: The New Look of Motivation
3.7.3: Describe the New Look of motivation
Point 1 – What characteristics are associated with modern

motivation?
Modern motivation depends on its alliance with other subfields
in psychology, and even fields beyond psychology.
Modern approaches to motivation embrace its complexity.
Human and animal behaviors are complex and influenced by
many different factors.
A goal is a cognitive representation of a future outcome that the
organism is committed to approach or avoid. Why do modern
researchers prefer the concept of goals over instinct or drive?
Motivation researchers are focused on the ways that human
behavior is driven by conscious, volitional attempts to exert
self-control.
20
Summary: Psychological Origins of Motivation
Will as a psychological origin of motivation
How the concept of instinct played a role in the understanding
of motivation
The aspects of the concept of drive as it relates to motivation
The psychological theories of personality and the differences in
motivation
The role incentives play in regard to motivation
How thoughts or cognitions play a central role in explaining
behavior
The causes that have popularized motivation science
Early psychological approaches to motivation concerned will.
Wundt believed involuntary actions that do not require will
evolved from voluntary actions. James thought behavior is
sometimes a function of ideo-motor action. He distinguished
two types of will: volition and nolition. Lange conducted the
first experiment in the study of motivation with a stimulus
(bell) and anticipated response. Ach conducted the first

experiment on will, discovering it must be stronger than a habit.
Hillgruber established the difficulty law of motivation.
Instincts were one form of determinism. James created a list of
instincts, while McDougall argued that all human behavior is a
result of basic animal urges. He also argued that instincts
influence cognition by focusing attention toward particular
objects.
Drive is initiated by need deprivation and aversion. Every
behavior is interpreted as an attempt to reduce drive and
behaviors that are accompanied by a drive reduction are
strengthened. Freud proposed three drives: sex, death, and self-
preservation. Hall argued that drive was nonspecific arousal and
that the intensity of an organism’s behavior is determined by
drive multiplied by habit.
Murray developed a list of 24 needs and then developed the
Thematic Apperception Test to measure individual differences
in need strength. Maslow developed a need hierarchy and
argued that an individual could not move up to a higher level
without fulfilling the level below it.
Behavioral psychologists examine the role of incentives.
Thorndike developed the Law of Effect, while Tolman proposed
the concepts of latent learning and expectancy-value theory.
The cognitive revolution changed the study of motivation by
focusing on cognition and ignoring other explanations for
behavior.
Motivation is now more popular than ever, but has experienced
rises and falls over time. The “New Look” is characterized by
its interdisciplinary approach, recognition of its complexity, its
focus on midrange theories, and its emphasis on goals.
21
Burkley
First edition
Chapter 2

Philosophical Origins of Motivation
1
2.1 Analyze the earliest philosophical theories that were devised
to explain human motivation
2.1.1 Describe how Plato explained human motivation
2.1.2 Explain the components of Aristotle's theories regarding
motivation
2.1.3 Describe the motivation philosophies of the Stoics
2.2 Contrast the medieval and post-Renaissance period
philosophies that were devised to explain human motivation
2.2.1 Explain Saint Augustine's philosophy of motivation
2.2.2 Describe Saint Thomas Aquinas's perspective of
motivation
2.2.3 Describe how Descartes's Passions related to his
philosophy of motivation
2
2.2.4 Explain how Hobbes's theory of relationship between
thoughts and emotions aligned to the philosophy of motivation
2.2.5 Explain how Locke contributed to the philosophy of
motivation
2.2.6 Describe Hume's philosophy of motivation
2.3 Evaluate the cause of the seismic shift in philosophical

explanations of motivation in the Age of Enlightenment
2.3.1 Analyze Bentham's philosophy of motivation in
relationship to other theories of motivation during the Age of
Enlightenment
2.3.2 Analyze Kant's philosophy of motivation in relationship to
other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment
2.3.3 Analyze Schopenhauer's philosophy of motivation in
Enlightenment
3
Introduction: Philosophical Origins of Motivation
Ancient Greeks
Medieval and post-Renaissance philosophers
Age of Enlightenment
The earliest motivation theory is hedonism, but there was also a
push to separate emotion from reason.
During the medieval and post-Renaissance times, philosophers
examined passions and dualism to understand motivation.
The Age of Enlightenment examined utilitarianism, emotions,
and, finally, used the term “motivation.”
4
2.1: Ancient Greeks (1 of 3)
2.1: Analyze the earliest philosophical theories that were
devised to explain human motivation
The early philosophical theories to explain motivation
Hedonism

Pleasure
2.1.1: Plato
2.1.1: Describe how Plato explained human motivation
The Tripartite Theory of Motivation
Rational
Spirited
Appetitive
Metaphor of a chariot rider pulled by two horses
Unequal pleasures
Physical
Mental
2.1: Analyze the earliest philosophical theories that were
devised to explain human motivation
Point 1 – The early philosophical theories to explain motivation
The early Greek philosophers believed humans are motivated to
pursue pleasure and avoid pain.
2.1.1: Plato
2.1.1: Describe how Plato explained human motivation
Point 1 – The Tripartite Theory of Motivation
Plato argued that these three sources of the psyche were in
constant conflict with each other.
He likened the conflict to a chariot rider (rational) pulled by the
ugly black horse (appetitive) who is kept in check by the white
noble horse (spirited).
Point 2 – Unequal pleasures
Plato believed the pleasures from physical desires were inferior

to those from higher-order desires.
5
Figure 2.1: Plato’s Tripartite Theory of Motivation
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2.1.2: Aristotle
2.1.2: Explain the components of Aristotle's theories regarding
motivation
The golden mean
Aristotle’s four causes
Efficient cause
Material cause
Formal cause
Final cause
Aristotle’s passions
Somatic
Psychic
Aristotle’s two types of happiness
Hedonic
Eudaimonic
2.1.2: Aristotle
2.1.2: Explain the components of Aristotle's theories regarding
motivation

Point 1 – Aristotle, as well as other philosophers, argued that
wise humans seek pleasure in moderation.
Point 2 – Aristotle’s four causes
Efficient cause is something about from the focal target (you)
that caused it to change.
The material cause is the physical material that makes up the
focus target.
The formal cause is the functional organization of the individual
that it shares with other members of its species.
Final cause is the aim or purpose being served.
How could these causes be applied to you yelling at your
roommate?
Point 3 – Aristotle’s passions
Somatic passions include emotions with the body.
Psychic passions are emotions associated with the mind.
What are some examples of somatic and psychic passions?
When is too much passion bad?
Point 4 – Aristotle’s two types of happiness
Hedonic happiness is the attainment of positive emotions and
the absence of negative emotions; therefore, it focuses on the
outcome.
Eudaimonic happiness refers to living a life that has meaning
and striving for excellence in all that you do.
7
2.1.3: The Stoics
2.1.3: Describe the motivation philosophies of the Stoics
Who were the Stoics?
School of philosophers
Emotions as a destructive motivational force

The Stoics’ four types of emotions
Desire
Fear
Pleasure
Pain
2.1.3: The Stoics
2.1.3: Describe the motivation philosophies of the Stoics
Point 1 – Who were the Stoics?
How were the Stoics different from Plate and Aristotle?
The Stoics placed importance on logic and reasoning.
Point 2 – The Stoics’ four types of emotions
Refer to Table 2.1: The Stoics’ Four Types of Emotions.
8
Table 2.1: The Stoics’ Four Types of
EmotionsEmotionDescriptionDesire (epithumia)Desire is
directed toward something good in the future.Fear (phobos)Fear
is directed toward something bad in the future.Pleasure
(hedone)Pleasure is experienced when we obtain what we want
and avoid what we fear in the present.Pain (lupe)Pain is
experienced when we fail to obtain what we want and succumb
to what we fear in the present.
9
2.2: Medieval and Post-Renaissance Philosophers (1 of 6)
2.2: Contrast the medieval and post-Renaissance period

The medieval and post-Renaissance philosophies of motivation
Morality
Sin
2.2.1: Saint Augustine
2.2.1: Explain Saint Augustine's philosophy of motivation
How did Saint Augustine explain motivation?
Emotions contrary to reason
Emotions as choice or will
2.2: Contrast the medieval and post-Renaissance period
Point 1 – The medieval and post-Renaissance philosophies of
motivation
The Stoics’ perception of emotions was alive and well during
this time period.
There was some dissention among philosophers, however.
2.2.1: Saint Augustine
2.2.1: Explain Saint Augustine's philosophy of motivation
Point 1 – How did Saint Augustine explain motivation?
Saint Augustine argued that emotions are not inherently good or
bad, and the distinction resides in our choice of which objects
we feel the emotions toward.
10
2.2.2: Saint Thomas Aquinas

2.2.2: Describe Saint Thomas Aquinas's perspective of
motivation
How did Saint Thomas Aquinas explain motivation?
Emotions tied to physical body
Matter and form
Aquinas’ types of emotions
Concupiscible passions
Irascible passions
2.2.2: Saint Thomas Aquinas
2.2.2: Describe Saint Thomas Aquinas's perspective of
motivation
Point 1 – How did Saint Thomas Aquinas explain motivation?
Aquinas believed the passions arose from the body (matter), and
could affect the mind (form).
Point 2 – Aquinas’ types of emotions
Concupiscible passions are lustful passions that reflect basic
desires to pursue good things and avoid bad things.
Irascible passions occur whenever an obstacle blocks one of the
concupiscible passions.
What are examples of each?
11
2.2.3: René Descartes
2.2.3: Describe how Descartes's Passions related to his
Descartes’ dualism
Mind-body

Actions and objects do not necessarily have a higher-order
purpose
Rational soul
“I think, therefore I am.”
Foundation for instinct
Descartes’ passions
Love
Wonder
Hate
Desire
Joy
Sorrow
2.2.3: René Descartes
2.2.3: Describe how Descartes's Passions related to his
Point 1 – Descartes’ dualism
The mind is a nonphysical entity that is uniquely different from
the body.
Descartes disagreed with Aristotle and argued that when it came
to physical phenomena, they could be completely explained by
mechanics.
Only human behavior was driven by a sense of purpose.
Descartes argued that the mind and body influence each other,
and at times, the rational mind was not always in control.
Point 2 – Descartes’ passions
Descartes argued that there exist six primary passions or
emotions, each characterized by a motivational force that moves
humans toward or away from a particular object.
Descartes’ theory of passions is one of the earliest recognitions
of the important tole that emotions play in motivation.

12
Figure 2.2: The Six Primary Passions or Emotions
13
2.2.4: Thomas Hobbes
2.2.4: Explain how Hobbes's theory of relationship between
Hobbes’ central ideas
Abandoned Descartes’ mind portion of dualism
Materialism
Hedonistic
Rationalism as an illusion
Hobbes’ theory of the relationship between thoughts and
emotions
Desire for an outcome
Expectation of the outcome
Expectancy-value theory
2.2.4: Thomas Hobbes
2.2.4: Explain how Hobbes's theory of relationship between
Point 1 – Hobbes’ central ideas
Materialism suggests that all human behavior consists of blind,
automatic reactions to environmental stimuli.

Life tries to seek out pleasure and avoid pain.
Hedonism is the principle of motivation.
Point 2 – Hobbes’ theory of the relationship between thoughts
and emotions
Expectation for an outcome is not enough for action; one must
also have the desire.
Hobbes’ ideas would later be revisited in both behaviorism and
in expectancy-value theory.
14
2.2.5: John Locke
2.2.5: Explain how Locke contributed to the philosophy of
motivation
Locke’s ideas
Blank slate
Nurture
Behavior stems from uneasiness
Hedonism
Delay of gratification
Locke’s additional contributions
Empiricism
American Declaration of Independence
Separation of church and state
Separation of government branches
2.2.5: John Locke
2.2.5: Explain how Locke contributed to the philosophy of
motivation
Point 1 – Locke’s ideas

Locke argued that the human mind was a tabula rasa and that
behavior was solely motivated by nurture (environment).
While Locke’s ideas rely on hedonistic principles, he argues
that people can choose not to give into their temptations.
Point 2 – Locke’s additional contributions
Experience is the only way to gain knowledge; his ideas formed
the basis for the scientific method.
American founders built off of the tabula rasa concept, and
argued that all men (and women) are created equal.
Many of Locke’s ideas helped shape American society.
15
2.2.6: David Hume
2.2.6: Describe Hume's philosophy of motivation
How did Hume explain motivation?
Desire
Beliefs
Hume’s passions
Direct
Indirect
2.2.6: David Hume
2.2.6: Describe Hume's philosophy of motivation
Point 1 – How did Hume explain motivation?
The rational mind is “the slave of the passions.”
Beliefs play an important role in the formation and experience
of emotions.
Point 2 – Hume’s passions

Direct passions arise immediately from feelings of pleasure and
pain.
Indirect passions are experienced through pleasure and pain, but
with the addition of beliefs associated with the object producing
the pleasure or pain.
16
2.3: Evaluate the cause of the seismic shift in philosophical
How did the explanations of motivation change in the Age of
Enlightenment?
Willpower
Free will
Morality
Redefining hedonism
2.3.1: Jeremy Bentham
2.3.1: Analyze Bentham's philosophy of motivation in
Enlightenment
What is Bentham’s utilitarianism?
Restatement of hedonism
2.3: Age of Enlightenment (1 of 3)
2.3: Evaluate the cause of the seismic shift in philosophical
Point 1 – How did the explanations of motivation change in the
Age of Enlightenment?
Philosophers in the Age of Enlightenment focused on the topics
of freedom, reason, knowledge, and science.
2.3.1: Jeremy Bentham

2.3.1: Analyze Bentham's philosophy of motivation in
Enlightenment
Point 1 – What is Bentham’s utilitarianism?
Utilitarianism asserts that the utility of a particular course of
action is determined by how much it maximizes happiness and
reduces suffering.
Point 2 – Beyond prior hedonistic theories
Bentham was the first to emphasize the importance of certain
motivational qualities.
Bentham created a mathematical algorithm to compute the
utility of a particular course of action.
Bentham encouraged the comparison of the pros and cons of any
moral dilemma.
Bentham also created a list of 14 sources of motivations, what
he called the “springs of human action.”
17
Beyond prior hedonistic theories
Intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity,
extent
Felicific calculus
Hedons vs. dolors
List of pains and pleasures
2.3.2: Immanuel Kant
2.3.2: Analyze Kant's philosophy of motivation in relationship
to other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment
What was Kant’s philosophy of motivation?
Reason is golden
Minimize impact of emotions
Affect vs. passion

2.3.2: Immanuel Kant
2.3.2: Analyze Kant's philosophy of motivation in relationship
to other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment
Point 1 – What was Kant’s philosophy of motivation?
Kant’s beliefs were reminiscent of the Stoics.
He distinguished between affect and passion; affect is quick to
build, and passion is slow.
18
2.3.3: Arthur Schopenhauer
2.3.3: Analyze Schopenhauer's philosophy of motivation in
Enlightenment
What was Schopenhauer’s philosophy of motivation?
First to use “motivation”
Will as intangible active force of nature, universe, and mankind
Body’s experiences
Body through an objective lens
Body through a subjective lens
Driving behavior
Instincts
Impulses
2.3.3: Arthur Schopenhauer
2.3.3: Analyze Schopenhauer's philosophy of motivation in

Enlightenment
Point 1 – What was Schopenhauer’s philosophy of motivation?
Schopenhauer viewed will as a blind, mindless, aimless,
irrational urge that propels human action toward largely selfish
endeavors.
Point 2 – Body’s experiences
Schopenhauer argued that the objective and subjective outcomes
occur at the same time, and therefore, an argument for will is an
argument against free will.
Point 3 – Driving behavior
Schopenhauer believed all human action occurs because we are
acting in accordance with our “inborn and immutable behavior,”
which is inherently selfish.
19
The earliest philosophical theories that were devised to explain
human motivation
The medieval and post-Renaissance period philosophies that
were devised to explain human motivation
The cause of the seismic shift in philosophical explanations of
motivation in the Age of Enlightenment
Summary: Philosophical Origins of Motivation
The earliest theories used to explain motivation stemmed from
ancient Greek and tended to focus on hedonism. However, the
Stoics also tried to separate emotion from reason.
During the medieval times, Saint Augustine argued that
emotions were not inherently good or bad, but were defined by
whether they are directed toward a good or bad object. Saint
Thomas Aquinas examined two passions: concupiscible and

irascible. Descartes promoted mind-body dualism and argued
that human behavior is a function of urges of the body and a
rational mind. Hobbes endorsed materialism, while Locke
believed the mind was a tabula rasa. Hume argued that
cognition can alter emotion.
During the Age of Enlightenment, the understanding of
motivation changed greatly. Bentham endorsed utilitarianism,
while Kant focused on affect and passion. Schopenhauer was the
first person to use the term “motivation,” and argued that will is
the subjective illusion that we control our own movements
when, in fact, we do not control them.
20
Burkley
First edition
Chapter 1
The Science of Motivation
1
Learning Objectives
1.1 Analyze the characteristics of motivation
1.1.1 Explain how motivation is future oriented
1.1.2 Define motivation
1.1.3 Describe the relationship between goals and motivation
1.2 Explain how self-control positively affects motivation
1.2.1 Determine the relationship between temptation and self-
control
1.2.2 Create your ProjectMe goal

2
Introduction: The Science of Motivation
What is motivation?
Why is motivation important?
The ability to imagine and prepare for the future is unique to
humans, and while the study of motivation is a fairly new field,
the concept has strong historical roots.
Motivation is critical because of the wide variety of temptations
and their connections to social problems.
3
1.1: What Is Motivation? (2 of 4)
1.1: Analyze the characteristics of motivation
How are humans different from animals?
Anticipate the future
Free from the “tyranny of bondage to the present”
Develops through childhood
1.1.1: Motivation Is Future Oriented
1.1.1: Explain how motivation is future oriented
Lobotomies
Neurosurgical procedure
Treatment for severe psychiatric disorders
Impact on planning and goals
Goals

Cognitive representation of the future
Resist temptation
Prefrontal lobe
1.1: Analyze the characteristics of motivation
Point 1 – How are humans different from animals?
While animals have demonstrated language and self-awareness,
the ability to anticipate the future appears to be a human trait.
Humans are able to project their minds into the future.
The ability to think into the future develops as humans grow up.
1.1.1: Motivation Is Future Oriented
1.1.1: Explain how motivation is future oriented
Point 1 – Lobotomies
A lobotomy severs connections to the prefrontal cortex.
The procedure was popular during the 1940s and 1950s.
While lobotomies appeared to have no impact on intelligence
and memory, they did impact planning and sticking to goals.
Point 2 – Goals
Goals are cognitive representations of the future that an
individual is committed to approach or avoid.
Lobotomized patients could not avoid temptations, reverting to
pleasure-seeking animals.
The prefrontal lobe is where the ability to anticipate the future,
plan for it, and set goals accordingly is located.
4
1.1.2: Defining Motivation

1.1.2: Define motivation
What is the definition of motivation?
Motus
Energy and direction
The components of the energy within motivation
Initiation
Intensity
Persistence
1.1.2: Defining Motivation
1.1.2: Define motivation
Point 1 – What is the definition of motivation?
The Latin word motus means to move, and was first used by
Cicero when he refers to the motion or stirring of the soul as
motus animi.
Schopenhauer first used the word “motivation” in 1813 to
describe the underlying processes that provide energy and
direction for behavior.
Point 2 – The components of the energy within motivation
Initiation is the starting of a behavior.
Intensity is the amount of resources expended to carry out the
behavior.
Persistence is the continuing of the expenditure until the
behavior is completed.
How do these components vary by each situation?
5

1.1.3: Goals and Motivation
1.1.3: Describe the relationship between goals and motivation
The Three-Step Process to Achieve a Goal
Choose a particular goal
Develop a plan of action
Initiate and expend resources until completion of goal
Why study motivation?
Determine what drives the behavior of others
Determine what drives your own behavior
1.1.3: Goals and Motivation
1.1.3: Describe the relationship between goals and motivation
Point 1 – The Three-Step Process to Achieve a Goal
Refer to Figure 1.1: Using the Three-Step Process to Achieve
Your Goal .
Goal-seeking is not always conscious.
What factors, both internal and external, do you think affect the
goal-achieving process?
Point 2 – Why study motivation?
Humans are naturally people-watchers and want to understand
why people act the way they do.
We also want to know what affects our own goals. This figure is
not listed in the template.
6
Figure 1.1: Using the Three-Step Process to Achieve Your Goal

7
1.2: Why Is Motivation Important? (1 of 4)
1.2: Explain how self-control positively affects motivation
What factors affect life success?
Intelligence?
Self-esteem?
Self-control
Willpower
Impulses
1.2: Explain how self-control positively affects motivation
Point 1 – What factors affect life success?
How have societal focuses on intelligence and self-esteem
affected people, especially the younger generations?
Point 2 – Self-control
Self-control is what allows us to become the person we want to
be.
Some people have low self-control and are slaves to their
impulses.
How are social problems linked to self-control?
8
1.2.1: Importance of Self-Control
1.2.1: Determine the relationship between temptation and self-
control

What is the relationship between temptation and self-control?
Never ceasing temptations
Not all temptations are equal
How often do we exert self-control?
3 hours/day
Lower rates for social interaction and alcohol
30 minutes of self-control failure
Prediction of later success
1.2.1: Importance of Self-Control
1.2.1: Determine the relationship between temptation and self-
control
Point 1 – What is the relationship between temptation and self-
control?
Hofmann, Baumeister, Förster, and Vohs (2012) demonstrated
that temptation is the norm.
The most common temptations are eating, drinking nonalcoholic
beverages, and sleeping.
Leisure, social interactions, and media were also popular.
The highest intensity temptations were sex, sleep, playing
sports, and social interaction. Cigarettes and alcohol were the
lowest.
Point 2 – How often do we exert self-control?
The Hofmann et al. (2012) study shows temptations are
ubiquitous.
Moffitt et al. (2011) found that children who had high self-
control at age 3 had better health and wealth at age 32 than
children will lower self-control.
9

1.2.2: ProjectMe Goal
1.2.2: Create your ProjectMe goal
The ProjectMe goal
Application of theories and research
Concrete, self-relevant situation
Guidelines
Pick a goal
Weekly monitoring
Length of the class (be realistic)
Public
Legal
Not to perform well in the class
1.2.2: ProjectMe Goal
1.2.2: Create your ProjectMe goal
Point 1 – The ProjectMe goal
The purpose of the ProjectMe is to provide a work in progress
in which you as a student will apply the theories and research
findings from the course to a concrete situation.
This will be an individual, ongoing project in which you
identify a goal you want to achieve.
Point 2 – Guidelines
Your goal must be quantifiable and achievable. It might be
made public, so choose something you feel comfortable sharing.
The goal cannot be to perform well in the course; choose
something else instead.
10

Summary: The Science of Motivation
The definition of motivation
The importance of motivation
The ability to plan is located in the prefrontal cortex and is
uniquely human. Motivation is the underlying process that
provides energy and direction for behavior. Behavior can vary
in initiation, intensity, and persistence. Motivation can be
affected by biological, environmental, emotional, social, and
cognitive forces.
Self-control is the ability to regular and change thoughts,
emotions, and behaviors. People with high self-control are not
as affected by temptations. Poor self-control is associated with
nearly every social problem. Interestingly, a study by Moffitt et
al. (2011) showed a link between self-control at 3 and later
health, wealth, and criminality at age 32.
11

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