2 Running head: Schizophrenia Schizophrenia Classes of drugs used to treat schizophrenia The most significant common medication used in the treatment of schizophrenia is antipsychotic medication. There are two types of drugs that are typical and atypical, both work to reduce the positive or negative effects of schizophrenia. Antipsychotic drugs are used to treat mental, emotional and psychosis conditions. Psychosis refers to the state in which an individual loses touch with reality; the individual starts having hallucinations or delusions. To alleviate the problem antipsychotic drugs are used to regulate the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain. Explain their action at the neurotransmitter system. Schizophrenia is linked to changes in the activities of the neurotransmitter in some specific parts of the brain. Antipsychotic medication affects this neurotransmitter affecting their activity too. The medication acts by interfering with the chemical messengers and controlling or lessening the symptoms of the disorder like mood swings, hallucinations, and delusions. There are mainly two types of antipsychotic drugs that is typical and atypical antipsychotic drugs. They work by altering dopamine and serotonin receptors. Typical antipsychotics or first generation psychotics were manufactured first in the 1950s. Its function is to block dopamine receptor known as a D2 receptor. Atypical antipsychotics or the second generation antipsychotics were introduced in the 1990s. Just like typical antipsychotic, they block D2 receptors as well as a serotonin receptor known as a 5-HT2A receptor. Analyze and describe the agonist-antagonist activity of the drugs and the receptor types and subtypes involved in the disorder. Partial agonists have a lower rate of activity than full agonists at the receptors. This allows them to function as either a functional agonist or functional antagonist depending on the levels of the neurotransmitter (full agonist). If a neurotransmitter is not present partial agonist display a functional antagonist activity. This is as a result of receptor binding reducing any response with the neurotransmitter. Partial agonist in dopamine D2 receptors is an alternative option when treating schizophrenia. It acts as a functional antagonist mesolimbic dopamine pathway, and the excessive dopamine activity causes positive symptoms. However, reduced dopamine activity in the mesocortical pathway causes cognitive impairment and negative symptoms. Elaborate on the receptor agonist-antagonist actions of the drugs and describe the most common side effects seen with these drugs. Inhibition of dopamine function is the most common feature of antipsychotic drugs. D4 receptor activation in moderate levels helps antipsychotic agents protect the brain from negative and cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia. D2 and D3 receptors help improve positive symptoms of schizophrenia but are not successful in countering negative and cognitiv.

1. 2
Running head: Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia
Classes of drugs used to treat schizophrenia
The most significant common medication used in the treatment
of schizophrenia is antipsychotic medication. There are two
types of drugs that are typical and atypical, both work to reduce
the positive or negative effects of schizophrenia. Antipsychotic
drugs are used to treat mental, emotional and psychosis
conditions. Psychosis refers to the state in which an individual

2. loses touch with reality; the individual starts having
hallucinations or delusions.
To alleviate the problem antipsychotic drugs are used to
regulate the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain.
Explain their action at the neurotransmitter system.
Schizophrenia is linked to changes in the activities of the
neurotransmitter in some specific parts of the brain.
Antipsychotic medication affects this neurotransmitter affecting
their activity too. The medication acts by interfering with the
chemical messengers and controlling or lessening the symptoms
of the disorder like mood swings, hallucinations, and delusions.
There are mainly two types of antipsychotic drugs that is typical
and atypical antipsychotic drugs.
They work by altering dopamine and serotonin receptors.
Typical antipsychotics or first generation psychotics were
manufactured first in the 1950s. Its function is to block
dopamine receptor known as a D2 receptor. Atypical
antipsychotics or the second generation antipsychotics were
introduced in the 1990s. Just like typical antipsychotic, they
block D2 receptors as well as a serotonin receptor known as a 5-
HT2A receptor.
Analyze and describe the agonist-antagonist activity of the
drugs and the receptor types and subtypes involved in the
disorder.
Partial agonists have a lower rate of activity than full agonists
at the receptors. This allows them to function as either a
functional agonist or functional antagonist depending on the
levels of the neurotransmitter (full agonist). If a
neurotransmitter is not present partial agonist display a
functional antagonist activity. This is as a result of receptor
binding reducing any response with the neurotransmitter.
Partial agonist in dopamine D2 receptors is an alternative option
when treating schizophrenia. It acts as a functional antagonist
mesolimbic dopamine pathway, and the excessive dopamine
activity causes positive symptoms. However, reduced dopamine

3. activity in the mesocortical pathway causes cognitive
impairment and negative symptoms.
Elaborate on the receptor agonist-antagonist actions of the
drugs and describe the most common side effects seen with
these drugs.
Inhibition of dopamine function is the most common feature of
antipsychotic drugs. D4 receptor activation in moderate levels
helps antipsychotic agents protect the brain from negative and
cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia. D2 and D3 receptors help
improve positive symptoms of schizophrenia but are not
successful in countering negative and cognitive symptoms.
Some atypical antipsychotics such as clozapine antagonize D2
and D3 receptors and other serotonin receptor subtypes.
Clozapine is the most effective medication against the treatment
of schizophrenia. This is because with other treatments they are
based on individual’s heterogeneity and how effectively they
respond to treatment. This makes it hard to predict how
effective a treatment is.
Antipsychotics like all other medications have side effects. By
blocking the D2 receptor, the body is affected in the following
ways sexual dysfunction, muscle spasms, tremors, and inner
restlessness. First generation antipsychotics can affect the
menstrual cycle for women and rate of growth of breast tissue
for both men and women. Most common effect or significant
effect is weight gain and high levels of cholesterol and blood
sugar in the body.
One can also get a movement disorder known as tardive
dyskinesia that results in uncontrolled muscular, facial and
tongue movements and this can be long-term or permanent.
Atypical antipsychotics can also bring about lipid disorders and
diabetes. These symptoms are associated with olanzapine and
clozapine.
Evaluate the risk-benefits of drug use for this disorder.
Patients benefit from antipsychotic drug treatment in a long-

4. term goal to prevent a relapse. Through neuroimaging, it
suggests that if a patient seeks treatment early enough, they
stand to benefit a lot more from the treatment and get over the
disorder and be able to go back to the normal life they were
living.
Delaying or withholding treatment reduces the long-term
benefits of the treatment. From the current research, the
therapeutic benefits outweigh the risks, and there has been no
evidence to suggest that this type of treatment increases the
chances of relapse in patients. Some patients who
have undergone the process have recovered from their psychotic
periods although there is no bio maker to determine what
number or percentage.
Lastly, it is detrimental to withhold treatment especially for a
schizophrenia patient and should go through with treatment as it
could help improve the already worse condition.
References
Howes, O. D., & Murray, R. M. (2014). Schizophrenia: an
integrated socio-developmental-cognitive model. The Lancet,
383(9929), 1677-1687.

5. Kapur, S., Zipursky, R., Jones, C., Remington, G., & Houle, S.
(2000). The relationship between dopamine D2 occupancy,
clinical response, and side effects: a double-blind PET study of
first-episode schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry,
157(4), 514-520.
Randomized Controlled Trial of the Effect on Quality of Life of
Second- vs. First-Generation Antipsychotic Drugs in
Schizophrenia Cost Utility of the Latest Antipsychotic Drugs in
Schizophrenia Study (CUtLASS 1). (n.d.). United States, North
America. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy-
library.ashford.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsbas&AN=eds
bas.41EF9256&site=eds-live&scope=site
Leucht, S., Tardy, M., Komossa, K., Heres, S., Kissling, W.,
Salanti, G., & Davis, J. M. (2012). Antipsychotic drugs versus
placebo for relapse prevention in schizophrenia: a systematic
review and meta-analysis. (Author abstract)(Report). The
Lancet, (9831). https://doi-org.proxy-
library.ashford.edu/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60239-6
Running head: Schizophrenia
1
schizophrenia 5
Schizophrenia

6. Schizophrenia
Brain cells known as neurons and chemicals called
neurotransmitters make up the brain. In case of an imbalance of
the neurotransmitter, dopamine, it triggers symptoms associated
with schizophrenia. Serotonin, also a neurotransmitter also
plays a significant role in triggering schizophrenia. Regular
brain activity and brain activity associated with schizophrenia
differ a lot in that schizophrenia lead to an imbalance as too
many neurotransmitters are released in the neurons.
Dopamine as a neurotransmitter, according to the ‘dopamine
hypothesis' is responsible for the symptoms of schizophrenia if
it is produced in excess in the brain. As a countermeasure anti-
psychotic medications are applied to counter the excessive
production and transmission of dopamine. This, in turn, works
to improve and treat the symptoms of schizophrenia.
The neurotransmitter serotonin also plays a crucial role in
triggering the symptoms of schizophrenia. To treat this anti-
psychotic medication are used to treat the symptoms by
blocking serotonin transmissions. Patients can use the
medications to block serotonin and dopamine transmissions, for
example, Zyprexa, Clozaril, and Risperdal in case the
‘dopamine only' or the ‘serotonin only' medications do not work
for them.
Receptor theories also glutamatergic models are based on the
effects of PCP and ketamine agents which induce
psychotomimetic effects that work to block neurotransmission
of NMDA type glutamate receptor. Glutamatergic approaches
are used to treat negative symptoms, and cognitive problems

7. brought about by schizophrenia.
Schizophrenia affects a wide range of bodily functions like
cognition, behavior, and emotions. Symptoms may vary, but
some common symptoms are hallucinations, disorganized
speech, delusions and impaired ability to function as discussed.
· Hallucinations. The most common type of hallucination in
schizophrenia is hearing voices. To the affected individuals they
term the experiences as normal
· Disorganized thought and speech. This involves putting
together words in a meaningless way that does not make sense
or cannot be easily understood. It leads to the impairment of
communication as the responses from the individual may be
completely unrelated to the questions or topic at hand.
· Delusions. They are not based on reality. For example, the
feeling of being harassed or harmed or thoughts that some
words or gestures are being directed you and maybe a figment
of your imagination.
· Disorganized motor behavior. For example excessive
movement, complete lack of response, resistance to instructions
and becoming easily agitated.
Schizophrenia may be caused by excess dopamine and serotonin
receptors which when produced and causes an imbalance may
bring about the symptoms mentioned above. Another
neurotransmitter that is a contributing factor to schizophrenia is
glutamate. Glutamate is responsible for learning, formation and
encoding memory in the brain. Using some drugs like PCP
which are hallucinogenic may block glutamate receptors
bringing about the paranoia that may trigger schizophrenia.
Schizophrenia is restructured the brain especially the lateral
brain ventricles, the ventricles appeared enlarged and filled with
fluid especially in individuals with schizophrenia leading to the
loss in brain tissues.
In the body, schizophrenia may be responsible for dysfunction
in the body due to changes in the brain. This may trigger
psychosis leading to a growth in the tumor. It may also result in
physical health disorders. Schizophrenia may result in the

8. excess production of steroid hormone known as cortisol, which
results in the increased weight gain, high blood pressure, and
diabetes.
Neurotransmitters refer to the group of chemicals released by
neurons to activate or stimulate other neighboring neurons
allowing for impulses to be passed from one cell to the other in
a simultaneous way throughout the nervous system. In case this
group of chemicals is produced in excess or too little there will
be an imbalance that will result in the restructuring of the body
to cope with the sudden change. This change in anatomical
features may result in disorders related to the neurotransmission
in this case schizophrenia.
The resultant symptoms will be affected by the increase in
levels of dopamine or serotonin.
Behavioral changes brought about by schizophrenia include,
unusual body movements, problems socializing, having irregular
or inaudible speech that makes one hard to understand or unable
to communicate effectively. Patients with schizophrenia have
shown the unusual structure in the brain structures and also the
functions in the frontal and limbic regions of the brain. There is
reduced functional connectivity between the ventral prefrontal
region and amygdala part of the brain. This further leads to self-
rated aggression from the individual.
Neurotransmitter changes in schizophrenia revolve around two
transmitters that are dopamine and glutamate. Dopamine is
involved in feelings of well-being and pleasure that is easily
altered by some illegal drugs like cocaine. High concentrations
of dopamine in some parts of the brain may leave the individual
experiencing symptoms of paranoid thinking, further on leading
to schizophrenia.
References
British Columbia Schizophrenia Society, "Basic Facts about
Schizophrenia," Available online. URL:
http://www.mentalhealth.com/book/ p40-sc02.html#Head_4.
Downloaded on November 13, 2006
Harrison et al., "Recovery from Psychotic Illness: A 15- and 25-

9. year International Follow-up Study." British Journal of
Psychiatry 178 (2001): 506 - 517.
J.N. Butcher, S. Mineka, and J.M. Hooley, Abnormal
Psychology. Pearson: Boston, 2004.
How the Illness Management and Recovery Program Enhanced
Recovery of Persons with Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic
Disorders: A Qualitative Study. (2016). Archives of Psychiatric
Nursing, 552. https://doi-org.proxy-
library.ashford.edu/10.1016/j.apnu.2016.04.005
MacDonald, A. W., & Schulz, S. C. (2009). What We Know:
Findings That Every Theory of Schizophrenia Should Explain.
Schizophrenia Bulletin, 35(3), 493. Retrieved from
http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy-
library.ashford.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edb&AN=44543
193&site=eds-live&scope=site
Cautin, R. L. (2008). David Shakow and schizophrenia research
at Worcester State Hospital: The roots of the scientist-
practitioner model. Journal of the History of the Behavioral
Sciences, 44(3), 219–237. https://doi-org.proxy-
library.ashford.edu/10.1002/jhbs.20312