In an ordinary town in a suburb of Washington, D.C., seemingly normal, polite kids engage in seemingly normal, ordinary chit chat and schoolwork, but beneath the surface there is a another dynamic going on: bullying of kids who for whatever reason are singled out as targets.

1. Preventing Bullying: Stopping the Cycle of Bullying
The Barrie School, Humanities 12
Rebecca Blumenthal
August 2014
Introduction
In an ordinary town in a suburb of Washington, D.C., seemingly normal, polite
kids engage in seemingly normal, ordinary chit chat and schoolwork, but beneath the
surface there is a another dynamic going on: bullying of kids who for whatever reason are
singled out as targets. They are teased, marginalized, lied about, their things are stolen,
and they are physically attacked as well. This may sound like an aberration, but in fact it
is very common, across the United States. Government statistics show that more than one
in four students (28%) in grades 6-12 has experienced some form of bullying.1
If only the
responsible adults in the vicinity would take charge of the situation, these kinds of
statistics would be unheard of, and peer-on-peer victimization would never get so out of
hand. This paper walks through my own experience as a bullying victim, progresses to
describe academic research on victims, bullies, and bystanders. It later describes the sad
state of efforts to intervene, and makes some recommendations about how matters could
be improved.
As a kid, I was bullied over a period of about four years, sequentially, beginning
in fourth grade. It’s stressful to go through an experience like this. Not only do you have
to endure puberty, badgering parents, social awkwardness, and the pressure of making
good grades, but also the cruelty of your peers. And it affects you long after the teasing
actually ends.
To this day, I am affected psychologically; I feel anxious, defensive, depressed,
and jumpy. Also, I am somewhat agoraphobic; there are times I feel confined within my
own head and within any small space. For years, I have worked to gain self-confidence
back through learning to express myself, defend myself, and speaking out when I felt that
I had a moral obligation. Furthermore, I had to overcome my anxiety about my
insecurities pertaining to my looks and my personality, and it. On top of having to defeat
my anxiety, I also had to conquer the depression that came along from being bullied. It
has been a journey trying to alleviate the psychological effects bullying had on me. Even
though I know how bullying affected me, there is more to learn, because I know the
adversity I went through, and I feel the need to help other kids with similar experiences.
Despite, the negative impact of being bullied, it also had a positive impact by making me
want to stand up and speak up for others who were also being bullied.
Once I escaped bullying (by switching schools) I realized that I would never want
others to go through the same thing, which happened to my best friend a year after I left
my old school. Sadly, and surely she became the new victim of bullying by the same
people. When I reminisce, I realize I might have not needed to switch schools (for the
1
"Facts About Bullying." Home. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, n.d. Web. 9 July 2014.
<http://www.stopbullying.gov/news/media/facts/#listing>.

2. reason of bullying) if I had just known how to cope with bullying, or even if I had the
social support I needed from my teachers, school administration, and friends.
This research started out as a way of understanding the long-term effects of
bullying, because I was a victim myself. However, after spending some time on the
subject, my interest quickly turned to prevention. How does adolescent bullying in school
happen, and how can one prevent it? Why did those bullies choose me? Could those
factors be turned into some sort of screening mechanism to stop future bullying behavior
before it starts, by taking bullies out of circulation and helping them to change their
behavior? What began as a somewhat abstract project is now more oriented to real-world
practical intervention. It is action-oriented research, that is, research to make society
better, not just research to document what takes place and what the patterns are.
My Story
When I was in religious school, starting in about 4th grade through 6th, there was
a group of girls, led by a ringleader, who made my life a living hell. They isolated me,
judged me, gossiped about me, threw my backpack on the floor, and generally ganged up
on me, berating me at every turn. One day when I was standing outside the gym a girl
came up to me just to tell me that my basketball picture was ugly. I still remember that
seemingly small comment and how it made my eyes well up with tears. I could not
understand why this girl had to take time out of their day specifically to insult me.
Being bullied was bad enough. Even more upsetting were the teachers who stood
by and did nothing. Elie Wiesel once stated in his Nobel Peace Prize speech, “I swore
never to be silent whenever and wherever human beings endure suffering and
humiliation. We must always take sides. Neutrality helps the oppressor, never the victim.
Silence encourages the tormentor, never the tormented.”2
In summer camp, another girl
told me that my hair was ugly, and frizzy, when I was already insecure from being bullied
at the religious school. In my first year at Barrie, in 7th
grade, I faced a more direct type of
bullying. A group of girls used to pick on me, staring and laughing or excluding me from
group activities. Once they hid my lunchbox from me on top of the lockers. Once, one of
them purposely gave me the wrong directions and then they all laughed at me stumbling
around.
All of these experiences left me feeling unimportant, like I didn’t matter. Today, I
am still insecure about myself and I am still working to let go of those bad experiences.
Maybe, if I had more social support, I would have avoided getting depressed and anxious,
or maybe even learned to avoid bullying all together.
All in all, it felt as though my friends, teachers, and school administration did
nothing to bring justice on the people who made my life miserable; it was almost as
though I was alone in an empty, dark closet.
2
"Elie Wiesel - Acceptance Speech". Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB 2014. Web. 13 Aug 2014.
<http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1986/wiesel-acceptance_en.html>

3. Bullies
As a little girl, I never saw myself as being bullied, until after I was bullied. While
the painful experiences were happening, I thought they were somehow “normal,” that
they must happen to everyone, and that therefore what was happening to me didn’t matter
especially as something “out of the ordinary.” I rationalized that the people treating me
this way were insecure, easily prey to peer pressure, and probably going through
problems themselves. I also blamed myself for being somehow inferior, not good enough,
or provoking problems. Despite all of the above, however, something kept on telling me
that I was being victimized. Later, I realized this was true, and doing this research proved
this to be the case.
A study about “School and Community Violence and Victimization as Predictors of
Adolescent Suicidal Behavior” done by Nickerson and Slater, (in 2009) focused on
suicide, however not necessarily bullying. The researchers’ purpose was to examine how
multiple factors could cause suicidal behaviors across the spectrum (thinking about it,
planning it and the actual attempt). These factors were:
● Violence – a) perpetrating it and b) being a victim of it
● Victimization – c) in school and d) in the community
The researchers looked at violent behaviors and victimization in a national sample of
11,113 students. For indicators of relevant behavior, they looked at the percentage of
respondents that engaged in violence within a certain number of days, followed by the
number of those felt unsafe for a certain number of days. It also compares the percentages
of each research question between the genders.
The research found that boys were more likely than girls to be violent. This is proven
not necessarily by acting violent but by carrying a weapon so that violence can be
resorted to if necessary.
● Males were more likely to carry a weapon. The results show that 13% of male
respondents carried a weapon for more than 6 days, which is more than the 2.5%
of female respondents that also did. (More than 10 percentage points is
statistically very significant especially in a large sample.)
● In school, where there are restrictions on carrying weapons that can lead to
suspension etc. the numbers were lower, but still higher for boys. Statistics
showed that 3.1% of male and 1.2% of females carried a weapon to school for
more than 6 days. So males are more likely to carry a weapon to school as well.
Another statistic in the research compared the percentages between genders in the
number of time the respondent engaged in a violent behavior or got victimized. Here
again, boys are more likely to be violent towards others while girls are likely to take out
violence against themselves.

4. ● Generally, the statistic showed that it was more likely for men to participate or
victimized in violent behavior.
● However, women were more likely to attempt suicide. Oddly, girls had higher
rates of attempting suicide even though they were less exposed to violence. They
had a higher level of mental problems such as depression, anxiety, and PTSD.3
In another study done by Clayton Cook on the “Predictors of Bullying and
Victimization in Childhood and Adolescence”, which is a meta-analytic study,
researchers predict whether a person is a victim, bully, or bully-victim in adolescence (as
well as the psychological effects that come with it) through looking at the individual and
the contextual information. 153 studies were actually used in this research. The individual
predictors evaluated included gender, age, externalization, internalization, social
competence, self-related cognition, other-related cognitions, social problem solving, and
academic performance. Contextual predictors evaluated included family/ home
environment, community factors, peer status, and peer influence. Among the individual,
the biggest predictors for being a bully were externalizing behaviors, and other related
cognitions. Among contextual predictors, the biggest predictor for being a bully was
negative peer influence. So, bullies had negative views on others, while victims tended to
have negative views on themselves. So overall, it was found that bullies had negative
views on others. The study matches somewhat of my presumptions of bullies. The studies
validate my view on bullies by saying bullies were negatively influenced by peers.
However, I didn’t mention or assume that boys tend to overtly bully more than girls, or
that they externalize their emotions.4
Victims
As a victim of bullying, I had trouble figuring out the reason I was targeted. Instead
of admitting it was happening and standing up for myself, I absorbed the pain until I
finally let all my feelings out, a pattern I am still trying to overcome today.
Based on my own experience and that of my friends, I could make some guesses
about the type of people who get targeted. In my case, I would say it’s because I am
emotional and could therefore be perceived as “weak.” Some supporting evidence could
be that my best friend, also bullied, has a similar personality to me, tends to feel guilty
about everything, and is fearful of and defensive about criticism.
Academic research supports my own observations, from the perspective that the
bullying target is perceived as easy pickings, because they do not have the protection of a
3
Nickerson, A. B., & Slater, E. D. “School and community violence and victimization as predictors of
adolescent suicidal behavior.” School Psychology Re- view, 38 (2009): 218–232.
4
Cook, Clayton R., Kirk R. Williams, Nancy G. Guerra, Tia E. Kim, and Shelly Sadek. “Predictors of
bullying and victimization in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic investigation.” School
Psychology Quarterly, 25.2 (2010): 65–83.

5. social network that will enable them to fight back against the bully. For example, Mihalas
et al. found that victims tend to suffer socially, in what is called “relational bullying.”
They also found that girls were more likely than boys to experience specific kinds of
deliberate peer abuse including exclusion, lies (being said about them), cruel statements,
and threats.5
Similarly, in a meta-analytic study, Clayton Cook found that the predictors
of being a victim include weak social skills and negative social status among one’s
peers.6
The same answers found in the studies equate to how victims are portrayed in kids
movie. Even though movies and TV shows aren’t real life, it still has some truth. For
example, in one kid movie called Sharkboy and Lavagirl, Max is an imaginative child
with a dream journal, who is bullied by being teased, having his stuff stolen, and
vandalized. Character in Max’s classroom takes life in his dream characters. The main
bully Linus, is the main super villain in Max’s world, and his teacher (aka the bystander)
is notably also a villain.
His dreams, written in his journal literally becomes a reality as his made-up
characters Sharkboy and Lavagirl come to take him to their planet (Planet Drool) to fight
the corrupt Mr. Electric (the teacher) who takes over the planet. Max and his dream
friends find that the real villain in the end is Linus. He ends up battling Linus in his
dream world, ending up victorious. In the end, they agree to have better relations between
the two. Mr. Electric, unhappy with this, goes to the real-world classroom where Max, his
classmate, and his real teacher is - and Mr. Electric is defeated. Max in the movie
represents aspects of a victim supported by the research mentioned previously. He has
social issues due to his dreaming, and also has a low social status among his peers.
Responsible Bystanders
Being bullied didn’t hurt my best friend as much as it hurt me. My guess is that
this is because she had ongoing social support from an extensive network of friends. She
did not have the support of her teachers though, and neither did I - even though school
authorities always told us to “tell someone,” meaning a teacher, if we were being bullied.
In my own experience, bullying is bad enough, but having adults stand by and do
nothing is possibly even worse. It is important for responsible bystanders to do
something, to come out of the shadows, and help. They can be a fellow student or your
best friend, but preferably the person is a member of the school administration who can
hold the bully responsible for their behaviors and protect the victims.
5
Mihalas, Stephanie T., Witherspoon. Ryan G., Harper, Meg E., Sovran, Brittany A. “The Moderating
Effect of Teacher Support on Depression and Relational Victimization in Minority Middle School
Students.” International Journal of Whole Schooling 8.1 (2012)
6
Cook, Clayton R., Kirk R. Williams, Nancy G. Guerra, Tia E. Kim, and Shelly Sadek. “Predictors of
bullying and victimization in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic investigation.” School
Psychology Quarterly, 25.2 (2010): 65–83.

6. Teachers and other responsible bystanders may not consider themselves vital in
resolving a bullying situation, but they are. Even though the bystander may not consider
himself or herself to have a vital role in bullying, they do. By doing nothing, the
passerby, is assisting to the aggressor and bully and destroying the victim’s sense that
there is justice in this world.
When I was bullied, I did not tell my parents about it for a long time. Part of it
was because I did not recognize the individual incidents for what they were. Part of it was
because I did not want to get into trouble, trouble them, or have them start trouble at the
school. I should have had social support from the people who saw it happening at school,
but I didn’t, and it ruined me. In fact all they did was made the bullying worse: By
ignoring it, they condoned it.
All of this left me feeling like nobody cared about me, like I was worthless and
like somehow I deserved it. When I was in the bathroom crying, no one came to help me
- I was all-alone. When the girls made fun of my hair and the way I practiced religion, no
one came to help me. When I passed an honors math placement test and was kept back
just because I was a girl, nobody listened to or helped me. Part of my self-confidence was
broken because of that.
At my new school, I got bullied somewhat but experienced more social support
and was therefore happier. Indeed, Mihalas et al. found that teacher support has a
demonstrated positive effect on students who have been bullied and improves their
symptoms of depression. Conversely, students with low teacher support showed a higher
depression score, for all the victimization statuses.7
One explanation for teacher inaction in the face of bullying could be the fact that
it simply happens all the time. Research on bullying in rural areas by J.W. Crosby found
that 66% of 244 student participants had observed bullying; one-fifth of them, or 21%,
observed it regularly enough to be described as “up to once a week.”8
It is difficult to
break the cycle of bullying either from the perspective of bullies, bullying victims or
bystanders if it is considered a “normal” part of life and the trauma it causes isn’t
recognized.
In the famous 80’s movie The Karate Kid, Daniel moves with his single mom to a
city in California. Daniel is not looking forward to the move. He makes friends well into
the beginning of the movie, but his newfound happiness dissolves when he gets into a
fight with a sadistic bully and loses. This makes him look weak to others. The physical
bullying continues. When Daniel tries out for soccer, again he gets bullied by Johnny,
who trips him and starts a physical fight. Even though Daniel already had a black eye
7
Mihalas, Stephanie T., Witherspoon. Ryan G., Harper, Meg E., Sovran, Brittany A. “The Moderating
Effect of Teacher Support on Depression and Relational Victimization in Minority Middle School
Students.” International Journal of Whole Schooling 8.1 (2012)
8
Crosby, J. W., Oehler, J., & Capaccioli, K. “The Relationship Between Peer Victimization and Post-
Traumatic Stress Symptomatology in a Rural Sample.” Psychology in the Schools, 47 (2010): 297-310.

7. from the previous fight, and the current fight was initiated by Johnny, the soccer coach- a
responsible bystander - blamed Daniel (the victim) instead of putting the blame where it
belonged.
Help comes in the form of Mr. Miyagi, the maintenance chief at his apartment
complex. He intervenes in Daniel’s situation by creating a safe space, encouraging him,
providing him with skills, and giving him the skills to defend himself in a fair forum, a
tournament. At the end of the movie, Daniel faces Johnny for that showdown and despite
illegal moves against Daniel during the competition, he ends up victorious. This movie
seemed very true to me and showed clearly how important the role of a responsible
bystander is.
Long-Term Effects
One of the issues of primary concern to researchers is the long-term effects of
bullying; without any support of any bystanders, victims are subject to prolonged stress
and get sick from it. J.D. Ford et al. published research in 2010 about adolescents who
experienced poly-victimization to look for a connection with post-traumatic stress
disorder, substance abuse, depression. A national sample of almost 5000 adolescents,
aged 12-17 participated, with females and males equally represented. They found that the
greater the quantity of physical and sexual abuse a person had experienced, the more
likely they were to have a psychiatric disorder.9
Another similar study done by Duke
University compared the information of long term effects between bullies and victims.
The study has 1420 children participants in the study from North Carolina. The findings
show that bullies have the least long term problems. The researchers found that bullies
had a lower C-reactive protein (CPR) the victim. CPR is linked to cardiovascular issues.
So in a karmic perspective it is interesting that bullies have the least risk for long term
issues.10
How about long term effects of bullying in other countries? Are there any? How
about comparing long term effect of victimization in Ireland, England, and in Russia?
One study done in Ireland by C. McGuckin et al, researched
whether
school
bullying
was
a
cause
of
PSTD,
in
Ireland.
The
researchers
assessed
the
topic
through
three
aspects,
which
included
the
frequency
of
the
bullying,
the
worst
type
of
bullying
the
victim
experienced
(in
school),
and
the
percentage
of
the
subjects
that
had
symptoms
of
PSTD
after
their
worst
bullying
experience.
There
were
154
undergraduate
student
responses
in
this
study.
The
method
of
the
study
first
asked
the
respondents
about
all
negative
school
experience,
and
then
the
respondent’s
worst
memory,
and
followed
by
a
PTSD
symptom
test.
Out
of
the
respondents
9
Ford, J. D., Elhai, J. D., Connor, D. F., & Frueh, B. C. “Poly-victimization and risk of posttraumatic,
depressive, and sub- stance use disorders and involvement in delinquency in a national sample of
adolescents.” Journal of Adolescent Health, 46.6 (2010): 545-552.
10
Zielinski, Sarah. "Bullying's Long-Term Effects Seen in Both the Bullied and the Bully." National
Geographic. National Geographic Society, 12 May 2014. Web. 8 Aug. 2014.
<http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/05/140512-bullying-health-depression-stress-science/>.

8. around
20%
(or
25
people)
were
at
risk
of
PTSD.11
Then
there
was
also
a
study
done
in
England mentioned on an NPR an article about “Mental and Physical Toll of
Bullying Persists for decades.” The article mentioned a study done in England with
18,000 children born in 1958. The researchers wanted to find how the long term effects
of bullying based on the frequency of being victimized, so in order to do that they would
interview the children every few year until the age of 50. However only 8,000 of the
children participated through the whole study. The results showed that the children
bullied frequently ended up with worse physical and mental issues such as depression,
increased suicidal thoughts, and worse mental cognition.12
Then finally in Russia there
was a
study
researching
the
relationship
between
bullying
to
psychological
and
somatic
health
problems.
There
were
2892
Russian
adolescent
who
participated
in
the
study
from
ages
12-­‐17.
The
respondents
took
a
survey
that
tested
for
how
the
respondent
got
victimized
(if
they
did),
the
frequency
of
being
victimized,
physical
symptoms,
and
mental
symptoms
(including
testing
for
PTSD).
Researchers
found
a
correlation
between
bullying
and
poor
physical
health.
For
instance,
girls
who
got
bullied
more
often
reported
problems
with
their
eyes,
while
boys
complained
about
headaches.
Both
girls
and
boys
complained
about
general
aches.
If
that
wasn’t
enough,
they
also
have
a
higher
chance
of
getting
anxiety,
PTSD,
and
depression.13
Overall
each
country
mentions
a
mental
health
risk
of
bullying,
however
only
the
study
done
by
Russia
was
the
only
one
that
found
the
poor
physical
health
long
term
effects.
Government Efforts
The United States government efforts on prevention, but is it effective? The
bullying prevention page on a US government website divides bullying prevention into
different categories such as “How to talk about bullying”, “Prevention at School”,
“Working in the Community”, and “Bullying Prevention Training Centers”.14
On the web
page that discusses ways to talk about bullying, there are tips for authorities such as
adults, teachers, and counselors. Other than just tips there are also laws and policies run
by each state, however there is no federal law that applies to all school. On the
governments website there is an image of the states that is color coded by, which states
have policies on bullying, which have laws, and which have both. Most states had both
laws and policies on bullying.15
State anti-bullying laws are ambivalent. For example,
some of the laws make bullying a criminal act, and some do not. Other laws request
11
McGuckin, C., Lewis, C. A., Cummins, P. K., & Cruise, S. M. “The stress and trauma of school
victimization in Ireland: A retrospective account.” Psychology, Society & Education, 3 (2011): 55-67.
12
Poon, Linda. "Mental And Physical Toll Of Bullying Persists For Decades." NPR. NPR, 19 Apr. 2014.
Web. 10 Aug. 2014. <http://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2014/04/19/304528674/mental-and-physical-toll-of-
bullying-persists-for-decades>.
13
Stickley A, Koyanagi A, Koposov R, McKee M, Roberts B, Ruchkin V. “Peer victimisation and its
association with psychological and somatic health problems among adolescents in northern Russia.” Child
Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health, 7 (2013): 15.
14
"Prevent Bullying." Prevent Bullying | StopBullying.gov. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services,
n.d. Web. 10 Aug. 2014. <http://www.stopbullying.gov/prevention>.
15
"Policies & Laws." Prevent Bullying | StopBullying.gov. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services,
n.d. Web. 10 Aug. 2014. < http://www.stopbullying.gov/laws/>.

9. investigations, punishments, witnesses, or some sort of support.16
State policy on bullying
includes reporting, investigating, response (to the bullying), writing reports,
consequences, and getting outside support.17
Some say that the anti-bullying law/policies
are ineffective.
An article from CBS news author, Alexander Trowbridge, “Are Anti-Bullying
Efforts Making it Worse?” discusses the ways the current anti-bullying efforts are
ineffective. The CBS news piece mentions how the results of a study done by the
University of Texas, conclude that schools with anti-bullying programs, have more
bullying than schools without a bullying program. The study included 7000 participants
nationally. According to Stuart Tremlow, a professor of health sciences at a university in
London, the reason the anti-bullying programs are ineffective is because it targets a
specific group. He says: "Bullies are not the cause of the problem. They're the result of
the problem. The problem is in the climate of the school...And when you have a lot of
bullies at a school, you have a problem with the leadership of the school. And that's
complicated.”18
The point is the all the posters and videos aren’t helpful in preventing bullying
just for the reasons suggested previously. So, the government’s anti-bullying campaign is
deemed ineffective by the means mentioned in the article.
Recommendations
I started out this study wanting to prevent the long-term effects of bullying. Then
I realized that to prevent those long-term effects, you have to go farther back and
intervene before adulthood and even before the bullying happens in the first place,
ideally. I spent my research time identifying the players in this “story” from an objective
perspective, not just at my own experience and not just looking at one or the other. I
looked at academic research, my own experiences, and representations of bullying in
popular culture. What I came away thinking was that treating each individual person, or
trying to prevent bullying, is unrealistic. Instead, it makes more sense to intervene at the
institutional level.
Instead of the typical “no tolerance” policy that schools routinely ignore, there
needs to be a real setup that makes it impossible for bullies to breed. The governing rules,
if they are enforced, stop bad behavior. It’s about being proactive rather than waiting for
things to happen. Administrators and teachers should be trained regularly, should be
interviewing students individually, and should be interviewed by external sources.
16
"Bullying Laws." Bullying Laws - Bullying Statistics. Bullying Statistics , n.d. Web. 10 Aug. 2014.
<http://www.bullyingstatistics.org/content/bullying-laws.html>.
17
"Key Components in State Anti-Bullying Laws" Prevent Bullying | StopBullying.gov. U.S. Department
of Health & Human Services, n.d. Web. 10 Aug. 2014. < http://www.stopbullying.gov/laws/key-
components/index.html >.
18
Trowbridge, Alexander. "Are anti-bullying efforts making it worse?." Are anti-bullying efforts making it
worse? - CBS News. CBS Interactive, 14 Oct. 2013. Web. 11 Aug. 2014.
<http://www.cbsnews.com/news/are-anti-bullying-efforts-making-it-worse/>.

10. Education is more than just knowing a subject and transmitting what it says in a book.
It’s about living a set of values in a real way. Schools that look the other way while
bullying is happening are making sure that it happens again and again.
Conclusion
As I wrote this paper, I found that it was only through looking at the profiles of
bullies, victims, and bystanders that the roots of bullying could be found. Overall, the
best way to prevent bullying is not by targeting bullies, or victims themselves, but by
creating a helpful, socially supportive environment, in which the teachers (and other
authorities) become involved in a healthy way. Government, schools, and other
authorities must recognize where the problem in the bullying dynamic lies and not ignore
it. Since bullying is a global issue, it is vital to spread awareness, so that we can create a
real “bully-free” zone worldwide.
Bibliography:
• "Facts About Bullying." Home. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services,
n.d. Web. 9 July 2014. <http://www.stopbullying.gov/news/media/facts/#listing>.
• Nickerson, A. B., & Slater, E. D. “School and community violence and
victimization as predictors of adolescent suicidal behavior.” School Psychology
Re- view, 38 (2009): 218–232.
• Cook, Clayton R., Kirk R. Williams, Nancy G. Guerra, Tia E. Kim, and Shelly
Sadek. “Predictors of bullying and victimization in childhood and adolescence: A
meta-analytic investigation.” School Psychology Quarterly, 25.2 (2010): 65–83.
• Mihalas, Stephanie T., Witherspoon. Ryan G., Harper, Meg E., Sovran, Brittany
A. “The Moderating Effect of Teacher Support on Depression and Relational
Victimization in Minority Middle School Students.” International Journal of
Whole Schooling 8.1 (2012)
• Crosby, J. W., Oehler, J., & Capaccioli, K. “The Relationship Between Peer
Victimization and Post-Traumatic Stress Symptomatology in a Rural Sample.”
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