Module 2: Methods of Ethical Analysis Application of Ethical Theories In module 1, we acquired a foundation in classical ethical theories. In this module, we will learn how to apply this knowledge to ethical challenges in today's business world and, more specifically, to the area of information technology. As we learned in module 1, the main traditional ethical theories tend to be either rule-based (deontological) or consequentialist (teleological). Both types of theories provide a framework for deciding whether actions are right, depending upon the consequences that result from the action (consequentialist) or whether the action follows the relevant rules for ethical behavior (deontological). Traditional ethical theories were intended to apply universally to ethical dilemmas and obviously didn't factor in issues such as marketplace competition, stockholders, and today's ever-changing world of information technology. Today's IT manager needs to be able to address ethical issues and to find resolutions in concrete business terms rather than engage in a philosophical ethical debate. However, we can use those theories to guide our ethical decision-making process. In addition to the ethical theories already presented, business ethics attempts to take traditional ethics and apply them practically to a business context. The normative theories of business ethics (NTBE), introduced to the information systems community in large part by Smith and Hasnas, provide three basic approaches to ethical problems: stockholder, stakeholder, and social contract theories (Smith, 2002). In this section, we will introduce those theories as well as make connections to classical theory. Normative Theories of Business Ethics As its name indicates, the stockholder theory of NTBE focuses on making ethical decisions that benefit stockholders. According to this theory, because stockholders have invested in the company for their own profit, actions taken by the company should be focused on benefiting the bottom line. A manager or employee has a responsibility to use corporate resources in ways that do not take away from the stockholders' benefits. Stockholder theory instructs managers to act within legal constraints. It does not instruct or encourage managers to ignore ethical constraints. Stakeholder theory expands a manager's responsibility beyond the stockholders to include anyone with an interest in the firm. This could include employees, customers, stockholders, and potentially even competitors. Given that there is a potential conflict among the interests of the various stakeholders, the manager's challenge is to balance those interests and to provide the best possible solution that does not substantially infringe on any individual stakeholder group. According to social contract theory, businesses have ethical obligations to benefit society by fulfilling customer and employee interests within the generally accepted rules or codes. If there were a hypothetical contract ...

1. Module 2: Methods of Ethical Analysis
Application of Ethical Theories
In module 1, we acquired a foundation in classical ethical
theories. In this module, we will learn how to apply this
knowledge to ethical challenges in today's business world and,
more specifically, to the area of information technology.
As we learned in module 1, the main traditional ethical theories
tend to be either rule-based (deontological) or consequentialist
(teleological). Both types of theories provide a framework for
deciding whether actions are right, depending upon the
consequences that result from the action (consequentialist) or
whether the action follows the relevant rules for ethical
behavior (deontological). Traditional ethical theories were
intended to apply universally to ethical dilemmas and obviously
didn't factor in issues such as marketplace competition,
stockholders, and today's ever-changing world of information
technology. Today's IT manager needs to be able to address
ethical issues and to find resolutions in concrete business terms
rather than engage in a philosophical ethical debate. However,
we can use those theories to guide our ethical decision-making
process.
In addition to the ethical theories already presented, business
ethics attempts to take traditional ethics and apply them
practically to a business context. The normative theories of
business ethics (NTBE), introduced to the information systems
community in large part by Smith and Hasnas, provide three
basic approaches to ethical problems: stockholder, stakeholder,
and social contract theories (Smith, 2002). In this section, we
will introduce those theories as well as make connections to
classical theory.
Normative Theories of Business Ethics
As its name indicates, the stockholder theory of NTBE focuses
on making ethical decisions that benefit stockholders.
According to this theory, because stockholders have invested in

2. the company for their own profit, actions taken by the company
should be focused on benefiting the bottom line. A manager or
employee has a responsibility to use corporate resources in
ways that do not take away from the stockholders' benefits.
Stockholder theory instructs managers to act within legal
constraints. It does not instruct or encourage managers to ignore
ethical constraints.
Stakeholder theory expands a manager's responsibility beyond
the stockholders to include anyone with an interest in the firm.
This could include employees, customers, stockholders, and
potentially even competitors. Given that there is a potential
conflict among the interests of the various stakeholders, the
manager's challenge is to balance those interests and to provide
the best possible solution that does not substantially infringe on
any individual stakeholder group.
According to social contract theory, businesses have ethical
obligations to benefit society by fulfilling customer and
employee interests within the generally accepted rules or codes.
If there were a hypothetical contract between society and a
group of individuals who wished to establish a business, what
would the latter need from society—and what would society
expect in return? The terms of this hypothetical contract would
outline both those sets of expectations. Therefore, in giving the
group of individuals rights to act as an organization, use
resources, and hire employees, a society would have
expectations related to fair treatment of employees, appropriate
uses of natural resources, and so on. (Smith, 2002).
Figure 2.1 illustrates the various links between business ethics
and traditional ethical theories to show the continuing relevance
of the latter. To find out more about the connections between
NTBE and traditional ethics, click on the titles under Normative
Theories of Business Ethics and read the information contained
in the pop-up.
Figure 2.1
Linkages between Traditional Ethical and Business Ethics
Frameworks

3. (Adapted from Smith, H. J. (2002). Ethics and Information
Systems: Resolving the Quandaries. The DATABASE for
Advances in Information Systems (Summer 2002), p. 5.)
Methods for Ethical Analysis
Now that you've had some practice in working through an
ethical decision-making scenario, let's look at various structured
approaches for addressing such situations. There are several
ways to systematically approach an ethical dilemma. Each has
merits, and each will result in an ethical decision if
straightforwardly and honestly applied. As you will see, the
various approaches are similar yet have somewhat different
slants.
Reynolds Seven-Step Approach
George Reynolds uses a seven-step ethical decision-making
approach that is summarized in table 2.1.
Table 2.1
Reynolds' Seven-Step Ethical Decision-Making Approach
Steps
Description
1. Get the facts
Before proceeding, ensure that you have assembled the relevant
facts regarding the ethical issue that you're addressing.
2. Identify the stakeholders
Identify who is impacted by this situation and its subsequent
resolution. Define what their role is as well as what would be
the best-case outcome for each stakeholder group.
3. Consider the consequences
What are the benefits and/or harm that could come from your
decision to you individually, the stakeholders, and the
organization as a whole?
4. Evaluate the various guidelines, policies, and principles
First look to any applicable laws, then to any existing corporate
policies, ethical codes, and individual principles. Look at the
application of traditional ethical theories as well as Normative
Theories of Business Ethics.

4. 5. Develop and evaluate options
You may identify several possible solutions and may find it
useful to support each with key principles that support the
recommendation. Your chosen solution should be ethically
defendable and, at the same time, meet the stakeholder and
organizational needs and obligations.
6. Review your decision
Review your decision in relationship to your personal and the
organization's values. Would others see this as a good and right
decision?
7. Evaluate the results
Did the final outcome achieve the desired results? This is an
important step to help develop and increase your decision-
making abilities.
(Adapted from Reynolds, G. W. (2003). Ethics in Information
Technology, pp.115-118.)
Kidder's Nine-Steps
In his book How Good People Make Tough Choices, Rushworth
Kidder presents a similar process; however, he defines four
dilemmas by which various moral issues could be categorized
(Kidder, 1995, p.18).
· Truth versus loyalty
· Individual versus community
· Short-term versus long-term
· Justice versus mercy
Kidder's Nine-Steps are:
1. Recognize that there is a moral issue.
2. Determine the actor (whose moral issue is it?).
3. Gather the relevant facts.
4. Test for right-versus-wrong issues.
5. Test for right-versus-right paradigms (what sort of dilemma
is this?).
6. Apply the resolution principles (ends-based, rule-based, or
care-based).
7. Investigate the "trilemma" options (look for common ground
or compromise).

5. 8. Make the decision.
9. Revisit and reflect on the decision. (Kidder, 1995, p. 183-
187)
Kidder places "recognize that there is a moral issue" as the first
step in the analysis for two reasons. First, it helps to ensure that
issues receive the attention required. Secondly, it encourages a
person to adequately address moral questions and distinguish
moral issues from other situations involving social conventions
or contradictory values that could be "economic, technological,
or aesthetic" rather than moral issues (Kidder, 1995, p. 183).
After evaluating for legal compliance, Kidder advocates some
common sense checks such as "How would you feel if what you
are about to do showed up tomorrow morning on the front pages
of the nation's newspapers?" Then, he evaluates the issue to
identify which of the four dilemmas listed above apply to gain
better clarity around the dilemma, identifying the conflict at
hand. (Kidder, 1995, p. 184).
Spinello's Seven-Step Process
Richard Spinello provides a similar seven-step process for
ethical analysis designed specifically for IT professionals, and
it is geared toward development of public policy and law. His
sixth step entails adding an original normative conclusion: what
should happen? His seventh step includes the questions: "What
are the public-policy implications of this case and your
normative recommendations? Should the recommended behavior
be prescribed through policies and laws?" This approach can be
useful for IT organizations seeking to better structure and
define policies and procedures (Spinello, 1997, p. 45).
Here are all Seven-Steps:
1. Identify and formulate the basic ethical issues in each case.
Also, consider legal issues and whether ethical and legal issues
are in conflict.
2. What are your first impressions, your moral intuition about
the problem?
3. Consult appropriate formal guidelines, the ethical and/or
professional codes.

6. 4. Analyze the issues from the viewpoint of one or more of the
three ethical frameworks.
5. Do the theories lead to a single solution, or do they offer
competing alternatives? If competing, which principle or avenue
of reasoning should take precedence?
6. What is your normative conclusion—what should happen?
7. What are the public-policy implications of this case and your
normative recommendations? Should the recommended behavior
be prescribed through policies and laws?
Many common business activities, such as process
improvement, problem solving, and project management, have
defined approaches to support their process. To effectively
make ethical decisions, it also is extremely useful to have a
structure to approach the problem. As a beginning step, have an
understanding of the available methodologies for approaching
the issue in an objective manner. Eventually, skill and
experience in applying the process will enable you to explain
your process and subsequent recommendations to other
stakeholders.
One of the challenges for those working in IT is the lack of
precedence in some situations. The more you can apply a well-
grounded methodology when faced with a new or ambiguous
ethical dilemma, the greater the likelihood that you can come to
an ethical solution that will effectively balance individual,
organizational, and/or social concerns with good business.
Ultimately, you need to use an analytical approach that works
for you and for your organization. It may be one of the
approaches we've discussed, or it may be a hybrid. Individual
values will also drive the approach. In addition to these
theories, corporations and professional associations have
attempted to provide guidance through corporate codes of
conduct or professional codes of ethics. Corporate codes of
conduct typically are intended to apply to all employees and,
therefore, do not specifically address IT issues. However, some
IT organizations establish additional policies related to software
use and so on. Professional associations, such as

7. the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), have
established code of ethics for its members to help guide their
activities.
Many of the ethical issues that arise within the field of
information technology fall into similar areas. Richard Mason, a
professor in Management Information Systems, has identified
four ethical areas in the Information Age that have been widely
accepted as key issues (Mason, 1986):
· Privacy
· Accuracy
· Property
· Accessibility
These will be discussed in more detail in module 3.
Module 1: Introduction to Ethical Theories
Introduction to Ethical Theories
The concepts of ethics, character, right and wrong, and good
and evil have captivated humankind since we began to live in
groups, communicate, and pass judgment on each other. The
morality of our actions is based on motivation, group rules and
norms, and the end result. The difficult questions of ethics and
information technology (IT) may not have been considered by
previous generations, but what is good, evil, right, and wrong in
human behavior certainly has been. With these historical
foundations and systematic analyses of present-day and future
IT challenges, we are equipped for both the varied ethical
battles we will face and the ethical successes we desire.
Although most of you will be called upon to practice applied
ethics in typical business situations, you'll find that the
foundation for such application is a basic understanding of
fundamental ethical theories. These ethical theories include the
work of ancient philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. This
module introduces the widely accepted core ethical
philosophies, which will serve to provide you with a basic
understanding of ethical thought. With this knowledge, you can

8. begin to relate these theoretical frameworks to practical ethical
applications in today's IT environment.
Let's start with a fundamental question: "Why be ethical
and moral?" At the most existential level, it may not matter. But
we don't live our lives in a vacuum—we live our lives with our
friends, relatives, acquaintances, co-workers, strangers, and
fellow wanderers. To be ethical and moral allows us to be
counted upon by others and to be better than we would
otherwise be. This, in turn, engenders trust and allows us to
have productive relationships with other people and in society.
Our ethical system, supported by critical thinking skills, is what
enables us to make distinctions between what is good, bad,
right, or wrong.
An individual's ethical system is based upon his or her personal
values and beliefs as they relate to what is important and is,
therefore, highly individualized. Values are things that are
important to us. "Values can be categorized into three areas:
Moral (fairness, truth, justice, love, happiness), Pragmatic
(efficiency, thrift, health, variety, patience) and Aesthetic
(attractive, soft, cold, square)" (Navran, n.d.). Moral values
influence our ethical system. These values may or may not be
supported by individual beliefs. For example, a person is faced
with a decision—he borrowed a friend's car and accidentally
backed into a tree stump, denting the fender—should he confess
or make up a story about how it happened when the car was
parked? If he had a personal value of honesty, he would decide
not to lie to his friend. Or, he could have a strong belief that
lying is wrong because it shows disrespect for another person
and, therefore, he would tell the truth. In either case, the ethical
decision making was influenced by his system of values or
beliefs. These may come from family, culture, experience,
education, and so on.
This discussion brings us to the term ethics. Frank Navran,
principal consultant with the Ethics Resource Center (ERC),
defines ethics as "the study of what we understand to be good
and right behavior and how people make those judgments"

9. (n.d.). Behavior that is consistent with one's moral values would
be considered ethical behavior. Actions that are inconsistent
with one's view of right, just, and good are considered unethical
behavior. However, it is important to note that determining what
is ethical is not just an individual decision—it also is
determined societally.
We will witness this larger social dimension in this course,
which is designed to provide you with an understanding of the
specific ethical issues that have arisen as information
technology has evolved over the last few decades. The very
changes that enhanced technology causes in society also create
ethical issues and dilemmas not previously encountered. The
lack of precedent in many areas, combined with the ease of
potentially operating outside of ethical paradigms, pose
significant challenges to end users, IT analysts, programmers,
technicians, and managers of information systems. We must be
prepared logically and scientifically to understand ethics and to
practice using ethical guidelines in order to achieve good and
right solutions and to plan courses of action in times of change
and uncertainty.
You can see from the benefits discussed above that knowledge,
respect for, and a deeper understanding of norms and laws and
their source—ethics and morals—is extremely useful. Ethical
thought and theories are tools to facilitate our ethical decision-
making process. They can provide the foundation on which to
build a great company, or to become a better and more
productive employee, a better neighbor, and a better person.
Still, some professionals may wonder "Why study ethics?"
Robert Hartley, author of Business Ethics: Violations of the
Public Trust (Hartley, 1993, pp. 322–324) closes his book with
four insights, which speak directly to this question for business
and IT professionals. They are:
· The modern era is one of caveat vendidor, "Let the seller
beware." For IT managers, this is an important reason to
understand and practice ethics.
· In business (and in life), adversity is not forever. But Hartley

10. points out that when business problems are handled unethically,
the adversity becomes a permanent flaw and results in company,
organization, and individual failure.
· Trusting relationships (with customers, employees, and
suppliers) are critical keys to success. Ethical behavior is part
and parcel of building and maintaining the trust relationship,
and hence business success.
· One person can make a difference. This difference may be for
good or evil, but one person equipped with the understanding of
ethical decision-making, either by acting on it or simply
articulating it to others, changes history. This sometimes takes
courage or steadfastness—qualities that spring from basic
ethical confidence.
In the world of information technology today and in the future,
the application of these ethical theories to day-to-day and
strategic decision making is particularly relevant. The ability to
garner personal, corporate, and governmental information and to
disseminate this data in thousands of applications with various
configurations and components brings significant
responsibilities to ensure the privacy, accuracy, and integrity of
such information. The drive to collect and distribute data at
increasing volume and speed, whether for competitive
advantage in the marketplace or homeland security cannot
overshadow the IT manager's responsibility to provide
appropriate controls, processes, and procedures to protect
individual and organizational rights.
Let's begin building our understanding of several predominant
ethical theories. Ethical theories typically begin with the
premise that what is being evaluated is good or bad, right or
wrong. Theorists seek to examine either the basic nature of the
act or the results the act brings about. As Deborah Johnson
(2001, p. 29) states in Computer Ethics, philosophical ethics is
normative (explaining how things should be, not how they are at
any given moment) and ethical theories are prescriptive
(prescribing the "desired" behavior). Frameworks for ethical
analysis aim to shape or guide the most beneficial outcome or

11. behavior. There are two main categories of normative ethical
theories: teleology anddeontology. Telos refers
to end and deon refers to that which is obligatory. These
theories address the fundamental question of whether the
"means justify the end" or the "end justifies the means."
Deontological ethical systems focus on the principle of the
matter (the means), not the end result. In contrast, teleological
ethical systems address the resulting consequences of an action
(the ends).
Teleology (Consequentialism)
Teleological theories focus on maximizing the goodness of the
cumulative end result of a decision or action. In determining
action, one considers the good of the end result before the
immediate rightness of the action itself. These theories focus on
consequences of an action or decision and are often referred to
as consequentialism. Teleological theories include
utilitarianism, ethical egoism, and common good ethics.
Utilitarianism
The most prevalent example of a teleological theory
is utilitarianism, often associated with the writings of John
Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham. Utilitarianism looks for the
greatest good for the greatest number of people, including
oneself. Individual rights and entitlements are subservient to the
general welfare. There are two main subtypes: act-utilitarianism
(for which the rules are more like rules-of-thumb/guidelines)
and rule-utilitarianism (for which the rules are more tightly
defined and critical). Utilitarianism requires consideration of
actions that generate the best overall consequences for all
parties involved. This entails:
· cost/benefit analysis
· determination of the greatest good or happiness for the
greatest number
· identifying the action that will maximize benefits for the
greatest number of stakeholders of the organization
This quote explains a bit more: "The fathers of utilitarianism
thought of it principally as a system of social and political

12. decision, as offering a criterion and basis of judgment for
legislators and administrators" (Williams, 1993, p. 135).
Utilitarianism is geared to administrative and organizational
decision-making, given that in complex systems or
relationships, a single individual may not have the resources to
determine the overall benefit to the total number of people
affected by the decisions.
Ethical Egoism and Altruism
Egoism is maximizing your own benefits and minimizing harm
to yourself. This is sometimes thought of as
behavioral Darwinism, and clearly it guides decision-making
with an eye toward basic survival. Although different aspects of
this theory debate whether all human behavior is self-serving or
should be self-serving, it is impossible to know with certainty
what internally motivates an individual.
Altruism determines decisions and actions based on the interests
of others, the perceived maximized good for others, often at
one's own expense or in a way directly opposed to the egoist
alternative.
Further debate can be found over whether ethical egoism also
incorporates an element of altruism. For example, a network
engineer working for a vendor recommends to a client a network
security installation that generates a substantial commission for
the engineer. However, this installation also provides maximum
network security for the benefit of the client. Is this self-serving
or altruistic? The inability to distinguish pure motives in most
practical applications, along with the inherent conflict resulting
from competing self-interests, leads to an unsurprising result:
these theories are not typically used in generally accepted
frameworks for ethical decision-making.
The Common Good
The common-good approach comes from the teachings and
writings of Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and Rawls. It is based on an
assumption that within our society, certain general conditions
are equally advantageous to all and should therefore be
maximized. These conditions include health care, safety, peace,

13. justice, and the environment. This is different from
utilitarianism in that utilitarianism strives for the maximum
good for the most (but not necessarily all) people. The common-
good approach sets aside only those conditions that apply to all.
All teleological theories focus on the end result: what's best for
me, what's best for you, or what's best for some or all of us.
One important factor in using teleological frameworks as a
guide to action is that you need to be able to understand
accurately and project the end result for the variety of affected
groups. For egoism and altruism, this is perhaps not difficult.
For larger, more remote, and less-well-understood groups,
teleological theories can lead to acts that in turn become the
bricks paving the road of good intentions. However, in
information technology, where many people are affected either
positively or negatively by the acts of a few, teleological
theories can be very helpful.
Deontology (Rights and Duties)
Deontological theories focus on defining the right action
independently of and prior to considerations of the goodness or
badness of the outcomes. The prefix deon refers to duty or
obligation—one acts because one is bound by honor or training
to act in the right manner, regardless of the outcome.
Deontological theories include those that focus on protection of
universal rights and execution of universal duties, as well as
those that protect less universal rights and more specific duties.
These rights and duties are usually learned and are often
codified in some traditional way. For example, theologism is a
deontological theory based on the Ten Commandments. Boy
Scouts have a code that is intended as a guide to the rights of
others and personal duties. Deontology uses one's duty as the
guide to action, regardless of the end results.
Kant's Categorical Imperative
Deontological theories are most often associated with Immanuel
Kant and his categorical imperative. Kant's famous categorical
imperative takes two forms:
1. You ought never act in any way unless that way or act can be

14. made into a universal maxim (i.e., your act may be
universalized for all people), and
2. Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person
or that of another, always as an end and never only as a means.
Kant's duty-based approach might directly conflict with
teleological approaches, for in a utilitarian solution, individuals
could very easily serve as the means for other ends. Duty-based
ethical analysis leads a manager to consider the following
questions:
1. What if everyone did what I'm about to do? What kind of
world would this be? Can I universalize the course of action I
am considering?
2. Does this course of action violate any basic ethical duties?
3. Are there alternatives that better conform to these duties? If
each alternative seems to violate one duty or another, which is
the stronger duty?
Duty-Based Ethics (Pluralism)
A duty-based approach to ethics focuses on the universally
recognized duties that we are morally compelled to do. There
are several "duties" that are recognized by most cultures as
being binding and self-evident. These duties include being
honest, being fair, making reparations, working toward self-
improvement, and not hurting others. A duty-based approach
would put these obligations ahead of the end result, regardless
of what it may be. Pluralism includes the care-based ethical
approach based simply on the Golden Rule, "Do unto others as
you would have them do unto you."
Rights-Based Ethics (Contractarianism)
A rights-based approach to ethics has its roots in the social
contract philosophies of Rousseau, Hobbes, and John Locke.
These ideas are also at the foundation of the United States form
of government and history, and rights (whether natural or
granted by governments) are intensely held American
ideological values. Because the global information technology
leadership is fundamentally an American creation, contractarian
philosophical approaches in IT are widely used, even if we don't

15. think about it overtly. When invoking a rights-based or
contractarian framework, managers must carefully consider the
rights of affected parties:
· Which action or policy best upholds the human rights of the
individuals involved?
· Do any alternatives under consideration violate their
fundamental human rights (i.e., liberty, privacy, and so on)?
· Do any alternatives under consideration violate their
institutional or legal rights (e.g., rights derived from a contract
or other institutional arrangement)?
Fairness and Justice
The fairness-and-justice approach is based on the teachings of
Aristotle. It is quite simple: equals should be treated equally.
Favoritism, a situation where some benefit for no justifiable
reason, is unethical. Discrimination, a situation where a burden
is imposed on some who are not relevantly different from the
others, is also unethical. This approach is deontological because
it simply identifies a right and a duty, and does not specifically
consider the end result.
Virtue Ethics
Whereas teleological theories focus on results or consequences
and deontological theories relate to rights and duties, the virtue
ethicsapproach attributes ethics to personal attitudes or
character traits and encourages all to develop to their highest
potential. This theory includes the virtues themselves: "motives
and moral character, moral education, moral wisdom or
discernment, friendship and family relationships, a deep concept
of happiness, the role of emotions in one's moral life and the
fundamentally important questions of what sort of person I
should be and how I should live my life" (Hursthouse, 2003).
When faced with an ethical dilemma, a virtue ethicist would
focus on the character traits of honesty, generosity, or
compassion, for example, rather than consequences or rules.
Virtue ethics is included in the area of what is referred to as
normative ethics.
The table below helps to organize the various ethical theories

16. for you. Note that these theories have evolved over time, and
there are some overlapping ideas and theorists.
Major Ethical Theories
Theory
Key Players
Explanation
Utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill, Jeremy Bentham
Seeks the greatest good for the greatest number of people;
wants to make the world a better place
Egoism
Epicurus, Thomas Hobbes
Seeks to maximize one's individual benefit and minimize harm
to self; key idea: survival.
Altruism
Auguste Comte
Seeks to maximize decisions and actions based on interests of
others, even if at own individual expense; opposite of egoism.
Common Good
Plato, Aristotle, Cicero and Rawls
Based on the assumption that within society, we are all pursuing
common goals and values.
Duty-Based or Pluralism
Immanuel Kant
Based on Kant's categorical imperative: all acts can be made
into a universal maximum; act always as an end (not a means)
Rights-Based (Contractarianism)
Rousseau, Hobbes, and John Locke
Seeks action or policy that best upholds the human rights of
individuals involved (foundation for United States form of

17. government).
Fairness and Justice Approach
Aristotle
Equals should be treated equally; favoritism and discrimination
are unethical.
Virtue
Predominantly influenced by Plato and Artistotle
Seeks to encourage all to develop to their highest potential
Computer Ethics
What is computer ethics? This term can be used in a variety of
ways. It may refer to applying traditional ethical theories to IT
situations, or it may entail the broader application that we see
with the prevalence of ethical codes, standards of conduct, and
new areas of computer law and policy. There also is an
increasing interest in how sociology and psychology relate to
computing. Scholars generally agree that the study of computer
ethics began with Norbert Wiener, an MIT professor who
worked during World War II to develop an anti-aircraft cannon.
His work in the 1940s prompted Wiener and his associates to
create a new field of study that Wiener labeled cybernetics.
Their work fostered the development of several ethical
conclusions regarding the potential implications of this type of
advanced technology. Wiener published his book, The Human
Use of Human Beings, in 1950. Although the term computer
ethics was not used by Wiener and it was decades later that the
term came into general use, his work certainly laid the
foundation for future study and analysis. His book became a
cornerstone for the study of computer ethics. In it, Wiener talks
about the purpose of human life and the four principles of
justice, but he also offers discussion, application, and examples
of what would come to be recognized as computer ethics.
(Bynum, 2001)
It wasn't until the 1970s that computer ethics began to garner
interest. Walter Maner, a university professor then at Old

18. Dominion University, offered a course in computer ethics to
examine the ethical problems created, exacerbated, or changed
due to computer technology (Bynum, 2001). Through the 70s
and 80s, interest increased in this area, and in 1985, Deborah
Johnson (previously referenced in this module) authored the
first textbook on the subject, Computer Ethics. Both Maner and
Johnson advocated the application of concepts from the ethical
theories of utilitarianism and Kantianism. However, in 1985,
James Moor published a broader definition of computer ethics
in his article "What is Computer Ethics?" He states: "computer
ethics is the analysis of the nature and social impact of
computer technology and the corresponding formulation and
justification of policies for the ethical use of such technology"
(Moor, 1985, p. 266). His definition was in line with several
frameworks for ethical problem-solving rather than the specific
application of any philosopher's theory. With the potentially
limitless ability of computing comes a dynamic, evolutionary
flow of related ethical dilemmas. Moor indicated that as
computer technology became more entwined with people and
their everyday activities, the ethical challenges would become
more difficult to conceptualize and do not lend themselves to
the development of a static set of rules (Moor, 1985).
Throughout the 1990s and continuing into the new millennium,
we've seen tremendous developments in the field of technology.
Not surprisingly, with these developments, we've seen the wide-
spread adoption of computers to almost every application
imaginable, including the affordability and prevalence of
computers in homes and businesses. Professional associations
have adopted codes of conduct for their members, organizations
have developed ethical codes and standards of conduct for
employees, and the IT field has focused increased efforts in
addressing the ethical situations and challenges that have
unfolded.
In the following modules, we will explore how to apply these
traditional theories and analysis and problem-solving
frameworks to effectively understand and address ethical

19. challenges in the information age.
Week Two Assignment Paper A
Instructions
Paper A: Application of a decision making framework to an IT-
related ethical issue.
For this assignment, you are given an opportunity to explore
and apply a decision making framework to an IT-related ethical
issue. A framework provides a methodical and systematic
approach for decision making. UMUCModule 2 - Methods of
Ethical Analysis describes three structured frameworks that may
be used for ethical analysis, namely Reynolds Seven-Step
Approach, Kidder’s Nine Steps, and Spinello’s Seven-Step
Process. There are several ways described in UMUC Module 2
to systematically approach an ethical dilemma, and while each
of the frameworks described has its merits, each will result in
an ethical decision if straightforwardly and honestly applied.
In addition, you will want to consider the ethical theories
described in Module 1 – Introduction to Theoretical Ethical
Frameworks, which help decision makers find the right balance
concerning the acceptability of and justification for their
actions. A separate write-up of the ethical theory that supports
your decision is part of the following requirements.
For this paper, the following elements must be addressed:
1. Describe a current IT-related ethical issue: Since this is a
paper exercise, not a real-time situation, you may want to
construct a brief scenario where this issue comes into play, and
thus causes an ethical dilemma. The dilemma may affect you,
your family, your job, or your company; or it may be a matter of
public policy or law that affects the general populace.
Ethical Issue
Social Networking: What are some of the ethical issues
surrounding using new social networks? How are these now
considered for business use? What are business social

20. communities? Are new/different protections and security needed
for these networks?
2. Define a concise problem statement that is extracted from the
above description or scenario. It is best if you define a specific
problem caused by the dilemma, that needs a specific ethical
decision to be made, that will solve the dilemma. Be aware that
if it is a matter of public policy or law, that it may require a
regulatory body or congressional approval to take action to
implement a solution.
3. Analyze your problem using one of the structured decision-
making frameworks chosen from Module 2. Make sure that you
identify the decision-making framework utilized. In addition,
the steps in the decision-making framework selected must be
used as major headings in the Analysis section.
4. Consider and state the impact of the decision that you
made on an individual, an organization, stakeholders, customers
suppliers, and the environment, as applicable!
5. State and discuss the applicable ethical theoryfrom Module
1 that supports your decision.
Concerning your paper:
· Prepare a minimum 3-5 page, double-spaced paper.
· Provide appropriate American Psychological Association
(APA) source citations for all sources you use.
For example, Kidder’s approach, which is contained in Module
1, has nine steps, which are:
· Recognize that there is a moral issue.
· Determine the actor (whose moral issue is it?).
· Gather the relevant facts.
· Test for right-versus-wrong issues.
· Test for right-versus-right paradigms (what sort of dilemma is
this?).

21. · Apply the resolution principles (ends-based, rule-based, or
care-based).
· Investigate the "trilemma" options (look for common ground
or compromise).
· Make the decision.
· Revisit and reflect on the decision. (Kidder, 1995, p. 183-187)
Reminder:Each of the steps for whatever framework that you
select must be a major heading in the Analysis section of your
paper.