Interpersonal Communication Eighth Edition Chapter 3 Interpersonal Communication and Perception This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images;any rental, lease, or lending of the program Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to: 3.1 Define perception, and explain the three stages of interpersonal perception. 3.2 List and describe the strategies we use to form impressions of others. 3.3 List and describe the strategies we use to interpret the behavior of others. 3.4 Identify the eight factors that distort the accuracy of interpersonal perception. 3.5 Identify and apply five suggestions for improving interpersonal perception. * Understanding Interpersonal Perception (1 of 5) 3.1 Define perception, and explain the three stages of interpersonal perception. Defining PerceptionYour perceptions of people go beyond simple interpretations of sensory information. Interpersonal perception Passive perception Active perception Perception: the process of experiencing the world and making sense out of what you experience Interpersonal perception: process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting your observations of other people Passive perception: perception that occurs without conscious effort, simply in response to one’s surroundings Active perception: perception that occurs because you seek out specific information through intentional observation and questioning * Understanding Interpersonal Perception (2 of 5) What do you think is happening in this photograph? Your interpretation reflects interpersonal perception. Understanding Interpersonal Perception (3 of 5) The Stages of PerceptionStage 1: Selecting We perceive and remember selectively Selective perception Selective attention Selective exposure Selective recall We thin slice. Selective perception: process of seeing, hearing, or making sense of the world around us based on factors as our personality, beliefs, attitudes, hopes, fears, and culture, as well as what we like and don’t like Selective attention: process of focusing on specific stimuli, locking on to somethings in the environment and ignoring others Selective exposure: tendency to put ourselves in situations that reinforce our attitudes, beliefs, values, or behaviors Selective recall: process that occurs when we remember things we want to remember and forget or repress things that are unpleasant, uncomfortable, or unimportant to us Thin-slicing: observing a small sample of someone’s behavior and then making a generalization about what the person is like, based on the sample * Understanding Interpersonal Perception (4 of 5) When we observe others, we gather information about them and ascribe motives and causes to their behaviors—sometimes inc.

1. Interpersonal Communication
Eighth Edition
Chapter 3
Interpersonal Communication and Perception
This multimedia product and its contents are protected under
copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public
performance or display, including transmission of any image
over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including
the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images;any rental,
lease, or lending of the program
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
3.1 Define perception, and explain the three stages of
interpersonal perception.
3.2 List and describe the strategies we use to form impressions
of others.
3.3 List and describe the strategies we use to interpret the
behavior of others.
3.4 Identify the eight factors that distort the accuracy of
interpersonal perception.
3.5 Identify and apply five suggestions for improving
interpersonal perception.
*

2. Understanding Interpersonal Perception (1 of 5)
3.1 Define perception, and explain the three stages of
interpersonal perception.
Defining PerceptionYour perceptions of people go beyond
simple interpretations of sensory information.
Interpersonal perception
Passive perception
Active perception
Perception: the process of experiencing the world and making
sense out of what you experience
Interpersonal perception: process of selecting, organizing, and
interpreting your observations of other people
Passive perception: perception that occurs without conscious
effort, simply in response to one’s surroundings
Active perception: perception that occurs because you seek out
specific information through intentional observation and
questioning
*
Understanding Interpersonal Perception (2 of 5)
What do you think is happening in this photograph? Your
interpretation reflects interpersonal perception.
Understanding Interpersonal Perception (3 of 5)
The Stages of PerceptionStage 1: Selecting
We perceive and remember selectively
Selective perception
Selective attention
Selective exposure

3. Selective recall
We thin slice.
Selective perception: process of seeing, hearing, or making
sense of the world around us based on factors as our
personality, beliefs, attitudes, hopes, fears, and culture, as well
as what we like and don’t like
Selective attention: process of focusing on specific stimuli,
locking on to somethings in the environment and ignoring
others
Selective exposure: tendency to put ourselves in situations that
reinforce our attitudes, beliefs, values, or behaviors
Selective recall: process that occurs when we remember things
we want to remember and forget or repress things that are
unpleasant, uncomfortable, or unimportant to us
Thin-slicing: observing a small sample of someone’s behavior
and then making a generalization about what the person is like,
based on the sample
*
Understanding Interpersonal Perception (4 of 5)
When we observe others, we gather information about them and
ascribe motives and causes to their behaviors—sometimes
incorrectly. What do you perceive about this couple’s
relationship? What might they be discussing?
Understanding Interpersonal Perception (5 of 5)
The Stages of Perception (continued)Stage 2: Organizing
Cognitive schema
We create, or superimpose, categories.
We link categories through punctuation.

4. We seek closure.Stage 3: Interpreting
Cognitive schema: a mental framework used to organize and
categorize human experiences
Superimpose: to place a familiar structure on information you
select
Punctuation: process of making sense out of stimuli by
grouping, dividing, organizing, separating, and categorizing
information
Closure: process of filling in missing information or gaps in
what we perceive
*
Figure 3.1 What do you see?
*
Forming Impressions of Others (1 of 5)
3.2 List and describe the strategies we use to form impressions
of others.The perceptions you use to interpret behavior are
impressions.Impression formation theory explains how we form
use, and interpret perceptions about people.
Impressions: collection of perceptions about others that you
maintain and use to interpret their behaviors
Impression formation theory: explains how you develop
perceptions about people and how you maintain and use those

5. perceptions to interpret those behaviors
*
Forming Impressions of Others (2 of 5)
We Develop Our Own Theories About Others
Implicit personality theory consists of the personal assumptions
you make about other people’s personalities.We develop
categories, or constructs.Uncertainty reduction theory
Implicit assumptions and expectations
color our impressions of others.
Implicit personality theory: your unique set of beliefs and
hypotheses about what people are like
Construct: bipolar quality or continuum used to classify people
Uncertainty reduction theory: claims people seek information in
order to reduce uncertainty, thus achieving control and
predictability
*
Forming Impressions of Others (3 of 5)
We Form Impressions of Others Online: The Social Media
EffectOthers evaluate you in interpersonal situations based on
what you post on social media.What others say about you on
social media has a greater impact on whether you are perceived
positively or negatively than what you post about yourself.
*

6. Forming Impressions of Others (4 or 5)
We Emphasize What Comes First: The Primacy
EffectDeveloped by Solomon AschPredicted outcome theory
(POV) helps explain the primacy effect in interpersonal
relationships.
Primacy effect: tendency to attend to the first pieces of
information observed about a person in order to form an
impression
Predicted outcome theory (POV): people predict the future of a
relationship based on how they size up someone during their
first interaction
*
Forming Impressions of Others (5 of 5)
We Emphasize What Comes Last: The Recency Effect
We Generalize Positive Qualities to Others: The Halo Effect
We Generalize Negative Qualities to Others: the Horn Effect
Recency effect: tendency to attend to the most recent
information observed about another person in order to form or
modify an impression
Halo effect: attributing a variety of positive qualities to those
you like
Horn effect: attributing a variety of negative qualities to those
you dislike
*

7. Interpreting the Behavior of Others (1 of 3)
3.3 List and describe the strategies we use to interpret the
behaviors of others.
We Attribute Motives to Others’ Behavior: Attribution
TheoryAttribution theoryCasual attribution theory
Attribution theory: theory that explains how you generate
explanations for people’s behaviors
Casual attribution theory: identifies the cause of a person’s
actions as circumstance, a stimulus, or the person himself or
herself
*
Interpreting the Behavior of Others (2 of 3)
We Use Our Own Point of Reference About Power: Standpoint
TheoryDeveloped by Georg HegelExplains why people see the
world differently, particularly in terms of power and influence
Stand-point theory: a person’s social position, power, or
cultural background influences how the person perceives the
behavior of others
*
Interpreting the Behavior of Others (3 of 3)
We Draw on Our Own Cultural Background: Intercultural
Communication TheoryCultural elements include
Material culture

8. Social institutions
Belief systems
Aesthetics
Language
Culture: Learned system of knowledge, behavior, attitudes,
beliefs, values, and norms shared by a group of people.
*
Identifying Barriers to Accurate Interpersonal Perception (1 of
6)
3.4 Identify the eight factors that distort the accuracy of
interpersonal perceptionWe Stereotype
We stereotype to meet our own needs for power, authority and
structure.
We also overgeneralize.We Ignore Information
We tend to explain a person’s motives on the basis of what is
most obvious rather than the in-depth information we might
have.
Social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE)
Stereotype: to place a person or group of persons into
inflexible, all-encompassing category
Social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE): theory
that people are more likely to stereotype others with whom they
interact online, because such interactions provide fewer
relationship cues and the cues take longer to emerge than they
would in face-to-face interactions
*

9. Identifying Barriers to Accurate Interpersonal Perception (2 of
6)We Impose Consistency
We overestimate the consistency and constancy of others’
behaviors when organizing perceptions; we believe that if
someone acts one way today, he or she will continue to act that
way in the future.We Focus on the Negative
*
Identifying Barriers to Accurate Interpersonal Perception (3 of
6)
Stereotypes can help us make sense out of the wide range of
stimuli we encounter everyday. But we also need to be sure that
we don’t overuse stereotypes and thus fail to see people as
individuals.
*
Identifying Barriers to Accurate Interpersonal Perception (4 of
6)We Blame Others, Assuming They Have Control
Fundamental attribution error can be avoided by honestly
examining our role in the communication process.
Fundamental attribution error: an error that arises from
attributing another person’s behavior to internal, controllable
causes rather than to external, uncontrollable causes

10. *
Identifying Barriers to Accurate Interpersonal Perception (5 of
6)
This driver may be making the fundamental attribution error—
assuming that the other person’s behavior was under his control,
when in fact it may not have been.
Fundamental attribution error: an error that arises from
attributing another person’s behavior to internal, controllable
causes rather than to external, uncontrollable causes
*
Identifying Barriers to Accurate Interpersonal Perception (6 of
6)We Avoid Responsibility
People are more likely to save face by believing that they are
not the cause of a problem.Self-serving bias
Self-serving bias: the tendency to perceive our own behavior as
more positive than others’ behaviors
*
Improving Interpersonal Perception Skills (1 of 4)
3.5 Identify and apply five suggestions for improving
interpersonal perception.Beware of Your Personal Perception
Barriers
You can’t assume that you (and everybody else) will always

11. enact perception barriers.
Becoming familiar with the perception barriers that you are
susceptible to will help you draw more accurate perception
conclusions in the future.
*
Improving Interpersonal Perception Skills (2 of 4)Be Mindful of
the Behaviors that Create Meaning for YouLink Details with the
Big Picture
Accurate perception begins with taking a big picture approach
as they look for clues about a person; don’t form a quick or
rigid judgment as it may be inaccurate.
Mindful: being conscious of what you are doing, thinking, and
sensing at any given moment
*
Improving Interpersonal Perception Skills (3 of 4)Be Aware of
Others’ Perceptions of You
Accept feedback; it’s difficult to be objective about our own
behavior.Check Your Perceptions
You can check your perceptions of others in two ways.Indirect
perception checkingDirect perception checking
Indirect perception checking: seeking through passive
perception, such as observing and listening, additional
information to confirm or refute interpretations you are making

12. Direct perception checking: asking for confirmation from the
observed person of an interpretation of a perception about him
or her
*
Improving Interpersonal Perception Skills (4 of 4)Become
Other-Oriented
Accurate interpersonal perception depends on the ability to
understand where others are coming from.
Do you think this father is using direct perception checking,
indirect perception checking, or a combination of the two?
Indirect perception checking: seeking through passive
perception, such as observing and listening, additional
information to confirm or refute interpretations you are making
Direct perception checking: asking for confirmation from the
observed person of an interpretation of a perception about him
or her
*
Interpersonal Communication
Eighth Edition
Chapter 2
Interpersonal Communication and Self
This multimedia product and its contents are protected under
copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public
performance or display, including transmission of any image

13. over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including
the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images;any rental,
lease, or lending of the program.
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
2.1 Define self-concept and identify factors that shape the
development of your self-concept.
2.2 Define self-esteem and compare and contrast self-esteem
with self-concept.
2.3 Define facework and discuss how you project your face
and protect others’ face.
2.4 Identify and describe seven strategies for improving your
self-concept.
2.5 Identify the effects of your self-concept and self-esteem on
your relationships with others.
*
Self-Concept: Who You Think You Are (1 of 10)
2.1 Define self-concept and identify the factors that shape the
development of your self-concept.
Self-Concept: Who You Think You AreThe labels you use to
describe yourself are part of your self and your self-concept,
and they are changeable.
Self
Self-concept
Self: the sum total of who a person is; a person’s central inner
force

14. Self-concept: a person’s subjective description of who he or she
is
*
Self-Concept: Who You Think You Are (2 of 10)
Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values Reflect Your Self-
ConceptAttitude, beliefs and values are learned constructs.They
shape your behavior and self-image.They often function
independently of each other.
Figure 2.1 Values, Beliefs, and Attitudes in Relation to Self
Attitude: the learned predisposition to respond to a person,
object, or idea in a favorable or unfavorable way
Belief: the way in which you structure your understanding of
reality—what is true and what is false for you
Value: enduring concept of good and bad, right and wrong
*
Self-Concept: Who You Think You Are (3 of 10)
Mindfulness: Being Consciously AwareBeing self-aware
involves mindfulness.There are 3 ways of being mindfully self-
aware.
Subjective self-awareness
Objective self-awareness
Symbolic self-awareness
Mindfulness: the ability to consciously think about what you are
doing and experiencing
Subjective self-awareness: the ability to differentiate the self
from the social and physical environment

15. Objective self-awareness: the ability to be the object of one’s
own thoughts and attention—to be aware of one’s state of mind
and what one is thinking
Symbolic self-awareness: the uniquely human ability to think
about oneself and use language (symbols) to represent oneself
to others
*
Self-Concept: Who You Think You Are (4 of 10)
Mindfulness: Being Consciously Aware (continued)Maslow’s
four-stage model
Unconscious incompetence
Conscious incompetence
Conscious competence
Unconscious competence
Unconscious incompetence: you are unaware of your own
incompetence
Conscious incompetence: you become aware that you are not
competent
Conscious competence: you are aware that you know something,
but applying it has not yet become a habit
Unconscious competence: your skills become second nature to
you
*
Self-Concept: Who You Think You Are (5 of 10)
The artist sought to explore her self-dimensions by painting her
self-portrait. What qualities does this self-portrait reveal about
the artist?

16. Young woman standing next to a large painting self portrait.
*
Self-Concept: Who You Think You Are (6 of 10)
One or Many Selves?Each of us has a core set of behaviors,
attitudes, beliefs and values, but our concept of self changes.
Material self
Social self
Spiritual self
Material self: concepts of self as reflected in the total of all the
tangible things you own
Social self: concept of self as reflected in social interactions
with others
Spiritual self: concept of self based on thoughts and
introspections about personal values, moral standards, and
beliefs
*
Self-Concept: Who You Think You Are (7 of 10)
Looking-glass self: suggests you learn who you are based on
your interactions with others, who reflect your self back to you
Attachment style: a style of relating to others that develops
early in life, based on the emotional bond one forms with one’s
parents or primary caregiver
Secure attachment style: the style of relating to others that is
characteristic of those who are comfortable giving and receiving
affections, experiencing intimacy, and trusting other people

17. Anxious attachment style: the style of relating of relating to
others that is characteristic of those who experience anxiety in
some intimate relationships and feel uncomfortable giving and
receiving affection
Avoidant attachment style: the style of relating to others that is
characteristic of those who consistently experience discomfort
and awkwardness in intimate relationships and who therefore
avoid such relationships
*
Self-Concept: Who You Think You Are (8 of 10)
How Your Self-Concept Develops (continued)You are who you
are through five basic means (continued)
Associations with groups
Roles you assume
Electronically mediated communication (EMC)
Androgynous role
Self labels
Self -reflexiveness
Your personality
Electronically mediated communication (EMC): messages that
are send via some electronic channel such as the phone, email,
text, or the Internet
Androgynous role: gender role that includes both masculine and
feminine qualities
Self-reflexiveness: ability to think about what you are doing
while you are doing it
*
Self-Concept: Who You Think You Are (9 of 10)

18. In American culture, behavior among girls is in many ways
quite distinct from that of boys.
Self-Concept: Who You Think You Are (10 of 10)
How Your Self-Concept Develops (continued)Your personality
and biology
Psychology
Personality
Big Five Personality Traits: extraversion, agreeableness,
conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness
Communibiological approach
Social learning theory
Shyness
Communication apprehension
Willingness to communicate
Psychology: the study of how a person’s thinking influences his
or her behavior
Personality: a set of enduring behavioral characteristics and
internal predispositions for reacting to your environment
Extraversion: Outgoing, talkative, positive, and sociable
Agreeableness: Friendly, compassionate, trusting, and
cooperative
Conscientiousness: Efficient, organized, self-disciplined,
dutiful, and methodical
Neuroticism: Nervous, insecure, emotionally distressed, and
anxious
Openness: Curious, imaginative, creative, adventurous, and
inventive
Communibiological approach: perspective that suggests that
genetic and biological influences play a major role in
influencing communication behavior
Social learning theory: suggests people can learn behavior that

19. helps them adapt and adjust their behavior toward others
Shyness: a behavioral tendency not to talk or interact with
others
Communication apprehension: fear or anxiety associated with
either real or anticipated communication with other people
Willingness to communicate: a behavioral trait that describes a
person’s comfortableness with and likelihood of initiating
communication with other people
*
Self-Esteem: Your Self-Worth (1of 1)
2.2 Define self-esteem and compare and contrast self-esteem
with self-concept.
Self-Esteem: Your Self-WorthRelated to your self-concept
Self-worth
Self-efficacy
Social comparison
Life position
Self-worth (self-esteem): your evaluation of your worth or value
based on your perception of such things as your skills, abilities,
talents, and appearances
Self-efficacy: a person’s belief in his or her abiity to perform a
specific task in a particular situation
Social comparison: process of comparing yourself to others who
are similar to you, to measure your worth and value
Life position: feelings of regard for self and others, as reflected
in one’s sense of worth and self-esteem
*

20. Facework: Presenting Your Self-Image to Others (1 of 4)
2.3 Define facework and discuss how your project your face and
protect others’ face.Facework: Presenting Your Self-Image to
Others
Your face is a focal point of your self-imageFacework
Face: a person’s positive perception of himself or herself in
interactions with others
Facework: using communication to maintain your own positive
self-perception or to support, reinforce, or challenge someone
else’s self-perception
*
Facework: Presenting Your Self-Image to Others (2 of 4)
Projecting a positive image of yourself—positive face—means
being mindful of how you talk to and interact with others.
Positive face: an image of yourself that will be perceived as
positive by others
Preventative facework: efforts to maintain and enhance one’s
positive self-perceptions
Corrective facework: efforts to correct what one person
perceives as a negative perception of oneself on the part of
others
*
Facework: Presenting Your Self-Image to Others (3 of
4)Projecting Your Face
Facework helps us be perceived as we want to be perceived, and

21. is also used when we support, reinforce or challenge someone’s
else’s face.Positive facePreventative faceworkCorrective
facework
Positive face: an image of yourself that will be perceived as
positive by others
Preventative facework: efforts to maintain and enhance one’s
positive self-perceptions
Corrective facework: efforts to correct what one person
perceives as a negative perception of oneself on the part of
others
*
Facework: Presenting Your Self-Image to Others (4 of
4)Protecting Others’ Face
Be other-oriented, polite, generous and supportive.
Face-threatening acts
Politeness theory
Face-threatening acts: communication that undermines or
challenges someone’s positive face
Politeness theory: theory that people have positive perceptions
of other who treat them politely and respectfully
*
How to Improve Your Self-Esteem (1 of 5)
2.4 Identify and describe seven strategies for improving your
self-conceptEngage in Self-Talk
Positive self-talk boosts confidence and improves self-

22. esteem.Intrapersonal communication Visualize a Positive Image
of Yourself
Visualization can help change long-standing feelings of
inadequacy.
Intrapersonal communication: communication within yourself—
self talk
Visualization: technique of imagining that you are performing a
particular task in a certain way; positive visualization can
enhance self-esteem
*
How to Improve Your Self-Esteem (2 of 5)
Although positive self-talk will never be able to make all of us
become champion athletes, it can help us focus on our own
goals and improve our performance levels.
Reframing: process of redefining events and experiences from a
different point of view
*
How to Improve Your Self-Esteem (3 of 5)Avoid Comparing
Yourself with Others
Be mindful of how your comparisons may influence yourself
self-esteem.Reframe Appropriately
Use reframing to redefine events and experiences from a
different point of view.
Reframing: process of redefining events and experiences from a

23. different point of view
*
How to Improve Your Self-Esteem (4 of 5)Develop Honest
Relationships
Objectively and honestly reflect on your virtues and vices. Let
Go of the Past
Don’t stay fixated on events and experiences that happened in
the past; become aware of the changes that have occurred to
help you develop a more realistic assessment of your value.
*
How to Improve Your Self-Esteem (5 of 5)Seek Support
Social support is one of the most helpful ways to restore self-
esteem.
Use talk therapy to gain insight into why you experience the
pain and difficulties that you do.
Social support: expression of empathy and concern for others
that is communicated while listening to them and offering
positive and encouraging words
Talk therapy: technique in which a person describes his or her
problems and concerns to a skilled listener in order to better
understand the emotions and issues creating the problems
*

24. Self and Interpersonal Relationships (1 of 8)
2.5 Identify the effects of your self-concept and self-esteem on
your relationships with others.Self and Interaction With Others
Your image of yourself and your sense of self-worth directly
affect how you interact with others.Symbolic interaction
theorySelf and Your Future
What people believe about themselves often comes true because
they expect it to happen.Self-fulfilling prophecy
Symbolic interaction theory: people make sense out o the world
based on their interpretation of words or symbols used by others
Self-fulfilling prophecy: prediction about future actions that is
likely to come true because the person believes that it will come
true
*
Self and Interpersonal Relationships (2 of 8)
You can increase your chance for success by having a positive
mindset and high expectations of yourself and your abilities.
*
Self and Interpersonal Relationships (3 of 8)Self and
Interpretation of Messages
People with low self-esteem interpret messages and interact
with others in a way that is negative.
People whose self-worth is high have more positive interactions
and outcomes.

25. *
Self and Interpersonal Relationships (4 of 8)Self and
Interpersonal Needs
Schultz’s three primary social needsNeed for inclusionNeed for
controlNeed for affection
Need for inclusion: interpersonal need to be include ad to
include others in social activities
Need for control: interpersonal need for some degree of
influence in our relationships, as well as the need to be
controlled
Need for affection: interpersonal need to give and receive love,
support, warmth, and intimacy
*
Self and Interpersonal Relationships (5 of 8)Self and Disclosure
to Others
Disclosing personal information not only provides a basis for
another person to understand you better, it also conveys your
level of trust and acceptance of the other person. Self-disclosure
Asking others for information about yourself and then listening
to what they tell you can enhance your self-awareness.Self-
awareness

26. Self-disclosure: purposefully providing information about
yourself to others they would not learn if you did not tell them
Self-awareness: a person’s conscious understanding of who he
or she is
*
Self and Interpersonal Relationships (6 of 8)Self and Disclosure
to Others (continued)The Johari Window modelOpen: Known to
self and known to othersBlind: Not known to self but known to
othersHidden: Known to self but not known to othersUnknown:
Not known to self or others
Figure 2.5 Johari Window of Self-Disclosure
Johari Window model: model of self-disclosure that summarizes
how self-awareness is influenced by self-disclosure and
information about yourself from others
*
Figure 2.6 Variations of the Johari Window

27. A new relationship for someone who is very self-aware
An intimate relationship
A
B
Self and Interpersonal Relationships (8 of 8)Self and
Communication Social Style
Carl Jung’s communication social stylesThinkers, feelers,
intuiters, and sensors
Two fundamental dimensions of social
styleAssertivenessResponsiveness
Adapt your style to enhance communication quality.
Communication social style: an identifiable way of habitually
communicating with others
Assertiveness: tendency to make requests, ask for information,
and generally pursue one’s own rights and best interests
Responsiveness: Tendency to be sensitive to the needs of
others, including being sympathetic to others’ feelings of others
above one’s own feelings
*
Journal Entry 1
Description
Context: My husband, and I discussing how important it is to
follow rules and him receiving a no seatbelt citation along with
a running through a stop sign violation while driving home from
his parents’ house.
Interaction: A few years ago my husband and I were returning
home from a visit to his parents’ house in San Francisco. While
getting into the car I mentioned to him that he should put his

28. seatbelt on because “tickets are not cheap.” He responded by
saying he didn’t have to because we were not traveling far.
When we were almost home he decided to take a back road to
get to our house faster. This road just so happens to be known
for cops staking the area to catch drivers, like my husband, who
disregard the rules of the road. As we were getting close to our
house I spotted an officer sitting in his usual spot on the side of
the road. When my husband finally saw the cop car sitting
facing us he quickly attempted to fasten the seatbelt but was too
late. He had already been seen, the lights began to flash and we
were pulled over.
In the excitement and being distracted my husband dangerously
rolled through a stop sign. As my husband frantically grabbed
his license and insurance he was acting as if his life was over.
The officer asked Joe, my husband, if he knew why he had
stopped him. The answer given to him was, “No sir was I
speeding?” Then the officer went on to explain that he was
pulled over due to him not properly wearing a seatbelt while
operating a motor vehicle. Also that he has to issue a second
citation for running a stop sign. While the officer collected
Joe’s license and walked back to his squad car all I could do
was look at him and mouth, “I told you so.”
This led to a small argument about how he feels that everybody
is out to get him. He felt that he was the target or scapegoat for
everyone else’s problems. In reality he brought the whole ordeal
on himself. Everything would have been ok if he had taken the 5
seconds to simply put on the seatbelt. I did my best to not sound
like his mother and sound like a concerned wife but he was not
up for hearing what anybody had to say. After we arrived home
he apologized for putting us in danger when he ran the stop sign
and realized that he was indeed overreacting. He now wears his
seatbelt regularly and stops at all stop signs.
Analysis
ATTRIBUTION THEORY- THEORY THAT EXPLAINS HOW
YOU ATTRIBUTE YOUR BEHAVIOR TO SOMEONE WHEN
THE BEHAVIOR IS BAD AND ATTRIBUTE IT TO

29. YOURSELF WHEN IT IS GOOD
My husband’s actions describe the attribution theory. This
theory explains how we judge a person’s actions AND BLAME
THEM ON SOMEONE OTHER THAN THAT PERSON. This is
an example of how we make impulsive judgments of others
based on their actions to help ourselves make sense of the
behavior. My husband believed that since the officer was just
sitting around doing nothing that he personally and spitefully
chose him out of all the other cars on the road, thereby
attributing the ticket to the officer not himself. He argued that if
the officer was doing his job, he’d be after a real criminal and
not someone who had a simple driving mistake. That he chose to
pull him over for entertainment purposes only because the
officer had nothing better to do, not because of the traffic
violations. I then tried to explain my thoughts about the
situation. I explained to him that these rules are set into place in
hopes to keep us safe and alive. These rules allow us to return
home to our children and our families. If he breaks these rules,
he might not get hurt, but he could kill someone else and spend
his life in prison. That it also allows our fellow drivers to return
to their families safely as well, which may had not happen if we
were hit or we hit another car because he rolled through the stop
sign. I basically said that the officer was doing the right thing.
The officer’s actions could be attributed to his career and
commitment of keeping people safe and his years of experience
on the force. My husband’s behavior can be attributed to his
thinking the rules are for others, not him. He kind of got what
he deserved. But I didn’t say that to him.
This is also a statement about how we as humans harshly judge
others and have difficulty coming to grips with our own
thinking and acting. The Attribution Theory applies here
because it explains that if we don’t like our own actions and we
attribute them to another person, we will feel less guilt and
responsibility. That’s exactly what my husband did. In order to
not feel bad about ourselves for something we do we will search
out someone else to blame, even using stereotyping to get off

30. the hook. My husband did this by thinking the cop had nothing
to do but sit in his car and look-out for my husband to ticket. I
believe that we are all guilty of this. We can cause so much
emotional harm on ourselves and others with one bad judgment.
It did not help that my husband did not have the best of luck
with running into cops. I am pretty sure at one point in time he
held the world record for the number of warnings given out in
one year. When we believe we are right, it takes a while for us
to admit fault, if we admit it all. And if we attribute it to
someone else, as The Attribution Theory points out, we may
never admit our own fault and responsibility. This is something
that my husband is currently working on and has improved
significantly.