The document discusses various aspects of representation in media. It begins by explaining that all media texts are representations of reality crafted by producers to portray their concept of existence. It then discusses how media both extends and restricts our experience of reality by selectively showing us only parts of it. The document also examines how media representations influence our perceptions of truth and reality. It analyzes common representations of gender, race, age and other groups and how these representations can promote stereotypes.
2. REPRESENATION IN THE
MEDIA
n By definition, all media texts are re-presentations of reality. This
means that they are intentionally composed, lit, written, framed,
cropped, captioned, branded, targeted and censored by their
producers, and that they are entirely artificial versions of the reality
we perceive around us.
n When studying the media it is vital to remember this - every media
form, from a home video to a glossy magazine, is a representation
of someone's concept of existence, codified into a series of signs
and symbols which can be read by an audience.
n However, it is important to note that without the media, our
perception of reality would be very limited, and that we, as an
audience, need these artificial texts to mediate our view of the
world, in other words we need the media to make sense of reality.
n Therefore representation is a fluid, two-way process: producers
position a text somewhere in relation to reality and audiences
assess a text on its relationship to reality.
3.
4. Extension/Restriction of
Experience of Reality
n By giving audiences information, media texts extend experience of
reality.
n Every time you see a wildlife documentary, or read about political
events in a country on the other side of the world, or watch a movie
about a historical event, you extend your experience of life on this
planet.
n However, because the producers of the media text have selected
the information we receive, then our experience is restricted: we
only see selected highlights of the lifestyle of the creatures
portrayed in the wildlife documentary, the editors and journalists
decree which aspects of the news events we will read about, and
the movie producers telescope events and personalities to fit into
their parameters.
n Can you think of some examples?
5. Truth or Lies?
n Media representations - and the extent to which we accept
them - are a very political issue, as the influence the media
exerts has a major impact on the way we view the world. By
viewing media representations our prejudices can be
reinforced or shattered.
n Generally, audiences accept that media texts are fictional to
one extent or another - we have come a long way from the
mass manipulation model of the 1920s and 1930s. However,
as we base our perception of reality on what we see in the
media, it is dangerous to suppose that we don't see elements
of truth in media texts either.
n The study of representation is about decoding the different
layers of truth/fiction/whatever. In order to fully appreciate the
part representation plays in a media text you must consider:
6. Truth or Lies?
n Who produced it?
n What/who is represented in the text?
n How is that thing represented?
n Why was this particular representation (this shot,
framed from this angle, this story phrased in
these terms, etc) selected, and what might the
alternatives have been?
n What frame of reference does the audience use
when understanding the representation?
8. Analysing Representation
n The analysis of different sorts of representation
forms an important part of Media Studies. The
factors of representation most commonly
addressed are:
n Gender
n Race
n Age
n Disability
9. GENDER AND MEDIA
REPRESENTATION
n Gender is perhaps the basic category we use for
sorting human beings, and it is a key issue when
discussing representation.
n Essential elements of our own identity, and the
identities we assume other people to have, come
from concepts of gender - what does it mean to
be a boy or a girl?
n Many objects, not just humans, are represented
by the media as being particularly masculine or
feminine - particularly in advertising - and we
grow up with an awareness of what constitutes
'appropriate' characteristics
10. TASK:
n Construct your own table of 'typical'
characteristics
n Typically masculine
n Typically feminine
11. DISCUSSION:
n How might the following objects be 'gendered' through
advertising, given that both sexes will use the product?
n A sports car?
n A diving watch?
n Bottled beer?
n Toilet paper?
n Deodorant?
n Cigarettes
n IPOD
n Trainers?
n A videogame console
n An airline?
12.
13.
14. ROLE MODELS
n It is undeniable that the media shapes our conceptions
of what it means to be male or female. We encounter
many different male and female role models in the
course of a day's media consumption.
n The issue is, that although these different role models
may at first glance appear to be very varied, do they
actually represent enough of a range of men/women?
Are we simply given variations on a stereotype that
become sub-stereotypes in themselves?
n By adopting role models and parading them through the
media as people it is desirable to 'be', are we stunting
individual growth?
15. ROLE MODEL CAMPAIGN
n British
n http://www.theory.org.uk/ctr-rol1.htm
n Canadian
n http://www.dove.ca/en/default.aspx#/cfrb/
n Do you think it has had any effect?
16. Representations of Femininity
n Feminism has been a recognised social
philosophy for more than forty years, and the
changes that have occurred in women's roles in
western society during that time have been
nothing short of phenomenal.
n Yet media representations of women remain
worryingly constant. Does this reflect that the
status of women has not really changed or that
the male-dominated media does not want to
accept it has changed?
17. REPRESENTATIONS OF
FEMININITY
n Representations of women across all media
tend to highlight the following:
n beauty (within narrow conventions)
n size/physique (again, within narrow conventions)
n sexuality (as expressed by the above)
n emotional (as opposed to intellectual) dealings
n relationships (as opposed to independence/
freedom)
18. REPRESENTATIONS OF
FEMININITY
n Women are often represented as being part of a
context (family, friends, colleagues) and
working/thinking as part of a team. In drama,
they tend to take the role of helper or object,
passive rather than active.
n Often their passivity extends to victimhood
n Men are still represented as TV drama
characters up to 3 times more frequently than
women, and tend to be the predominant focus of
news stories.
n Can you think of any examples?
19. REPRESENTATIONS OF
FEMININITY
n The representations of women that do make it
onto page and screen do tend to be
stereotypical, in terms of conforming to societal
expectations, and characters who do not fit into
the mould tend to be seen as dangerous and
deviant. And they get their comeuppance,
particularly in the movies.
20.
21. REPRESENTATIONS OF
FEMININITY
n Think of Alex Forrest (Glenn Close) in Fatal
Attraction or, more recently, Teena Brandon/
Brandon Teena (Hilary Swank) in Boys Don't
Cry. America seems to expect its women to
behave better than their European counterparts
- British viewers adored the antics of Patsy &
Edina in Absolutely Fabulous, but these had to
be severely toned down (less swearing, NO
drugtaking) for the US remake, High Society
(which was a flop).
22. REPRESENTATIONS OF
FEMININITY
n Discussions of women's representation in the
media tend to revolve around the focus on
physical beauty to the near-exclusion of other
values, the lack of powerful female role models,
and the extremely artificial nature of such
portrayals, which bear little or no relation to the
reality experience by women across the planet.
n It would take almost a whole A-level course to
cover these representations and the issues
surrounding them in depth
23. Representations of Masculinity
n Masculinity' is a concept that is made up of more
rigid stereotypes than femininity.
Representations of men across all media tend to
focus on the following:
n Strength - physical and intellectual
n Power
n Sexual attractiveness (which may be based on
the above)
n Physique
n Independence (of thought, action)
24.
25. Representations of Masculinity
n Male characters are often represented as isolated, as
not needing to rely on others (the lone hero). If they
capitulate to being part of a family, it is often part of the
resolution of a narrative, rather than an integral factor in
the initial equilibrium.
n It is interesting to note that the male physique is
becoming more important a part of representations of
masculinity. 'Serious' Hollywood actors in their forties (eg
Willem Dafoe, Kevin Spacey) are expected to have a
level of 'buffness' that was not aspired to even by young
heart-throbs 40 years ago (check out Connery in
Thunderball 1965).
26. Representations of Masculinity
n http://www.metacafe.com/watch/4198414/
thunderball_movie_trailer/
n http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=fl5WHj0bZ2Q
27. Representations of Masculinity
n Increasingly, men are finding it as difficult to live up to
their media representations as women are to theirs. This
is partly because of the increased media focus on
masculinity - think of the burgeoning market in men's
magazines, both lifestyle and health - and the increasing
emphasis on even ordinary white collar male workers
(who used to sport their beergut with pride) having the
muscle definition of a professional swimmer.
n Anorexia in teenage males has increased alarmingly in
recent years, and recent high school shootings have
been the result of extreme bodyconsciousness among
the same demographic group.
28.
29. Representations of Masculinity
n As media representations of masculinity become more
specifically targeted at audiences with product promotion
in mind (think of the huge profits now made from male
fashion, male skin & haircare products, fitness products
such as weights, clothing etc), men are encouraged (just
as women have been for many years) to aspire to be like
(to look/behave in the same way) the role models they
see in magazines. This is often an unrealistic target to
set, and awareness of this is growing.
n Whilst some men are concerned about living up to the
ideal types represented in magazines, others are worried
by what they perceive as an increasing anti-male bias
in the media. There is growing support for the idea that
men are represented unfairly in the media.
30.
31. RACE IN THE MEDIA
n Race, like sex, is a set of genetically defined,
biological characteristics. However, like
gender, it is also a set of culturally defined
characteristics.
n Representation of race in the media can consist
of the same sort of rigid stereotypes that
constitute gender portrayal.
n However, stereotyping of race is seen as more
harmful than stereotyping of gender, as media
representation may constitute the only
experience of contact with a particular ethnic
group that an audience (particularly an audience
of children) may have.
32. RACE IN THE MEDIA
n Racial stereotypes are often based on social myth,
perpetuated down the ages.
n Thus, the media depiction of, say, Native American
Indians, might provide a child with their only
experience of Native American Indian culture and
characters, and may provide that child with a set of
narrow prejudices which will not be challenged
elsewhere within their experience.
n The need for a more accurate portrayal of the
diversity of different races is a priority for political
agendas, but, as ever, it seems as though it will take
a while for political thinking to filter through to
programme and film-making.
33. RACE
n Most work on Race & The Media has concentrated on the
representation of black men and women.
n This has partly been because there is a strong African-
American counter-culture which provides viable
alternative role models and demands that they are
represented.
n In recent years, the success of actors such as Denzel
Washington, Whoopi Goldberg, Laurence Fishburne and
Morgan Freeman in a diversity of roles has meant that
black characters in movies and on TV are no longer 'stock'
types.
n Some of the time. However, there are many negative
representations of black people, portrayals which seem
deliberately designed to inflame the fear and hatred of
other cultures - how positive a representation is the
archetypal African-American gangsta? Yet these are
representations coming from within black culture itself..
34. RACE IN THE MEDIA
n Attention is now being paid to the representation
of other ethnic groups, notably Asian Americans
and Latinos, who represent a much larger
proportion of the US population than their TV
coverage would suggest.
n Things are changing - on the one hand the
success of John Woo and Ang Lee in Hollywood is
pushing the boundaries back for Asian
Americans, and the Latin Music Explosion of 1999
has led to much wider acceptance of Latino
performers (Jennifer Lopez is now in the upper
bracket for pay for female actors).
35. RACE IN THE MEDIA
n There is anxiety expressed in the UK
about the portrayal of ethnic minorities,
particularly in soap operas.
n http://vimeo.com/8231186
n http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QYiteaPBlz0
n http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=LVpSQgMssTQ&feature=related
36. AGE
n After gender and ethnicity, age is the most obvious
category under which we file people, and there are a whole
range of judgements which go along with our
categorisation.
n We quickly deem other people too old, or too young, or
criticise them for being immature or fuddy duddy.
n We criticise mature women for going about as mutton
dressed as lamb, and young girls for tarting themselves up
as jail bait.
n Film stars who start to show signs of aging in their forties
are swooped on with cries of horror by gossip columnists
("Movie star gets wrinkles... and her tits start to sag"
shocker!!) while those who succumb to the surgeon's knife
are written about with equal distaste ("Movie star can't
raise eyebrows and her tit's DON't sag" equal shocker!!!).
37. AGE IN THE MEDIA
n Thanks to the media, we appear to live in an age
obsessed world: a world obsessed with youth and
its attendant beauty.
n Old people are often subject to the most rigid
stereotypes of all (old = ugly, weak, stupid).
n The future looks pretty bleak for all of us.
n By denying that ageing is a natural part of the
process, we condemn ourselves to an eternal
adolescence and do not acknowledge that our
tastes may grow and change.
n Will you still want YOUR MTV when you're 80?
38. AGE IN THE MEDIA
n Things are changing, however; as the baby boomers of the 1950s
and 1960s move on towards their 'Third Age', they demand the
same consumer comfort they have always done, and also demand
the right to see themselves fairly represented on TV.
n There have been some high profile representations of the elderly
in recent years (and I'm not talking about Bruce Willis playing
Ross's Dad in "Friends").
n US sitcom The Golden Girls is perhaps one of the most famous,
centring on 4 female characters all determinedly over 50 (and it
can make Sex & The City look like Sesame Street)
n Soap operas too have their part to play in eroding stereotypes -
usually because the audience of soaps has a relatively high 'grey'
segment.
n Old people can provide a deeply comic element to television;
whilst balancing the humour with frightening vulnerability and
pathos: We're all going to die, after all.
39. AGE IN THE MEDIA
n Soap is no exception. Ralph and Harry were the two best
characters EVER on Brookside…
n Harold gave a lot of laughs on Neighbours, and Percy
Sugden's cantankerous nature kept audiences entertained
for years on Corrie.
n Two of the most powerful Old People in Soap, have,
however, been the inimitable Dot and Ethel off EastEnders.
n Dot has lived a life that would make Job weep, with a no
good bigamist husband, a murderous junkie son and now
Ashley, the grandson from Hell. Ethel, on the other hand,
was a hell-raiser till the end, and even her slide into
terminal cancer could not quell her zest for life. Her
dignified death, screened in late autumn 2000, was riveting
viewing.
n Old people on TV rock. You heard it here first!
n http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=srD7bEU9MXA&feature=related
40. DISABILITY IN THE MEDIA
n The word "disabled" causes much debate.
n The 'dis' suffix is a negative one, implying reversal, and
disabled heads a list in the dictionary of many negative
words - disappoint, discard, disconsolate, discourage,
disintegrate, dismay, disrepute etc etc.
n That same dictionary defines the word "disabled" as
meaning "Made ineffective, unfit or incapable".
n Quite rightly, those members of the population who find
themselves labelled thus feel tarred with a distasteful
brush.
n The word implies that they are unfit for anything, that they
are incapable of effectiveness in any field. Verbal codes
aside, the iconography surrounding the word suggests a
similar plight, hence the European Union symbol:
41.
42. DISABLED IN THE MEDIA
n Here is someone who is not simply "in" a wheelchair (are
all disabled people in wheelchairs? I think not...), but who
relies on the structure of the chair to give them arms. It is
small wonder that the word "disabled" immediately
connotates wheelchairs, and concepts such as broken,
dependent, pitiable etc etc.
n Given the semiotics of the situation, it is small wonder that
media representation of the disabled is limited and laregely
stereotypical. if the word "disabled" can be represented in
such a simple symbol as the one before, we are reducing a
large and diverse group of human beings to something less
complicated than your average road sign.
n While great strides have been made in recent decades in
the representation of gender and race, there are still many
prejudices attached to the representation of disability.
n Or difability - the differently enabled, as our PC friends
would have us speak.
43. IMAGES OF THE DIS/DIFABLED
n In magazines, the only images of the
disabled we tend to see are those in
charity advertisements, and their disablity
is the main focus of the representation.
n Often we are encouraged to pity the
person represented, or give them support
in another way. Ideologically speaking,
dis/difabled is not considered sexy, and
does not sell stuff.
n More power then to Benetton, with their
use of a Downs Syndrome model
44. IMAGES OF THE DIS/DIFABLED
n Disabled sport is seen as a very poor relation to its so-
called able bodied counterpart.
n The Paralympics receive a derisory level of coverage (and,
oddly enough, sponsorship... hmmm) but you can check
out their website here.
n Likewise in the movies, disability is seen as a great
storyline - one to inspire pity in audiences and Oscar
nominations from your peers.
n Think Tom Cruise in Born On The Fourth of July (Best Actor
nom, Best Director win), Russell Crowe in A Beautiful Mind
(Best Actor nom, Best Picture win), Leonardo di Caprio in
What's Eating Gilbert Grape (Best Supporting Actor nom)
and Audrey Hepburn in Wait until Dark (Best Actress nom).
45. IMAGES OF THE DIS/DIFABLED
n These actors are applauded for their fine performances, as
though the representation of disability were a particularly
dangerous and skilful thing.
n While Tom Cruise is prepared to strap himself into a stunt
wheelchair, genuinely dis/difabled actors do not get major
parts.
n Amputees get good work in Hollywood as stunt persons,
particularly when a film such as AI needs limbless people to
attach prosthetics to, but their name is never going to go
on the marquee.
n This is fundamentally wrong - we can only accept the
beautiful people pretending to be incapacitated. Is this the
equivalent of white actors 'blacking up' to play Othello?
46. IMAGES OF THE DIS/DIFABLED
n Yet there are exceptions: stand up comedian, actor and
model Francesca Martinez suffers from cerebral palsy but
sees no reason why she should not follow a career in
showbiz. A successful actress, with several seasons of
Grange Hill behind her, she has won awards for her
comedy.
n Timmy!
n One of the most popular representations of disability on
TV in recent years has been South Park's Timmy, the rebel
in a wheelchair. DVDs featuring Timmy-based episodes
sell well, as does the Timmy plush doll (featuring a
detachable wheelchair). Timmy suffers from
hydrocephalus, is misdiagnosed as having ADD, and is
only able to say one or two words (initially, just his own
name, but he graduates to being able to utter the name of
his beloved pet turkey - Gobbles).
n Timmy's Home Page (Unofficial)
