Theories of Translation Course Specification

1
Menoufia National University
Faculty of Human Sciences
English Program
Theories of Translation
An Introduction
Gazania Flowers: Named after Theodorus Gaza, translator of Aristotle and a leader of the
Renaissance: 2023/2024 1st
semester

2
Form (10)
Course Specification
1. Course Data
Course Code: EN 101 Course Title: Theories of
Translation (1)
Year/Level: 1
Specialization: English
Language and Literature
Contact Hours: Lectures Practical sessions
The objective of this course is to introduce students to the main theories of translation,
like the source language and target language. Contents also include word-for-word
translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, communicative
translation, idiomatic translation, and free translation. The intended outcome is training
and preparing a translator of English texts into Arabic and vice versa.
2. Course
Objectives
3. Course Intended Learning Outcomes
By the end of the course the students will have developed knowledge of the following:
A (1) history of translation and of its issues.
A (2) validity and applicability of the theoretical paradigms through the analysis of a
number of existing translations.
A (3) comparative differences in literary traditions through the linguistic and literary
analysis of original and translated texts.
A (4) the way English and Arabic are similar and different.
A (5) the difference of cultural sensibilities reflected in translation.
A. Knowledge
and
understanding
0
2

3
By the end of the course the students will have developed the ability to:
B (1) read and analyze a significant number of texts on translation theory, selected ad
hoc for their historical relevance in the field of translation studies. Readings are
arranged in historical progression. Nonetheless, the format of the course will allow for
diachronic digressions, as deemed necessary.
B (2) verify the validity and applicability of the theories discussed by analyzing a
limited number of translations of literary and non-literary works. This approach is
derived from both theoretical and practical considerations. Translation theory in most
cases derives from practice and is inseparable from it.
B (3) identify with greater ease the differences in literary traditions, thanks to the
reading and the comparative analysis of original and translated texts. In fact, the
process of translation as reading has been described as a spiral that departing from the
text develops externally.
B (4) do research and to make use of information from primary and secondary sources
in support of a valid thesis and argument.
B. Cognitive
Skills
Upon completion of the course, students will be able to:
C (1) participate in class discussion and think critically.
C (2) complete assignments in due time.
C (3) act responsibly & ethically in carrying out individual & group projects.
C.
Professional/
Practical
Skills
By the end of the course, students will have developed the skills of:
D (1) Working with others collaboratively
D (2) Searching online for information and authentic texts
D (3) Planning, organizing, and setting priorities for their learning
D. General
Skills

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List of topics Week
Theories of Translation 1
Theories of Translation 2
Professional translation 3
Literal translation 4-5
Faithful translation 5-6
Concepts of translation 7-8-9
Concepts of translation 10-11
Passages for translation 12
Passages for translation 13-14
4. Course
Content
Power-point presentations
Class discussions
Pair-work (in the practical sessions)
Assignments (for the practical sessions)
5.
Teaching
and
Learning
Methods
6. Teaching and Learning Methods for students with Special Needs
To be suggested.
7. Assessment
Final written exam
Oral exam
A. Method
Set Faculty Council
Ww w.13
B. Date

5
70
30
C. Mark Distribution
8. Textbook and references
--------------------
A. Notes
1- A . Course Notes
2- B . Selected passages from Egyptian & international press.
B. Textbooks

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Baker, M. (1992) In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation. Routledge.
Bassnet, S. (1991). Translation studies. London: Routledge.
Bell, T. R. (1991). Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Essex: Longman
Group UK Limited.
El-Batal, Mohammad. (2013). A Dictionary of Idioms: Egyptian Arabic-English.
Cairo: Librairie du Liban Publishers.
Enani, M. M. (2000). Dictionaries for the translator: An introduction. Cairo: The
Anglo-Egyptian Bookshop.
Newmark, P. (1993). About translation. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Newmark, P. (1984). Approaches to translation. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Savory, T. (1968). The art of translation. London: Jonathan Cape.
Shorter Oxford English dictionary (6th
Ed). (2007). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
‫محمد‬ ،‫عناني‬
‫ا‬ ‫الشركة‬ ،‫القاهرة‬ ،‫الثانية‬ ‫الطبعة‬ ،‫الترجمة‬ ‫فن‬ ،
‫للنشر‬ ‫العالمية‬ ‫لمصرية‬
-
،‫لونجمان‬
1994
.
،‫محمد‬ ،‫عناني‬
‫النظرية‬ ‫بين‬ ‫األدبية‬ ‫الترجمة‬
‫والتطبيق‬
‫للنشر‬ ‫العالمية‬ ‫المصرية‬ ‫الشركة‬ ، ‫القاهرة‬ .
-
، ‫لونجمان‬
1997
‫للنشر‬ ‫العالمية‬ ‫المصرية‬ ‫الشركة‬ ،‫القاهرة‬ .‫المترجم‬ ‫مرشد‬ ،
-
،‫لونجمان‬
2000
.
‫األدبية‬ ‫المصطلحات‬ ،
‫إنجليزي‬ ‫ومعجم‬ ‫دراسة‬ :‫الحديثة‬
-
‫العالمية‬ ‫المصرية‬ ‫الشركة‬ ،‫القاهرة‬ .‫عربي‬
‫للنشر‬
-
، ‫لونجمان‬
2003
.
C. References

7
www.translate.google.com.
Professional translation: www.appliedlanguage.com/free_translation
www.tarjem.com/
www.arabictranslat.com/
www.englishlink.com/languagetranslator_Eng_HTML.asp
www.todaytranslations.com/
www.motargem.com/
www.altafsir.com/
www.translatorcafe.com/cafe/member42326nohtm
D. Periodicals,
Bulletins, etc.
Instructor: Dr. Hazem Galhoum
Dept. Head: Dr. Hoda Soliman

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Contents
Subject Page
Chapter One: Theories of Translation 9
Chapter Two: Key Terms in Translation 22
Chapter Three: Professional Translation 31
Chapter four: Concepts of Translation 69
Chapter Five: Passages for Translation 102
References 112

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Chapter One
Theories of Translation
Principles of Translation
There are no universally accepted principles of translation,
because the only people who are qualified to formulate them
have never agreed among themselves but have so often and for
so long contradicted each other that they have bequeathed to
us a volume of confused thought which must be hard to parallel
in other fields of literature. To make plain the nature of the
instructions which would-be translators have received, a
convenient method is to state them shortly in contrasting pairs,
as follows:
1. A translation must give the words of the original.
2. A translation must give the ideas of the original.
3· A translation should read like an original work.
4.A translation should read like a translation.
5· A translation should reflect the style of the original.
6. A translation should possess the style of the translator.
7· A translation should read as a contemporary of the
original.
A translation should read as a contemporary of the

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translator.
9-A translation may add to or omit from the original.
10. A translation may never add to or omit from the
original.
11. A translation of verse should be in prose.
12. A translation of verse should be in verse.
While some of these are clearly modifications or sub-
divisions of others, there is nevertheless a sufficient richness
of choice to give the would-be translator a cause for embar-
rassment and bewilderment. The last two pairs of alternatives
will be reserved for consideration in Chapter VI, after some
attempt has been made to understand the existence of the rest.
The very fact of their existence is in itself a real phenomenon
for which an explanation must be sought; if it can be found it
is likely to shed some light on the business of translation in
general.
The pair of alternatives at the head of the list given above
can be easily recognized as giving one form of expression to
the distinction between the literal or faithful translation and
the idiomatic or free translation. There has always been
support for the translation which is as literal can well be
made, support based on the conception that it is the duty of a

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translator to be faithful to his original.
A translator, no less than any other writer, would not wish to
incur the charge of being unfaithful; but before he can be
certain of escaping this, he must have clearly in mind what
faithfulness implies and in what faithfulness consists. It does
not mean a literal, a word-for-word translation, for this is the
most primitive type of translating, fit only for the most
mundane and prosaic of matters; and even if faithfulness
could be taken to mean this, there would remain the
unavoidable fact that anyone word in any language cannot
invariably be translated by the same word in any other
language.
Savory (1968)

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1. WORD-FOR-WORD TRANSLATION
This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with the TL
immediately below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and
the words translated singly by their most common out of context. SL
word-order is preserved Non-grammatical Words are translated by
their most common meanings, out of context Used for General
information about SL Pre-translation process of difficult text in order
to gain sense of meaning Example (fun alert): A Vietnamese woman
called Police Station and said that her husband physically abused her. A
police officer came to her apartment and wrote the report. She does not
speak much English therefore, word by word, the policeman carefully
wrote down every single thing Theories of Translation W3 2 | P a g e the
Vietnamese woman told him: “My husband threat hit die my mother so
many times. And today he out hand hit me true. He hit me hurt die
mother.”
2. LITERAL TRANSLATION The SL grammatical constructions are
converted to their nearest TL equivalents but the lexical words are again
translated singly, out of context. As a pre-translation process, this
indicates the problems to be solved. SL grammatical structures are
converted to their nearest equivalent in the TL BUT words are still
translated singly, out of context. Used for Pre-translation process to
identify problems Examples: - He is a big liar. - He looked up at the

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Milky Way. - PetroVietnam, the state-owned oil and gas giant, has also
found itself in hot water. - She has a sweet tooth. - Carry coals to
Newcastle.
3. FAITHFUL TRANSLATION A faithful translation attempts to
reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the
constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It ‘transfers’ cultural words
and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical ‘abnormality’
(deviation from SL norms) in the translation. Words are translated in
context Transfer cultural words Does not naturalize Used for
Literary translation Authoritative texts Drafts
4. SEMANTIC TRANSLATION Semantic translation differs ‘faithful
translation’ only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic
value (that is, the beautiful and natural sound) of the SL text,
compromising on ‘meaning’ where appropriate so that no assonance,
word-play or repetition jars in the finished version. Further, it may
translate less important cultural words by culturally neutral third or
functional terms but not by cultural equivalents. The distinction between
‘faithful’ and ‘semantic’ translation is that the first is uncompromising
and dogmatic, while the second is more flexible, admits the creative
exception to 100% fidelity and allows for the translator’s intuitive
empathy with the original. It is more flexible than faithful translation
Naturalizes in order to achieve aesthetic effect (may translate cultural

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words with neutral or functional terms) Great focus on aesthetic features
of ST (Close rendering of metaphors, collocations, technical terms,
slang, colloquialisms, unusual syntactic structures and collocations,
peculiarly used words, neologism. Used for - Expressive texts: e.g.,
literature Examples: - Right in the heart of Hanoi, Hoan Kiem Lake is an
enchanting body of water, a peaceful oasis away from all the hustle and
bustle of the city. - She has a sunny smile on her face. - All men are
created equal. They are endowed by their Creator with certain
inalienable rights, among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of
Happiness" (the Declaration of Independence of the United States of
America in 1776)
5. COMMUNICATIVE TRANSLATION Communicative translation
attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a
way that both content and language are readily acceptable and
comprehensible to the readership. freer than semantic translation
gives priority to the effectiveness of the message to be communicated.
focuses on factors such as readability and naturalness Used for
informative texts Examples: - Right in the heart of Hanoi, Hoan Kiem
Lake is an enchanting body of water, a peaceful oasis away from all the
hustle and bustle of the city. - Nhà có chó dữ. - Keep off the grass. - Her
face is all her fortune.

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6-IDIOMATIC TRANSLATION Idiomatic translation reproduces the
‘message’ of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by
preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the
original. Reproduce the ‘message’ of the original Prefers
colloquialisms and idioms which do not exist in the original Outcome:
lively, ‘natural’ translation
7. FREE TRANSLATION Free translation reproduces the matter
without the manner, or the content without the form of the original.
Usually, it is a paraphrase much longer than the original, a so-called
‘intralingual translation’. Reproduce the matter without the manner; the
content without the form of the original Paraphrases much larger than
the original Used for Informative translation In-house publication
Examples: - Business is business - Heartease (pansy) is used again for
healing the heart. It is for disappointment in love, and in separation.
8. ADAPTATION This is the ‘freest’ form of translation. It is used
mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry: the themes, characters, plots are
usually preserved, the SL culture converted to the TL culture and the
text rewritten by an established dramatist or poet. The freest form of
translation Theories of Translation W3 6 | P a g e Preserves the theme,
plots, characters only The SL culture is converted to the TL culture
A kind of rewriting the text in translation Used for Plays, poems,
songs, advertising, tourism Examples: - IT - Chicken run - The thorn

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bird - “On a wagon, bound for market, There’s a calf with a mournful
eye. High above him, there’s a swallow, Winging swiftly through the
sky. How the winds are laughing, they laugh with all their might. Love
and laugh the whole day through And, half a summer’s night.
HTTP://LYTHUYETDICHANHUY.WEEBLY.COM/UPLOADS/1/0/6/
5/10656110/HANDOUT_2.PDF

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Newmark on translation
In his Textbook on Translation, Peter Newmark proposes to look at
translation methods as a continuum between the emphasis on Source
Language (SL) and the emphasis on Target Language (TL). Newmark
then considers a scale of eight levels:
1. Word-for-word translation (strongest emphasis on SL)
2. Literal translation
3. Faithful translation
4. Semantic translation
5. Communicative translation (emphasis on TL starts to dominate)
6. Idiomatic translation
7. Free translation
8. Adaptation (strongest emphasis on TL)
Levels explained
Newmark provides the following descriptions of his levels (I quote from
his book, omitting mostly examples):
Word-for-word translation is often demonstrated as interlinear
translation, with the TL immediately below the SL words. The SL word-
order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common
meanings, out of context. Cultural words are translated literally.

18
Literal translation: the SL grammatical constructions are converted to
their nearest TL equivalents but the lexical words are again translated
singly, out of context.
Faithful translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual
meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical
structures. It ‘transfers’ cultural words and preserves the degree of
grammatical and lexical ‘abnormality’ (deviation from SL norms) in the
translation. It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the
text-realisation of the SL writer.
Semantic translation differs from ‘faithful translation’ only in as far as
it must take more account of the aesthetic value (that is, the beautiful
and natural sound) of the SL text, compromising on ‘meaning’ where
appropriate so that no assonance, word-play or repetition jars in the
finished version. Further, it may translate less important cultural words
by culturally neutral third or functional terms but not by cultural
equivalents - une nonne repassant un corporal may become ‘a nun
ironing a corporal cloth’ - and it may make other small concessions to
the readership. The distinction between ‘faithful’ and ‘semantic’
translation is that the first is uncompromising and dogmatic, while the
second is more flexible, admits the creative exception to 100% fidelity
and allows for the translator’s intuitive empathy with the original.

19
Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual
meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are
readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership.
Idiomatic translation reproduces the ‘message’ of the original but tends
to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms
where these do not exist in the original.
Free translation reproduces the matter without the manner, or the
content without the form of the original.
Adaptation is the ‘freest’ form of translation. It is used mainly for plays
(comedies) and poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually
preserved, the SL culture converted to the TL culture and the text
rewritten.
An empirical perspective
Newmark does not write as a theoretician or a researcher, but as
somebody with a lot of practical experience. His presentation of
“methods” make it clear that he prefers some of them, distrusts others. It
is equally clear that Newmark’s aims are primarily pedagogical. He
wants to educate future translators, to lead them towards what he
considers best.
For our purposes, however – because we need to offer our annotators of
translations a common framework in which they will judge distances

20
between the source and the target, for each individual word or phrase –
Newmark’s scale can be simplified.
Scale of translation methods, simplified
It has to be noted that our categories have to be applicable
to individual words and phrases. They are not meant to be assessments
of a translation as a whole.
The proposition consists of three sets. The set 1-4 is inspired by
Newmark and presents the actual continuum. The set 5-7 deals with
translator’s omissions, additions, and (eventual) mistakes. The last
category is reserved for truly interesting cases, as usual.
1. Metaphrasis (word-for-word): closest to SL, independent of
context (the chosen translation of a word or phrase would be
applicable everywhere), retains syntactical structure of the SL as
far as possible
2. Faithful translation: close to SL, but dependent on context
(without the surrounding words, we cannot predict that a
translation will be chosen, though the solution can be found by
reading a dictionary article), or adapting the syntactical structure to
better suit the TL
3. Idiomatic translation: solutions closer to TL than to SL, using
language that is acceptable and comprehensible to SL readers

21
4. Paraphrasis: reproduces the gist of the original, but distorts
nuances of meaning and syntax
5. Omissions: SL words or phrases omitted in the TL version
6. Additions: TL words or phrases added
7. Wrong: the translator made a mistake
8. I don’t know.
HTTP://NEVENJOVANOVIC.GITHUB.IO/NEWMARK-ON-
TRANSLATION/

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Chapter Two
Key Terms in Translation
Dynamic equivalence
For Nida (1964; see also Koller 1979: 187-191), this is a mode of trans-
lation in which the message of the original text is transported into the TL
in such a way that the response of TL receivers is essentially the same as that
of the original text receivers. Dynamic equivalence is based on the
principle of equivalent effect and is contrasted by Nida with 'formal'
equivalence. As an example, Nida (1964:'159-160) quotes, from J. B.
Phillips' translation of the New Testament' the rendering of philemati agioi
(literally, 'greet one another with a holy kiss') with 'give one another a
hearty handshake' (see also Eugene A. Nida in the 'Key Thinkers' section).
Venuti ([19951 2008: 16-18) provides a critical discussion of the concept,
centred around the idea that for the response of the TL receiver to be
considered essentially similar to that of the 5L receiver, linguistic and cultural
differences are not to be seen as constitutive of meaning.
Fluency
The term refers to the idea that a translated text should read like an
original and not be recognizable as a translation. In relation to literary
translation, Venuti ([1995] 2008) sees fluency as an ideal and deplores
the way in which it has dominated the Anglo-Saxon translation tradition;
he maintains that this ideal has entailed the invisibility of the translator

23
in the translation of literary works. In order to be more visible, Venuti
argues, translators should resist the temptation to produce fluent target
texts because such texts deceive readers into thinking that they are
originals. Ultimately, fluency, by making the translator invisible, denies
the source culture and its right to appear as something different. It is
therefore an unethical choice and to it Venuti opposes a resistant way of
translating that is more ethical for both the translator and the source
culture (see ethics). This way of translating may entail using more
marked, unusual TL forms, archaisms, mixed registers and other aspects
that might allow the 'otherness' of the original text to be felt by TL
readers.
Foreignization
The term refers to a translation strategy aimed at rendering the ST
conspicuous in the target text or, in other words, at avoiding the fluency
that would mask its being a translation (which can be seen as the result
of the opposite strategy of domestication). The term is mostly
associated with the name of Lawrence Venuti ([1995] 2008) who,
largely in relation to the translation of literary and philosophical works,
sees TL fluency as an ideal that suppresses the 'otherness' of the source
text and minimizes the role of the translator. Foreignizing translation is
thus seen by Venuti as a form of resistant translation opposing the
prevailirg ethnocentric modes of transfer. For Venuti foreignizing

24
translation is not to be equated with literal translation. He allows this
strategy of translation to take very different, even conflicting forms; not
only close, resistant renderings, but also renderings that mix different
cultural discourses, or even ones that are free and fluent. The two concepts
of 'domestication' and 'foreignization' must be seen as showing contingent
variability, meaning that their definition always depends on the specific
historical and cultural situation in which a translation is made (see Venuti
[1995] 2008: 19-20); see also Lawrence Venuti in the 'Key Thinkers'
section.
Free vs literal translation
This is the "binary opposition that has dominated the debate on translation
over the centuries. Free translation is usually taken to concentrate on
conveying the meaning of the ST disregarding the formal or structural
aspects of the ST. Literal translation is normally taken to be a mode of
translation that remains close to the form of the original.
'Literal' is an ambiguous term. It could mean word-for-word, i.e. a translation
which gives priority to lexical correspondences and results in ungrammatical
sentences, or it could also mean a translation that is as dose as possible to the
original while still ensuring TL grammaticality (but not naturalness).
Barkhudarov(1993; quoted in Chesterman 1997:12) correlates the free/literal
opposition with the choice of the unit of translation, so that the smaller the
unit, the more literal the result, and the larger the unit, the freer the result.

25
Thinkers and scholars have had different views on the merits or disadvantages
of literalness. Newmark (1981: 39) believes that literal translation should
always be preferred where possible and 'provided that equivalent effect is
secured' (see equivalent effect). Robinson (1991: 153), on the other hand,
argues that the only valid criterion for translation is that the ST and the TT
'should stand in some way of recognizable relation to each other', a position
that seems to reject the idea of equivalence and therefore the free/literal
polarity altogether.
As regards free translation, this is sometimes taken to mean sense-for-sense
translation but it has been seen as taking a variety of forms depending on
the exact nature of the type (or types) of translation it is opposed to (cf.
Robinson 1991, 1998). In fact, following the tripartite distinction proposed
by Jerome in the 4,h
century AD, free translation has often been
distinguished from both word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation,
where free translation is usually presented as being 'unfaithful' to the text,
or a bad translation. This tripartite distinction is again found in John
Dryden's differentiation between metaphrase (word-for-word translation),
paraphrase (sense-for-sense translation) and imitation, which is defined
as a translation that takes on very general hints from an original. As
pointed out by Robinson (1998: 88-89) free translation, whatever it is
opposed to, remains a difficult notion to define and probably the best
way of characterizing it is to see it as translation that deviates from the
'hegemonic norms' " that establish, in a given period or community, what

26
faithful translation is. Thus, where faithful is equated with sense-for sense,
a free translation will be one that takes greater liberties with the ST, but
where the dominant norm sees faithful translation as word-for-word, then
sense-for-sense will be seen as a form of free translation.
Domestication
Domestication is a global strategy of translation aimed at producing a
transparent, fluent style in the TL. For Venuti ([1995] 2008), this strat-
egy is concerned both with the mode of linguistic and stylistic transfer
chosen for foreign texts and with the choice of texts to be translated. As
a mode of translation, domestication entails translating in a transparent
form felt as capable of giving access to the ST author's precise meaning.
This in turn influences the choice of texts to be translated, as these are
selected largely for their capacity to be translated with a domesticating
approach. Venuti sees domestication as involving an ethnocentric
reduction of the ST to TL values and opposes it to the alternative
strategy of foreignization.
Dubbing
Together with subtitling, it is the dominant form of language transfer in
audiovisual translation, especially as regards films and TV fiction. It
consists in replacing the original voice track with the voices of dubbing
actors speaking in the TL, recreating the delivery pace of the original

27
voices and synchronizing the TL voice track with the lip movements of
the characters on screen (the term dubbing is also used to describe the
re-recording of voices in the same language, e.g. to enhance the quality
of the voice track). Translation of the dialogue is performed on a written
copy of the film script and then handed over to a 'dialogue writer' that
identifies potential problems in terms of synchronization. Once the
translation has been adapted, revoicing in the TL is recorded by actors
under the supervision of a dubbing director and a sound engineer. The
presence of various professionals in the dubbing process makes it a
more expensive form of audiovisual translation than subtitling.
Machine translation
Often abbreviated to MT, machine translation is translation performed
automatically by a computer with different degrees of human involve-
ment. A distinction is often made between MT systems that are purely
automatic and systems that require human assistance (e.g. in Hutchins
and Somers 1992), but the difference is increasingly blurred as most
available systems require some form of human intervention. Typically,
.human assistance in MT is required at the stage of ST preparation (pre-
editing) or output editing (post-editing). Besides those based on human
intervention, further classifications of MT systems are possible,
depending on the text type MT is used for or the type of end user a
system is addressed to. A first distinction can thus be made between

28
specific-purpose systems, used for specialized subject-specific texts, and
general-purpose systems used for general-purpose texts (Quah 2006:
173). As regards end users, a distinction can be made between stand-
alone systems used by professional translators (working as freelancers or
in an organization), web-based systems for home users and non-
translators, and systems installed on handheld devices for non-translators
(Quah 2006: 65). Starting from the 1990s, speech recognition
technology has often been combined with MT, leading to the creation of
speech-to-speech, text-to-speech and speech-to-text systems.
(PALUMBO 2009)
Skopostheorie
Within the functionalist approaches to translation that emerged in
the late 1970s and 1980s, a key role was played by what has come to be
known as Skopostheorie in German and 'skopos theory' in English. The
theory, developed by Hans J. Vermeer with the contribution of
Katharina Reiss (Reiss and Vermeer 1984; for accounts in English, see
Vermeer 1989, 1996), sees translation as a form of action. As all action,
it is governed by a certain aim or purpose, labelled skopos (Greek for
'purpose' or 'goal'). The skopos, in other words, is the overriding factor
governing either the choices and decisions made during the translation
process or the criteria based on which a translation is assessed. Translating
is thus seen as a purposeful activity: it essentially means 'to have a skopos

29
and accordingly transfer a [text] from its source-culture surroundings to
target-culture surroundings, which by definition are different from the
former' (Vermeer 1996: 39). More specifically, translation is seen by
Vermeer (1986: 33) as an 'offer of information', or
Informationsangebot, in the target language which imitates an offer
of information in the source language. As regards in particular the
formal aspects of the ST, these are preserved as far as possible in the
TT as long as they conform to the skopos. In some cases, the skopos
may have to do precisely with the preservation of ST form, as happens
in some types of documentary translation. Although it has been
developed as a reaction to views of translation centred around the
notion equivalence between the ST and the TT, skopos theory does
not ultimately reject equivalence - it implies a change of focus such
that equivalence between the ST and the TT is seen as hierarchically
inferior to the purpose of the translated text. In other words, both in
carrying out and in assessing a translation, the ST is always
considered in light of the purpose of the translation, and these are
linked primarily with target factors. Elaborating on the notion of
skopos, Nord (1997) identifies three different components in it:
intention, function and effect. 'Intention' is the purpose that the
sender wishes to achieve. 'Function' is a property of the translation
itself and is assigned to it by the recipient 'Effect' refers to what

30
happens in the recipient's mind or behaviour upon reading the
translation. In ideal cases, the three components coincide.

31
Chapter Three:
Professional translation
‫للمحترفين‬ ‫الترجمة‬ ‫أصول‬
:‫المحترف‬ ‫للمترجم‬ ‫إرشادات‬
-
‫في‬ ‫الدقة‬ ‫على‬ ‫يحرص‬ ‫وأن‬ ‫عمله‬ ‫في‬ ً‫ا‬‫أمين‬ ‫يكون‬ ‫أن‬ ‫هو‬ ‫المحترف‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫من‬ ‫يطلب‬ ‫ما‬ ‫أول‬
.‫المترجمة‬ ‫المادة‬ ‫نقل‬
-
ً‫ا‬‫كثير‬ ‫بالتردد‬ ‫يصاب‬ ‫ومن‬ ‫للمترجم‬ ‫األول‬ ‫العدو‬ ‫هو‬ ‫فالتردد‬ ً‫ا‬‫كثير‬ ‫تتردد‬ ‫وال‬ ‫بنفسك‬ ‫ثق‬
‫وال‬
.‫الترجمة‬ ‫مجال‬ ‫في‬ ‫ينجح‬ ‫لن‬ ‫بسرعة‬ ‫أمره‬ ‫يحسم‬ ‫أن‬ ‫يستطيع‬
-
‫على‬ ‫احرص‬ ‫ولكن‬ ‫لذلك‬ ‫حاجة‬ ‫هناك‬ ‫أن‬ ‫تجد‬ ‫عندما‬ ‫والشرح‬ ‫التوضيحات‬ ‫تضيف‬ ‫أن‬ ‫يمكنك‬
.‫المترجم‬ ‫شرح‬ ‫من‬ ‫أنه‬ ‫واذكر‬ ‫سفلية‬ ‫حواش‬ ‫في‬ ‫ذلك‬ ‫جعل‬
-
.ً‫ا‬‫حرف‬ ً‫ا‬‫وحرف‬ ‫كلمة‬ ‫كلمة‬ ‫بالنص‬ ‫وااللتزام‬ ‫الحرفية‬ ‫الترجمة‬ ‫عن‬ ‫ابتعد‬
-
‫ذهن‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫المعنى‬ ‫يقرب‬ ‫ذلك‬ ‫أن‬ ‫منك‬ ً‫ا‬‫ظن‬ ‫األموال‬ ‫أو‬ ‫المسافات‬ ‫أو‬ ‫القياسات‬ ‫بتحويل‬ ‫تقم‬ ‫ال‬
‫ما‬ ‫سلعة‬ ‫أن‬ ‫يقول‬ ‫األمريكية‬ ‫المتحدة‬ ‫الواليات‬ ‫من‬ ‫قادم‬ ‫نص‬ ‫ترجمة‬ ‫في‬ ‫المنطقي‬ ‫من‬ ‫فليس‬ ‫القارئ‬
‫إلى‬ ‫النص‬ ‫يترجم‬ ‫أنه‬ ‫لمجرد‬ ‫المصري‬ ‫بالجنيه‬ ‫السعر‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫فيذكر‬ ‫دوالرات‬ ‫ثالثة‬ ‫ثمنها‬
!!‫مصر‬
-
‫أن‬ ‫وسيجد‬ ‫السياق‬ ‫من‬ ‫المعنى‬ ‫يستشف‬ ‫أن‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫يلجأ‬ ‫أن‬ ‫األحيان‬ ‫بعض‬ ‫في‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫يضطر‬ ‫قد‬
‫له‬ ‫أفضل‬ ‫ذلك‬
–
‫العثرة‬ ‫النصوص‬ ‫بعض‬ ‫في‬
–
‫وكلمة‬ ‫جملة‬ ‫جملة‬ ‫النص‬ ‫معنى‬ ‫عن‬ ‫يبحث‬ ‫أن‬ ‫من‬
.‫كلمة‬
-
‫مترجم‬ ‫النص‬ ‫أن‬ ‫مترجماته‬ ‫يقرأ‬ ‫من‬ ‫يكتشف‬ ‫أن‬ ‫هو‬ ‫مترجم‬ ‫ألي‬ ‫المؤكد‬ ‫الفشل‬ ‫طريق‬ ‫أول‬
‫يق‬ ‫الذي‬ ‫فالمترجم‬
‫وركيكة‬ ‫منطقية‬ ‫غير‬ ‫اللغوية‬ ‫تراكيبه‬ ‫تأتي‬ ‫عنها‬ ‫المنقول‬ ‫باللغة‬ ‫التأثر‬ ‫خطأ‬ ‫في‬ ‫ع‬
‫يقرأ‬ ‫عندما‬ ‫فالمترجم‬ ً‫ا‬‫جد‬ ‫بسيط‬ ‫هنا‬ ‫والحل‬ .‫األحوال‬ ‫أغلب‬ ‫في‬ ‫مفهومة‬ ‫غير‬ ‫ترجمته‬ ‫يجعل‬ ‫وذلك‬
‫ما‬ ‫يصوب‬ ‫وأن‬ ‫فعل‬ ‫فيما‬ ‫النظر‬ ‫يعيد‬ ‫أن‬ ‫له‬ ‫البد‬ ‫وركيك‬ ‫مترابط‬ ‫غير‬ ‫ويجده‬ ‫بترجمته‬ ‫قام‬ ‫ما‬

32
‫أخطاء‬ ‫من‬ ‫ارتكب‬
‫يقل‬ ‫ال‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫النص‬ ‫إليها‬ ‫المنقول‬ ‫اللغة‬ ‫صياغة‬ ‫فحسن‬ ً‫ا‬‫جد‬ ‫جسيمة‬ ‫نراها‬
.‫ذاتها‬ ‫الترجمة‬ ‫عملية‬ ‫عن‬ ‫أهمية‬
‫أجهزة‬ ‫من‬ ‫نشتريه‬ ‫ما‬ ‫علب‬ ‫داخل‬ ‫في‬ ‫ركيكة‬ ‫ترجمات‬ ‫من‬ ‫يوم‬ ‫كل‬ ‫نصادفه‬ ‫ما‬ ‫هو‬ ‫ذلك‬ ‫ومثال‬
‫سوء‬ ‫توضح‬ ‫التشغيل‬ ‫كتيبات‬ ‫في‬ ‫اإلنجليزي‬ ‫بالنص‬ ‫العربي‬ ‫النص‬ ‫فمقارنة‬ .‫غيار‬ ‫وقطع‬ ‫منزلية‬
.‫األحيان‬ ‫من‬ ‫كثير‬ ‫في‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫خبرة‬ ‫وضحالة‬ ‫الترجمة‬ ‫مستوى‬
-
‫الكلمة‬ ‫تكون‬ ‫أن‬ ‫يحتمل‬ ‫وهنا‬ ‫المعاجم‬ ‫في‬ ‫أثر‬ ‫له‬ ‫يجد‬ ‫ال‬ ‫مصطلح‬ ‫أو‬ ‫كلمة‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫يصادف‬ ‫قد‬
‫المركب‬ ‫المعنى‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫منها‬ ‫جزء‬ ‫يرشدنا‬ ‫وقد‬ ‫جزئين‬ ‫من‬ ‫مركبة‬ ‫تكون‬ ‫أن‬ ‫أو‬ ‫أخرى‬ ‫كلمة‬ ‫من‬ ‫مشتقة‬
.‫للجزئين‬
-
‫المفردات‬ ‫من‬ ‫الكثير‬ ‫هناك‬
‫المعجم‬ ‫في‬ ‫المعاني‬ ‫عشرات‬ ‫أمامها‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫يجد‬ ‫التي‬ ‫والمصطلحات‬
.‫للنص‬ ‫األنسب‬ ‫المعنى‬ ‫فيختار‬ ‫المحترف‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫حنكة‬ ‫تظهر‬ ‫وهنا‬
-
‫بتجزئ‬ ‫نفسه‬ ‫على‬ ‫األمر‬ ‫يخفف‬ ‫أن‬ ‫للمترجم‬ ‫يمكن‬
‫بالمعنى‬ ‫المساس‬ ‫دون‬ ‫ولكن‬ ‫الطويلة‬ ‫الجمل‬
.‫التعبير‬ ‫أو‬
-
‫المنقول‬ ‫اللغتين‬ ‫يجيد‬ ‫أن‬ ‫عليه‬ ‫أن‬ ‫وليدرك‬ ‫إليها‬ ‫ينقل‬ ‫التي‬ ‫اللغة‬ ‫بقواعد‬ ‫يتمسك‬ ‫أن‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫على‬
.‫إليها‬ ‫والمنقول‬ ‫منها‬
-
‫يشوهه‬ ‫أو‬ ‫المعنى‬ ‫من‬ ‫يغير‬ ‫قد‬ ‫بما‬ ‫اإلضافة‬ ‫أو‬ ‫بالحذف‬ ‫النص‬ ‫في‬ ‫المحترف‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫يتدخل‬ ‫ال‬
‫يخرجه‬ ‫أو‬
.‫مقصده‬ ‫عن‬
-
‫العالم‬ ‫عبر‬ ‫أنواعها‬ ‫وبكافة‬ ‫األخبار‬ ‫بكل‬ ‫يهتم‬ ‫وأن‬ ‫بأول‬ ً‫ال‬‫أو‬ ‫األحداث‬ ‫يتابع‬ ‫أن‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫على‬
‫درسه‬ ‫ما‬ ‫واقع‬ ‫من‬ ‫يترجم‬ ‫ال‬ ‫فالمترجم‬ .‫واجب‬ ‫أمر‬ ‫هو‬ ‫بل‬ ‫أمامه‬ ً‫ا‬‫متاح‬ ً‫ا‬‫خيار‬ ‫يعتبر‬ ‫ال‬ ‫وهذا‬ ‫أجمع‬
‫أو‬ ‫وإطالعه‬ ‫العامة‬ ‫ثقافته‬ ‫واقع‬ ‫من‬ ‫بل‬ ‫فقط‬ ‫المعاجم‬ ‫في‬ ‫قرأه‬ ‫وما‬ ‫الكتب‬ ‫في‬
‫ومعرفته‬ ‫بأول‬ ً‫ال‬
.‫العالم‬ ‫وأخبار‬ ‫الجديدة‬ ‫باألحداث‬
-
‫جميع‬ ‫في‬ ‫يترجم‬ ‫الذي‬ ‫فالمترجم‬ ‫عمله‬ ‫في‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫نجاح‬ ‫عوامل‬ ‫أهم‬ ‫هما‬ ‫والمراس‬ ‫التخصص‬
‫إال‬ ً‫ا‬‫وماهر‬ ً‫ا‬‫متمكن‬ ‫يكون‬ ‫لن‬ ‫فهو‬ ً‫ا‬‫ماهر‬ ً‫ا‬‫مترجم‬ ‫نعتبره‬ ‫أن‬ ‫يمكننا‬ ‫ال‬ ‫ذلك‬ ‫ويحترف‬ ‫التخصصات‬
‫متقاربة‬ ‫أفرع‬ ‫عدة‬ ‫أو‬ ‫واحد‬ ‫فرع‬ ‫في‬ ‫تخصص‬ ‫إذا‬
.

33
-
‫العربية‬ ‫اللغة‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫يترجمها‬ ‫نصوص‬ ‫من‬ ‫يده‬ ‫عليه‬ ‫تقع‬ ‫ما‬ ‫كل‬ ‫من‬ ‫يستفيد‬ ‫أن‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫على‬
‫أن‬ ‫األفضل‬ ‫ومن‬ .‫مختلفة‬ ‫مجاالت‬ ‫في‬ ‫اصطالحية‬ ‫تعبيرات‬ ‫من‬ ‫فيها‬ ‫يرد‬ ‫ما‬ ‫كل‬ ‫من‬ ‫واالستفادة‬
.‫أعمال‬ ‫من‬ ‫يستجد‬ ‫ما‬ ‫إنجاز‬ ‫على‬ ‫يساعده‬ ‫ذلك‬ ‫فكل‬ .‫فيها‬ ‫يسجلها‬ ‫خاصة‬ ‫دفاتر‬ ‫لها‬ ‫يعد‬
-
‫أن‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫على‬
‫حسن‬ ‫على‬ ‫يساعده‬ ‫فهذا‬ ‫والعربية‬ ‫اإلنجليزية‬ ‫باللغتين‬ ‫القراءة‬ ‫من‬ ‫يكثر‬
ً‫ال‬‫أو‬ ‫جديد‬ ‫لكل‬ ً‫ا‬‫متابع‬ ‫يجعله‬ ‫أنه‬ ‫كما‬ .‫واضحة‬ ‫زيادة‬ ‫اللغوية‬ ‫حصيلته‬ ‫من‬ ‫ويزيد‬ ‫باللغتين‬ ‫الصياغة‬
.‫بأول‬
-
‫أيديهم‬ ‫على‬ ‫تعلمنا‬ ‫حين‬ ‫المترجمين‬ ‫كبار‬ ‫من‬ ‫أساتذتنا‬ ‫لنا‬ ‫نقلها‬ ‫التي‬ ‫بالقاعدة‬ ‫العمل‬ ‫من‬ ‫البد‬
‫أصول‬
‫أن‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫على‬ ‫أن‬ ‫أي‬ "‫ضائع‬ ‫يوم‬ ‫جديد‬ ‫بال‬ ‫جديد‬ ‫"يوم‬ ‫يقول‬ ‫منهم‬ ‫الكثير‬ ‫فكان‬ ‫الترجمة‬
‫من‬ ً‫ا‬‫عشوائي‬ ‫انتقاها‬ ‫وإن‬ ‫حتى‬ ‫والمفردات‬ ‫التعبيرات‬ ‫من‬ ‫الجديد‬ ‫حصيلته‬ ‫إلى‬ ً‫ا‬‫يومي‬ ‫يضيف‬
.‫المعجم‬
-
‫فهذه‬ ‫ومؤتمرات‬ ‫ولقاءات‬ ‫تعليمية‬ ‫ودورات‬ ‫ندوات‬ ‫من‬ ‫حضوره‬ ‫يستطيع‬ ‫ما‬ ‫كل‬ ‫من‬ ‫االستفادة‬
‫اللقاءا‬
.‫إليه‬ ‫قيمة‬ ‫خبرات‬ ‫تضيف‬ ‫ت‬
،‫(مؤمن‬
2006
،
9
-
10
)
:‫للمترجم‬ ‫األساسية‬ ‫الخصائص‬
‫على‬ ً‫ا‬‫ومطلع‬ ‫الفن‬ ‫بروح‬ ً‫ا‬‫متحلي‬ ‫يكون‬ ‫أن‬ ‫ينبغي‬ ‫اللغوي‬ ‫اطالعه‬ ‫جنب‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫فهو‬ ‫فنان‬ ‫المترجم‬
‫تعابير‬ ‫بل‬ ‫القواميس‬ ‫تحتويها‬ ‫ميتة‬ ‫ألفاظ‬ ‫مجرد‬ ‫اللغة‬ ‫فليست‬ ‫بترجمته‬ ‫يقوم‬ ‫الذي‬ ‫الموضوع‬
‫ف‬ ‫دقيقة‬ ‫ونقاط‬ ‫اصطالحية‬
‫بالمطالعة‬ ‫إال‬ ‫به‬ ‫اإلحاطة‬ ‫يمكن‬ ‫ال‬ ‫مما‬ ‫الكلمات‬ ‫ومدلول‬ ‫التركيب‬ ‫ي‬
‫األلفاظ‬ ‫ترجمة‬ ‫جنب‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫قلنا‬ ‫كما‬ ‫الترجمة‬ ‫وتتضمن‬ .‫الناقدة‬ ‫الفاحصة‬ ‫والنظرة‬ ‫المستفيضة‬
‫قبل‬ ‫مرات‬ ‫عدة‬ ‫النص‬ ‫يقرأ‬ ‫أن‬ ‫للمترجم‬ ‫ينبغي‬ ‫هذا‬ ‫وعلى‬ ‫وروحه‬ ‫الكاتب‬ ‫أسلوب‬ ‫ترجمة‬ ‫والمعاني‬
‫روح‬ ‫لتتشرب‬ :‫ترجمته‬ ‫على‬ ‫يقدم‬ ‫أن‬
‫فتتفتح‬ ‫ذهنه‬ ‫في‬ ‫معانيه‬ ‫ولتستقر‬ ‫األصلي‬ ‫المؤلف‬ ‫بروحية‬ ‫ه‬
.‫يديه‬ ‫بين‬ ‫التي‬ ‫القطعة‬ ‫لترجمة‬ ‫نفسه‬
‫األصلي؟‬ ‫بالنص‬ ‫التصرف‬ ‫بالمترجم‬ ‫يحسن‬ ‫مدى‬ ‫أي‬ ‫إلى‬

34
‫ثم‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫شكله‬ ‫في‬ ‫ويحسنه‬ ‫األصل‬ ‫يصقل‬ ‫أن‬ ‫للمترجم‬ ‫يجوز‬ ‫بأنه‬ ‫القائل‬ ‫الرأي‬ ‫ساد‬ ‫ولمدة‬
‫ونواقص‬ ‫األصل‬ ‫بأخطاء‬ ‫حتى‬ ‫االحتفاظ‬ ‫فكرة‬ ‫ظهرت‬
‫الرأيين‬ ‫بين‬ ‫وسط‬ ‫برأي‬ ‫فنأخذ‬ ‫نحن‬ ‫أما‬ .‫ه‬
‫نبقى‬ ‫وال‬ ‫الترجمة‬ ‫وبين‬ ‫بينه‬ ‫الشقة‬ ‫تبعد‬ ‫بحيث‬ ‫ينبغي‬ ‫مما‬ ‫أكثر‬ ‫ونصقله‬ ‫األصل‬ ‫نحسن‬ ‫فال‬
.‫أمكن‬ ‫إن‬ ‫الحواشي‬ ‫في‬ ‫إليها‬ ‫اإلشارة‬ ‫مع‬ ‫بتعديلها‬ ‫ننصح‬ ‫بل‬ ‫عليه‬ ‫هي‬ ‫ما‬ ‫على‬ ‫األخطاء‬
‫م‬ ‫في‬ ً‫ا‬‫مشكوك‬ ‫أو‬ ً‫ا‬‫غامض‬ ‫األصلي‬ ‫النص‬ ‫رأى‬ ‫حيثما‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫على‬ ‫ويجب‬
‫لمعنيين‬ ً‫ال‬‫محتم‬ ‫أو‬ ‫عناه‬
.‫األصلي‬ ‫الكاتب‬ ‫مزاج‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫واألقرب‬ ‫بكاملها‬ ‫القطعة‬ ‫في‬ ‫الكالم‬ ‫لسياق‬ ‫األنسب‬ ‫المعنى‬ ‫يختار‬ ‫أن‬
‫للنص‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫فهم‬ ‫عدم‬ ‫على‬ ‫يدل‬ ‫قد‬ ‫معيب‬ ‫فأمر‬ ‫وإبهامه‬ ‫األصل‬ ‫غموض‬ ‫تقليد‬ ‫محاولة‬ ‫أما‬
.‫الصحيح‬ ‫وجهه‬ ‫على‬ ‫األصلي‬
ً‫ا‬‫شيئ‬ ‫األصلي‬ ‫المعنى‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫يضيف‬ ‫أن‬ ‫للمترجم‬ ‫ويجوز‬
‫بالمعنى‬ ‫يعرف‬ ‫ما‬ ‫وهو‬ ‫لتقويته‬ ‫عنده‬ ‫من‬
‫تركيبية‬ ‫أضافة‬ ‫المضاف‬
(superadded idea)
‫وجد‬ ‫إذا‬ ‫فيما‬ ً‫ا‬‫رئيسي‬ ‫ال‬ ً‫ا‬‫ثانوي‬ ‫معنى‬ ‫يحذف‬ ‫أو‬
‫الحكمة‬ ‫يستعمل‬ ‫أن‬ ‫األحوال‬ ‫هذه‬ ‫مثل‬ ‫في‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫وعلى‬ .‫األصلي‬ ‫النص‬ ‫قوة‬ ‫من‬ ‫يضعف‬ ‫ذلك‬ ‫أن‬
‫ي‬ ‫الذي‬ ‫األصلي‬ ‫المؤلف‬ ‫طور‬ ‫يتخذ‬ ‫وأن‬ ‫الحذف‬ ‫أو‬ ‫الزيادة‬ ‫في‬
‫بحلة‬ ‫ألخراجها‬ ‫كتاباته‬ ‫تنقيح‬ ‫حاول‬
.‫جديدة‬
:‫الترجمة‬ ‫فن‬ ‫في‬ ‫األساسية‬ ‫الصعوبة‬
‫كامبيل‬ ‫جورج‬ ‫يقول‬
George Campbell
–
‫منشأ‬ ‫وفي‬ ‫الترجمة‬ ‫فن‬ ‫في‬ ‫الباحثين‬ ‫أحد‬
‫اللغات‬ ‫في‬ ‫االختالفات‬
–
‫كل‬ ‫في‬ ‫معينة‬ ‫ألفاظ‬ ‫وجود‬ ‫من‬ ‫متأتية‬ ‫الفن‬ ‫هذا‬ ‫في‬ ‫األساسية‬ ‫الصعوبة‬ ‫أن‬
‫اللغا‬ ‫في‬ ‫لها‬ ‫مقابل‬ ‫ال‬ ‫لغة‬
‫األخالق‬ ‫على‬ ‫الدالة‬ ‫األلفاظ‬ ‫معظم‬ ‫القبيل‬ ‫هذا‬ ‫ومن‬ ،‫األخرى‬ ‫ت‬
:‫الالتينية‬ ‫فاأللفاظ‬ .‫الذاتية‬ ‫أو‬ ‫المنعكسة‬ ‫والمشاعر‬ ‫والعواطف‬
Misericordia
‫الرحمة‬
Virtus
‫الفضيلة‬
Temperantia
:‫فكلمات‬ ‫اإلنجليزية‬ ‫في‬ ‫وال‬ ‫اليونانية‬ ‫في‬ ‫يقابلها‬ ‫ما‬ ‫تجد‬ ‫ال‬ ,‫المزاج‬
Virtue, Temperance, Mercy
‫ال‬
‫فلفظة‬ ‫المواءمة‬ ‫تمام‬ ‫توائمها‬
virtus
‫في‬ ‫ترادف‬ ‫الالتينية‬
‫لفظة‬ ‫الغالب‬
Valour
‫لفظة‬ ‫أما‬ ‫إطالقا‬ ‫الشئ‬ ‫نفس‬ ‫تعنى‬ ‫ال‬ ‫التي‬ ‫االنجليزية‬ ‫وفي‬ .‫الشجاعة‬
Temperantia
‫لفظة‬ ‫بينما‬ ‫الرغبات‬ ‫في‬ ‫االعتدال‬ ‫فتتضمن‬ ‫الالتينية‬ ‫في‬
Temperance
‫سبنسر‬ ‫أن‬ ‫ولو‬ ‫والمشرب‬ ‫المأكل‬ ‫في‬ ‫االعتدال‬ ‫على‬ ‫المعتاد‬ ‫مدلولها‬ ‫في‬ ‫تقتصر‬ ‫االنجليزية‬

35
:‫قال‬ ‫حين‬ ‫أوسع‬ ‫بمعنى‬ ‫استعملها‬
He calm'd his wrath with goodly temperance
"‫اعتدال‬ ‫من‬ ‫به‬ ‫يليق‬ ‫بما‬ ‫غضبه‬ ‫ثورة‬ ‫هدأ‬ ‫"لقد‬
:‫الترجمة‬ ‫فن‬ ‫قواعد‬
1
-
‫صحيحة‬ ‫صورة‬ ‫الترجمة‬ ‫تعطي‬ ‫أن‬ ‫يجب‬
.‫األصلي‬ ‫النص‬ ‫في‬ ‫المتضمنة‬ ‫لألفكار‬
2
-
.‫اإلمكان‬ ‫قدر‬ ‫األصلي‬ ‫األسلوب‬ ‫على‬ ‫المحافظة‬ ‫يلزم‬
3
-
‫موضوعة‬ ‫قطعة‬ ‫أية‬ ‫سالسة‬ ‫عن‬ ‫الترجمة‬ ‫سالسة‬ ‫تقل‬ ‫أال‬ ‫ينبغي‬
:‫بعد‬ ‫فيما‬ ‫ذكرها‬ ‫على‬ ‫سنأتي‬ ‫ثانوية‬ ‫قواعد‬ ‫عدة‬ ‫تتفرع‬ ‫وعنها‬ ‫للترجمة‬ ‫األساسية‬ ‫القوانين‬ ‫هي‬ ‫هذه‬
‫الترجم‬ ‫فن‬ ‫دراسة‬ ‫من‬ ‫المتوخاة‬ ‫الفوائد‬
:‫ة‬
:‫أهمها‬ .‫عديدة‬ ‫فوائد‬ ‫الترجمة‬ ‫فن‬ ‫لدراسة‬
1
-
.‫واحد‬ ‫آن‬ ‫في‬ ‫لغتين‬ ‫في‬ ‫اإلنشاء‬ ‫ملكة‬ ‫تقوية‬
2
-
.‫أخرى‬ ‫لغة‬ ‫بقواعد‬ ‫لغة‬ ‫قواعد‬ ‫مقارنة‬
3
-
.‫واالصطالحية‬ ‫والعبارات‬ ‫الفكر‬ ‫في‬ ‫التدقيق‬
4
-
.‫أخرى‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫لغة‬ ‫من‬ ‫ونقلها‬ ‫وأساليبه‬ ‫التعبير‬ ‫وطرق‬ ‫واألفكار‬ ‫المعارف‬ ‫تبادل‬
5
-
‫بعضه‬ ‫اآلداب‬ ‫تطعيم‬
.‫ببعض‬ ‫ا‬
6
-
.‫وبالعكس‬ ‫بها‬ ‫المتكلمين‬ ‫تفكير‬ ‫في‬ ‫اللغوية‬ ‫التراكيب‬ ‫تأثير‬ ‫مدى‬ ‫معرفة‬
‫(خلوصي‬
2000
،
14
-
6
)
‫والقانونية‬ ‫التجارية‬ ‫النصوص‬ ‫ترجمة‬
‫وأصعب‬ ‫ناحية‬ ‫من‬ ‫األدبية‬ ‫النصوص‬ ‫ترجمة‬ ‫من‬ ‫فأيسر‬ ‫والقانونية‬ ‫التجارية‬ ‫النصوص‬ ‫ترجمة‬ ‫أما‬
‫أنها‬ ‫اعتبار‬ ‫على‬ ‫أيسر‬ ‫إنها‬ .‫أخرى‬ ‫ناحية‬ ‫من‬ ‫منها‬
‫في‬ ‫دقة‬ ‫تقتضي‬ ‫ولكنها‬ ‫أسلوبية‬ ‫جزالة‬ ‫تحتاج‬ ‫ال‬
‫اإلنجليزية‬ ‫اللغة‬ ‫أن‬ ‫نتصور‬ ‫أن‬ ‫الخطأ‬ ‫ومن‬ .‫العلمية‬ ‫والتعابير‬ ‫بالمصطلحات‬ ‫وإلمام‬ ‫التعبير‬
‫تام‬ ‫تفهم‬ ‫يسبقها‬ ‫أن‬ ‫يجب‬ ً‫ال‬‫مث‬ ‫التجارية‬ ‫المراسالت‬ ‫فدراسة‬ ‫األدبية‬ ‫اللغة‬ ‫عن‬ ‫غنى‬ ‫في‬ ‫التجارية‬
‫ين‬ ‫التجاري‬ ‫فالتلميذ‬ ‫ومبادئه‬ ‫اإلنشاء‬ ‫ألصول‬
‫الكتابة‬ ‫على‬ ‫قدرة‬ ‫األقل‬ ‫على‬ ‫له‬ ‫تكون‬ ‫أن‬ ‫بغي‬

36
‫وتجنب‬ ‫صحيحة‬ ‫بصورة‬ ‫والفقرات‬ ‫الجمل‬ ‫وتركيب‬ ‫بمهارة‬ ‫الترقيم‬ ‫عالمات‬ ‫استعمال‬ ‫مع‬ ‫بوضوح‬
.‫داع‬ ‫بدون‬ ‫واألفكار‬ ‫األلفاظ‬ ‫تكرار‬
‫وهو‬ ‫السيئة‬ ‫نتائجه‬ ‫له‬ ‫التجارية‬ ‫المراسالت‬ ‫في‬ ‫الوضوح‬ ‫عدم‬ ‫أن‬ ‫إذ‬ ‫الغموض‬ ‫تحاشي‬ ‫من‬ ‫والبد‬
‫التفكير‬ ‫عدم‬ ‫من‬ ‫متأت‬
‫أو‬ ‫األلفاظ‬ ‫استعمال‬ ‫وإساءة‬ ‫المعقدة‬ ‫الطويلة‬ ‫الجمل‬ ‫تعود‬ ‫ومن‬ ‫دقيقة‬ ‫بصورة‬
‫سوء‬ ‫عن‬ ‫ناجمة‬ ‫الدعاوي‬ ‫نصف‬ ‫أن‬ ‫يقولون‬ ‫حين‬ ‫حق‬ ‫على‬ ‫القضاة‬ ‫أن‬ ‫والواقع‬ .‫بعضها‬ ‫حذف‬
‫األلفاظ‬ ‫ذو‬ ‫الواضح‬ ‫فاألسلوب‬ .‫وتأويله‬ ‫فهمه‬ ‫يساء‬ ‫مرادهم‬ ‫أن‬ ‫بحيث‬ ‫غموضهم‬ ‫أو‬ ‫الناس‬ ‫تعبير‬
‫أن‬ ‫نستطيع‬ ‫ما‬ ‫خير‬ ‫هو‬ ‫الموزونة‬
‫من‬ ً‫ا‬‫ضرر‬ ‫أكثر‬ ‫شئ‬ ‫فال‬ ‫والتجارة‬ ‫القانون‬ ‫طالب‬ ‫على‬ ‫نقترحه‬
‫األساسية‬ ‫الفكرة‬ ‫عن‬ ‫وتبعده‬ ‫االنتباه‬ ‫تشتت‬ ‫اإلضافية‬ ‫الكلمات‬ ‫ألن‬ :‫والحشو‬ ‫اإلطناب‬
Main
Theme
‫(خلوصي‬ .
2000
،
77
)

37
Rules of translation
‫أثاء‬ ‫بها‬ ‫االهتداء‬ ‫يمكن‬ ‫التي‬ ‫االسترشادية‬ ‫القواعد‬ ‫بعض‬ ‫وضع‬ ‫اآلن‬ ‫نحاول‬
‫بعملية‬ ‫القيام‬
. ‫فقط‬ ‫لالسترشاد‬ ‫هي‬ ‫القواعد‬ ‫هذه‬ ‫أن‬ ‫دائما‬ ‫االعتبار‬ ‫في‬ ‫نأخذ‬ ‫أن‬ ‫علي‬ .‫الترجمة‬
1
-
‫مانعة‬ ‫جامعة‬ ‫أي‬ ‫استثناء‬ ‫بدون‬ ‫تطبق‬ ‫بالترجمة‬ ‫خاصة‬ ‫قواعد‬ ‫علي‬ ‫نحصل‬ ‫أن‬ ‫المستحيل‬ ‫من‬
"It is impossible to obtain unexceptionably and exhaustively
determined translational rules".
2
-
. ‫شديد‬ ‫بحرص‬ ‫منه‬ ‫يحذف‬ ‫أو‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫النص‬ ‫إلي‬ ‫يضيف‬ ‫أن‬ ‫للمترجم‬ ‫يجوز‬
" The translator may add to or delete from the translated text with sound
discretion".
‫لذلك‬ ‫اللجوء‬ ‫علينا‬ ‫تحتم‬ ‫التي‬ ‫الحاالت‬ ‫وفي‬ ‫صحيحة‬ ‫بصورة‬ ‫هذا‬ ‫يتم‬ ‫أن‬ ‫يجب‬ ‫ولكن‬
3
-
‫المكونة‬ ‫العالقات‬ ‫كانت‬ ‫إذا‬ ‫وذلك‬ ‫ومقبولة‬ ‫صحيحة‬ ‫طريقة‬ ً‫ا‬‫أحيان‬ ‫الحرفية‬ ‫الترجمة‬ ‫تعد‬
‫تظهر‬ ‫للتركيب‬
‫للمعني‬ ‫واضحة‬ ‫عالقات‬
Literal translation is sometimes a valid and legitimate method when
syntactic relations are also explicit thematic relations .
: ‫الجملة‬ ً‫ال‬‫فمث‬
It is threefold disgrace for a man to be in misery for want of food
‫أن‬ ‫الممكن‬ ‫من‬ ‫أنها‬ ‫نجد‬
:‫إلي‬ ‫تترجم‬
. ‫الطعام‬ ‫إلي‬ ‫الحاجة‬ ‫بسبب‬ ‫شقاء‬ ‫في‬ ‫يكون‬ ‫أن‬ ‫اإلنسان‬ ‫علي‬ ‫مرات‬ ‫ثالث‬ ‫عار‬
:‫إلي‬ ‫تترجم‬ ‫أن‬ ‫الممكن‬ ‫ومن‬ ‫العربية‬ ‫اللغة‬ ‫في‬ ‫جماله‬ ‫أفقدته‬ ‫للنص‬ ‫حرفية‬ ‫ترجمة‬ ‫فهذه‬ ‫وبالطبع‬
‫الطعام‬ ‫أجل‬ ‫من‬ ‫المرء‬ ‫شقاء‬ ‫عار‬ ‫ثم‬ ‫عار‬ ‫ثم‬ ‫عار‬
‫العربي‬ ‫اللغة‬ ‫في‬ ً‫ال‬‫مقبو‬ ً‫ا‬‫توكيد‬ ‫يكون‬ ‫ذالك‬ ‫إن‬ ‫حيث‬
. ‫ة‬
(‫يوسف‬
2011
(

38
‫الدين‬ ‫حسام‬
‫مصطفى‬
‫إلى‬
‫للترجمـة‬ ‫العربيـة‬ ‫المدرســة‬
AST
٨
‫ساعات‬
‫سؤال‬ ،‫وممارستها‬ ‫الترجمة‬ ‫صنعة‬ ‫عالم‬ ‫لدخول‬ ‫يسعون‬ ‫من‬ ‫لدى‬ ‫شيوعا‬ ‫األسئلة‬ ‫أكثر‬ ‫من‬
:
‫القواميس‬ ‫هي‬ ‫ما‬
‫ألهم‬ ‫روابطا‬ ‫جمعت‬ ‫المنشور‬ ‫هذا‬ ‫وفي‬ !‫عملي؟‬ ‫في‬ ‫تعينني‬ ‫التي‬ ‫واألدوات‬
،‫الفريدة‬ ‫وفوائدها‬ ‫الخاصة‬ ‫ميزاتها‬ ‫لها‬ ‫المصادر‬ ‫هذه‬ ‫وجميع‬ ...‫المترجم‬ ‫يحتاجها‬ ‫التي‬ ‫المصادر‬
‫ستجد‬ ‫المجموعة‬ ‫هذه‬ ‫في‬
:
1-
‫عربي‬ ‫قواميس‬
-
‫إنجليزي‬
2-
‫(إنجليزي‬ ‫قواميس‬
-
‫إنجليزي‬
)
3-
‫اإل‬ ‫في‬ ‫األلفاظ‬ ‫توضح‬ ‫قواميس‬
‫واألسترالية‬ ‫األمريكية‬ ‫نجليزية‬
4-
‫أضدادها‬ ‫أو‬ ‫للكلمات‬ ‫مترادفات‬ ‫قواميس‬

39
5-
‫واإلنجليزية‬ ‫األمريكية‬ ‫العامية‬ ‫اللهجة‬ ‫قواميس‬
6-
‫اإلنجليزية‬ ‫والسجع‬ ‫القوافي‬ ‫قواميس‬
7-
‫ومعانيها‬ ‫الحديثة‬ ‫باإلنجليزية‬ ‫ومقابلها‬ ‫والتراثية‬ ‫القديمة‬ ‫اإلنجليزية‬ ‫قواميس‬
8-
‫واشتق‬ ‫الكلمات‬ ‫أصول‬ ‫قواميس‬
‫وتاريخها‬ ‫اقها‬
9-
‫اإلنجليزية‬ ‫للنصوص‬ ‫واإلمالئي‬ ‫النحوي‬ ‫التدقيق‬ ‫مواقع‬
10-
‫تعقيده‬ ‫أو‬ ‫أسلوبه‬ ‫وتبسيط‬ ‫وشرحه‬ ‫النص‬ ‫صياغة‬ ‫وإعادة‬ ‫النصوص‬ ‫تحرير‬ ‫مواقع‬
11-
‫الكتابة‬ ‫أسلوب‬ ‫ومقارنة‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫النص‬ ‫أو‬ ‫كتابتك‬ ‫مستوى‬ ‫تقييم‬ ‫مواقع‬
12-
‫مايكرو‬ ‫بصيغة‬ ‫نصوص‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫والصور‬ ‫الملفات‬ ‫تحويل‬ ‫مواقع‬
‫وورد‬ ‫سوفت‬
13-
‫النص‬ ‫في‬ ‫الكلمات‬ ‫عدد‬ ‫تحديد‬ ‫مواقع‬
14-
( ‫من‬ ‫أكثر‬ ‫يجمع‬ ‫موقع‬
1000
‫واحدة‬ ‫بضغطة‬ ‫منها‬ ‫واالستفادة‬ ‫تصفحها‬ ‫يمكنك‬ ‫قاموس‬ ‫ألف‬ )
******************
‫عربي‬ ‫قواميس‬ ‫مجموعة‬
-
‫للكلمة‬ ‫المقابل‬ ‫اللفظ‬ ‫معرفة‬ ‫على‬ ‫(تساعدك‬ ‫إنجليزي‬
)
Dictionary/
-
Arabic
-
http://www.ectaco.co.uk/English
dictionary.com/home/word/day/from/en/to/ar
-
http://www.u
http://www.wordreference.com/enar/
en/
-
https://www.almaany.com/ar/dict/ar
ae.htm
-
hilfen.de/en/words/be
-
www.englisch
https://
translation.asp
-
dictionary
-
https://www.lexicool.com/arabic
https://www.maajim.com/translate
https://www.tbeeb.net/dic2/
http://www.almisbar.com/
***************************

40
‫(إنجليزي‬ ‫قواميس‬ ‫من‬ ‫مجموعة‬
-
‫اللغة‬ ‫في‬ ‫اللفظ‬ ‫معنى‬ ‫تفهم‬ ‫أن‬ ‫خاللها‬ ‫من‬ ‫يمكن‬ )‫إنجليزي‬
‫لك‬ ‫وتعرض‬ ‫اإلنجليزية‬
‫اللغة‬ ‫منها‬ ‫تتعلم‬ ‫أن‬ ‫ويمكن‬ ‫منه‬ ‫القريبة‬ ‫والكلمات‬ ‫استخداماته‬ ‫على‬ ‫أمثلة‬
‫خاللها‬ ‫من‬ ‫اللغوية‬ ‫مهاراتك‬ ‫وتطور‬ ‫ذاتها‬
...
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/
http://www.chambersharrap.co.uk/
http://www.collinslanguage.com/
http://www.logos.it/
http://www.macmillandictionaries.com/
webster.com/
-
http://www.merriam
http://www.onelook.com/
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/
http://www.wordia.com/
https://visuwords.com/
https://wordweb.info/
https://www.ahdictionary.com/
https://www.dictionary.com/
https://www.ldoceonline.com/
https://www.netlingo.com/
https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/
https://www.wiktionary.org/
https://www.wordnik.com/
https://www.wordwebonline.com/
***************************

41
‫واألسترالية‬ ‫األمريكية‬ ‫اإلنجليزية‬ ‫في‬ ‫األلفاظ‬ ‫توضح‬ ‫قواميس‬ ‫مجموعة‬
http://nhd.heinle.com/home.aspx
ry.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/
https://dictiona
https://www.dictionary.com/
https://www.lexilogos.com/english/dictionary.htm
https://www.macmillandictionary.com/options.html
ritish_english…
hilfen.de/…/australian_b
-
https://www.englisch
hilfen.de/…/british_australian_english…
-
https://www.englisch
***************************
‫لمعرفة‬ ‫مفيدة‬ ‫وهي‬ ،‫أضدادها‬ ‫أو‬ ‫للكلمات‬ ‫مترادفات‬ ‫تحوي‬ ‫وهي‬ "‫المكانز‬ " ‫من‬ ‫مجموعة‬
‫مع‬ ‫لغتك‬ ‫وتثري‬ ‫متنوعة‬ ‫كتابتك‬ ‫وتجعل‬ ‫عنه‬ ‫تبحث‬ ‫الذي‬ ‫اللفظ‬ ‫من‬ ‫والقريبة‬ ‫المرادفة‬ ‫الكلمات‬
‫وغا‬ ،‫المترادفات‬ ‫في‬ ‫حتى‬ ‫طفيفة‬ ‫فوارق‬ ‫هناك‬ ‫أن‬ ‫مراعاة‬
‫إنجليزي‬ ‫قاموس‬ ‫بأي‬ ‫ملحقة‬ ‫تكون‬ ‫لبا‬
https://www.thesaurus.com/
thesaurus
-
.oxforddictionaries.com/english
https://en
https://www.visualthesaurus.com/
http://www.synonymy.com/
https://www.powerthesaurus.org/online
***************************
‫ومقابلها‬ ‫والعامية‬ ‫الدارجة‬ ‫األلفاظ‬ ‫معنى‬ ‫(لمعرفة‬ ‫واإلنجليزية‬ ‫األمريكية‬ ‫العامية‬ ‫اللهجة‬ ‫قواميس‬
‫القياسي‬
)
http://onlineslangdictionary.com/
http://www.britishslang.co.uk/
http://www.peevish.co.uk/slang/

42
http://www.slangcity.com/
https://www.daredictionary.com/
.com/e/slang/
https://www.dictionary
https://www.translatebritish.com/dictionary
-
of
-
https://www.oxfordinternationalenglish.com/dictionary
b%E2%80%A6/
https://www.urbandictionary.com/
***************************
‫خاصة‬ ‫والموسيقى‬ ‫اإليقاع‬ ‫نفس‬ ‫تعطي‬ ‫التي‬ ‫والكلمات‬ ‫القوافي‬ ‫إيجاد‬ ‫في‬ ‫تساعدك‬ ‫القواميس‬ ‫هذه‬
‫قصيدة‬ ‫أو‬ ‫أغنية‬ ‫تؤلف‬ ‫أو‬ ‫إبداعيا‬ ‫نصا‬ ‫تصوغ‬ ‫أو‬ ‫الشعر‬ ‫تترجم‬ ‫عندما‬
http://wordcentral.com/
rhymes.com/
-
http://www.b
http://www.findrhymes.com/
http://www.rhymeit.com/
http://www.rhymly.com/
http://www.wikirhymer.com/
http://www.writerhymes.com/
dictionary/
-
https://reimemaschine.org/rhyming
https://rhymes.woxikon.com/
https://www.flocabulary.com/rap_rhyming_dictionary/
rhyme.com/
-
https://www.prime
dictionary
-
https://www.rappad.co/rhyming
https://www.rhymer.com/

43
https://www.rhymes.net/
m/
https://www.rhymezone.co
***************************
‫ومعانيها‬ ‫الحديثة‬ ‫باإلنجليزية‬ ‫ومقابلها‬ ‫والتراثية‬ ‫القديمة‬ ‫اإلنجليزية‬ ‫قواميس‬
engli.sh/dictionary.php
-
http://old
http://www.bosworthtoller.com/
https://doe.utoronto.ca/
https://hord.ca/projects/eow/
lishtranslator.co.uk/
https://www.oldeng
***************************
‫السلم‬ ‫على‬ ‫ومكانها‬ ‫للغة‬ ‫دخولها‬ ‫وتاريخ‬ ‫ونشأتها‬ ‫واشتقاقها‬ ‫الكلمات‬ ‫أصول‬ ‫بتوضيح‬ ‫تهتم‬ ‫قواميس‬
‫تترجمه‬ ‫الذي‬ ‫اللفظ‬ ‫تاريخ‬ ‫مع‬ ‫تتساوى‬ ‫ألفاظ‬ ‫إيجاد‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫تحتاج‬ ‫عندما‬ ‫وتفيدك‬ ‫للغة‬ ‫التاريخي‬
‫فصاحته‬ ‫في‬ ‫وتكافئه‬
http://etymon.org/
http://www.lexvo.com/
https://www.etymonline.com/
***************************
‫فهي‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫النص‬ ‫مستوى‬ ‫أو‬ ‫كتابتك‬ ‫مستوى‬ ‫بتحسين‬ ‫تقوم‬ ‫التي‬ ‫المواقع‬ ‫من‬ ‫مجموعة‬ ‫وهذه‬
‫للنصوص‬ ‫واإلمالئي‬ ‫النحوي‬ ‫التدقيق‬ ‫بعمليات‬ ‫تقوم‬
‫اإلنجليزية‬
https://www.grammarly.com/
grammar/
-
spelling
-
chec…/english
-
//www.reverso.net/spell
http:
http://www.whitesmoke.com/
https://grammarchecker.net/

44
https://grammarix.com/
https://languagetool.org/
https://linguisoft.com/grammarcheck.html
https://prowritingaid.com/
https://tools.seotoolshq.com/
https://virtualwritingtutor.com/
plagiarism/
-
and
-
bibme.org/grammar
https://www.
checker.php
-
https://www.duplichecker.com/grammar
https://www.gingersoftware.com/
https://www.grammarcheck.net/editor/
https://www.languagetool.org/
https://www.nounplus.net/
https://www.onlinecorrection.com/
https://www.paperrater.com/
https://www.polishmywriting.com/
checker
-
ammar
https://www.prepostseo.com/gr
https://www.scribens.com/
***************************
‫حجم‬ ‫في‬ ‫والتحكم‬ ‫النصوص‬ ‫تحرير‬ ‫في‬ ‫فتساعدك‬ ‫المواقع‬ ‫هذه‬ ‫أما‬
‫أو‬ ‫بزيادتها‬ ‫سواء‬ ‫كلماتها‬ ‫وعدد‬
‫أسلوبه‬ ‫تبسيط‬ ‫وكذلك‬ ‫اختصاره‬ ‫أو‬ ‫وشرحه‬ ‫للنص‬ ‫صياغة‬ ‫إعادة‬ ‫بعملية‬ ‫تقوم‬ ‫وكذلك‬ ‫اختصارها‬
‫تريد‬ ‫حسبما‬ ‫تعقيده‬ ‫أو‬
rewriter
-
http://seowagon.com/article
http://www.goparaphrase.com/

45
tool.org/
-
http://www.paraphrasing
http://www.youparaphrase.com/
https://articlerewritertool.com/
tool.com/
-
https://paraphrasing
https://quillbot.com/
https://www.csgenerator.com/
online.com/
-
https://www.paraphrase
tool/
-
paraphrase
-
https://www.paraphrasetool.info/online
https://spinbot.com/
ter
rewri
-
article
-
online
-
https://www.prepostseo.com/free
***************************
‫بل‬ ‫وتحلله‬ ‫الكتابة‬ ‫أسلوب‬ ‫تقارن‬ ‫المواقع‬ ‫هذه‬ ‫فإن‬ ‫المترجم‬ ‫النص‬ ‫أو‬ ‫كتابتك‬ ‫مستوى‬ ‫ولتقييم‬
‫نقاط‬ ‫تحدد‬ ‫أنها‬ ‫بخالف‬ ‫األجانب‬ ‫المؤلفين‬ ‫من‬ ‫أسلوبك‬ ‫مع‬ ‫أسلوبهم‬ ‫يتشابه‬ ‫من‬ ‫أسماء‬ ‫لك‬ ‫وتعرض‬
‫بين‬ ‫والتطابق‬ ‫االختالف‬
‫النصوص‬ ‫أساليب‬
http://www.utpsyc.org/synch/input.php
are
https://copyleaks.com/comp
https://draftable.com/compare
https://iwl.me/
compare.com/
-
https://text
https://www.copyscape.com/compare.php
https://www.diffchecker.com/
search
-
comparison
-
m
https://www.prepostseo.com/plagiaris
https://www.quickdiff.com/

46
***************************
‫ملفات‬ ‫في‬ ‫المشروع‬ ‫تتسلم‬ ‫قد‬ ‫ا‬ً‫ن‬‫أحيا‬
‫اف‬ ‫دي‬ ‫بي‬ ‫ملفات‬ ‫مثل‬ ‫تعديلها‬ ‫أو‬ ‫تحريرها‬ ‫عليك‬ ‫يصعب‬
‫بصيغة‬ ‫ملفات‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫للتعديل‬ ‫القابلة‬ ‫غير‬ ‫الملفات‬ ‫هذه‬ ‫بتحويل‬ ‫تقوم‬ ‫مواقع‬ ‫وهذه‬ ‫وغيرها‬ ‫والصور‬
‫النصوص‬ ‫يعالج‬ ‫(وبعضها‬ ‫كلماتها‬ ‫عدد‬ ‫ومعرفة‬ ‫وتعديلها‬ ‫نسخها‬ ‫فيمكنك‬ ‫وورد‬ ‫مايكروسوفت‬
‫العربية‬
)
ocr/
-
http://code.google.com/p/tesseract
http://convertpdftoword.net/
ocr.com/
-
http://www.free
ocr.com/
-
online
-
http://www.free
http://www.i2ocr.com/
http://www.ocrconvert.com/
http://www.onlineocr.net/
https://arabicocr.wordpress.com/
https://convertio.co/ocr/arabic/
ocr/
-
https://github.com/tesseract
https://ocr.space/
https://ocr.space/arabic
https://pdf2doc.com/
https://simplypdf.com/
https://www.convertpdftoword.net/
https://www.ilovepdf.com/pdf_to_word
https://www.newocr.com/
ocr
-
https://www.ocrconvert.com/arabic

47
***************************
‫المشر‬ ‫بحجم‬ ‫يرتبط‬ ‫الترجمة‬ ‫مشروع‬ ‫إنجاز‬ ‫وتكلفة‬ ‫مدة‬ ‫تحديد‬ ‫وألن‬
‫تحتاج‬ ‫فقد‬ ‫كلماته‬ ‫وعدد‬ ‫وع‬
‫الصفحات‬ ‫عدد‬ ‫خاللها‬ ‫من‬ ‫لتعرف‬ ‫النص‬ ‫في‬ ‫الكلمات‬ ‫عدد‬ ‫معرفة‬ ‫من‬ ‫تمكنك‬ ‫مواقع‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫أيضا‬
‫وورد‬ ‫مايكروسوفت‬ ‫برنامج‬ ‫خالل‬ ‫من‬ ‫الكلمات‬ ‫عدد‬ ‫تعرف‬ ‫أن‬ ‫يمكنك‬ ‫أنه‬ ‫بخالف‬ ‫(هذا‬
)
www.charactercountonline.com/
http://
https://charactercounttool.com/
https://countwordsfree.com/
https://wordcounter.io/
https://wordcounter.net/
https://www.countofwords.com/
https://www.lettercount.com/
tool
-
count
-
character
-
count
-
https://www.prepostseo.com/word
counter.php
-
word
-
https://www.textfixer.com/tools/online
***************************
‫من‬ ‫أكثر‬ ‫يضم‬ ‫التخصصات‬ ‫مختلف‬ ‫في‬ ‫اإلنجليزية‬ ‫للقواميس‬ ‫مجمع‬ ‫فهو‬ ‫وحده‬ ‫الموقع‬ ‫هذا‬ ‫أما‬
(
1000
‫واحدة‬ ‫بضغطة‬ ‫منها‬ ‫واالستفادة‬ ‫تصفحها‬ ‫يمكنك‬ ‫قاموس‬ ‫ألف‬ )
https://www.onelook.com
‫هذه‬ ‫كل‬ ‫تجرب‬ ‫أن‬ ‫حاول‬ ‫بل‬ ‫فئة‬ ‫كل‬ ‫في‬ ‫واحد‬ ‫مرجع‬ ‫استخدام‬ ‫على‬ ‫تقتصر‬ ‫ال‬ ‫أن‬ ‫ونصيحتي‬
‫لك‬ ‫مناسبا‬ ‫تجده‬ ‫ما‬ ‫منها‬ ‫وتختار‬ ‫بينها‬ ‫وتقارن‬ ‫المواقع‬
‫هللا‬ ‫وفقكم‬ ،‫احتياجاتك‬ ‫مع‬ ‫ويتناسب‬

48
Best Dictionaries of the English Language
1 The Compact Edition of the Oxford English
Dictionary, 2 Vols w/Reading Glass
by
Herbert Coleridge (editor)
4.61 avg rating — 228 ratings
score: 3,394, and 34 people voted
2 Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary
by
Merriam-Webster
4.33 avg rating — 2,737 ratings
score: 1,976, and 20 people voted
3 Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary
(Book & CD ROM)
by
Elizabeth Walter

49
score: 795, and 8 people voted
5 The Oxford Dictionary Of Current English
by
Catherine Soanes (Editor)
6 Webster's Third New International Dictionary
by
Philip Babcock Gove (Editor)
7 A Dictionary Of The English Language: In
Which The Words Are Deduced From Their
Originals, And Illustrated In Their Different
Significations By Examples
by
Samuel Johnson

50
8 Chambers Dictionary
by
Chambers (Editor)
9 American Dictionary of the English Language
by
Noah Webster
11 The New Roget's Thesaurus in Dictionary
Form
by
Norman Lewis (Editor)

51
12 The Oxford English Dictionary: 20 Volume Set
and CD-ROM [With CDROM]
by
John Andrew Simpson
13 Roget's International Thesaurus
by
Barbara Ann Kipfer (Goodreads Author)
14 Chambers Dictionary of Etymology
by
Robert K. Barnhart (Editor)
15 The American Heritage Dictionary
by

52
American Heritage
16 Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English
by
Tom McArthur (Goodreads Author)
17 Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English
Usage
by
E. Ward Gilman (Editor)
18 100 Words Every Word Lover Should Know
by
American Heritage

53
19 35,000 + Baby Names
by
Bruce Lansky (Goodreads Author)
20 The New American Webster Handy College
Dictionary: Includes Abbreviations,
Geographical Names, Foreign Words And
Phrases, Forms Of Address, Weights And
Measures, Signs And Symbols
by
Philip Morehead (Editor)
score: 99, and 1 person voted
21 The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English
Place-Names
by
Eilert Ekwall (Editor)

54
22 The American Heritage Dictionary of the
English Language
by
American Heritage
23 The New Oxford American Dictionary
by
Oxford University Press
24 Collins English Dictionary
by
Various

55
25 Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic
English, Volume 1: Verbs With Prepositions
and Particles.
by
Anthony Paul Cowie
26 The Chambers Thesaurus
by
Martin H. Manser (Editor)
27 Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary Of
Current English
by
A.S. Hornby

56
28 The Word Museum: The Most Remarkable
English Words Ever Forgotten
by
Jeffrey Kacirk
29 Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and
Phrases
by
Peter Mark Roget
30 Webster's New Dictionary of Synonyms: A
Dictionary of Discriminated Synonyms with
Antonyms and Analogous and Contrasted
Words
by
Anonymous

57
31 Dictionary of Untranslatables: A Philosophical
Lexicon
by
Barbara Cassin (Editor)
32 Everyman's English Pronouncing Dictionary:
Containing Over 59,000 Words in International
Phonetic Transcription
by
Daniel Jones
33 The Hal Leonard Pocket Music Dictionary
by
Hal Leonard Corporation (Creator)

58
34 Dictionary of English Down the Ages: Words &
Phrases Born out of Historical Events Great &
Small
by
Linda Flavell
35 The American Heritage Children's Science
Dictionary
by
American Heritage (Editor)
36 Merriam-Webster's Visual Dictionary
by
Merriam-Webster (Editor)

59
37 Smaller Slang Dictionary
by
Eric Partridge
38 100 Words Almost Everyone Confuses and
Misuses
by
American Heritage (Editor)
39 The American Heritage Dictionary of the
English Language
by
Joseph P. Pickett (editor)
40 They Have a Word for It: A Lighthearted
Lexicon of Untranslatable Words & Phrases

60
by
Howard Rheingold (Goodreads Author)
https://www.goodreads.com/list/show/785.Best_Dictionaries_of_the_En
glish_Language

61
Translation types, methods and techniques
1. General Translation
What is it?
The translation of non-specialised text. That is, text that we can all
understand without needing specialist knowledge in some area.
The text may still contain some technical terms and jargon, but these
will either be widely understood, or easily researched.
What this means
The implication is that you don’t need someone with specialist
knowledge for this type of translation – any professional translator can
handle them.
Translators who only do this kind of translation (don’t have a specialist
field) are sometimes referred to as ‘generalist’ or ‘general purpose’
translators.
Examples
Most business correspondence, website content, company and
product/service info, non-technical reports.

62
Most of the rest of the translation types in this Category do require
specialist translators.
2. Technical Translation
What is it?
We use the term “technical translation” in two different ways:
Broad meaning: any translation where the translator needs specialist
knowledge in some domain or area.
This definition would include almost all the translation types described
in this section.
Narrow meaning: limited to the translation of engineering (in all its
forms), IT and industrial texts.
This narrower meaning would exclude legal, financial and medical
translations for example, where these would be included in the broader
definition.
What this means
Technical translations require knowledge of the specialist field or
domain of the text.

63
That’s because without it translators won’t completely understand the
text and its implications. And this is essential if we want a fully accurate
and appropriate translation.
Good to know
Many technical translation projects also have a typesetting/dtp
requirement. Be sure your translation provider can handle this
component, and that you’ve allowed for it in your project costings and
time frames.
Examples
Manuals, specialist reports, product brochures
3. Scientific Translation
What is it?
The translation of scientific research or documents relating to it.
What this means
These texts invariably contain domain-specific terminology, and often
involve cutting edge research.
So it’s imperative the translator has the necessary knowledge of the field
to fully understand the text. That’s why scientific translators are
typically either experts in the field who have turned to translation, or

64
professionally qualified translators who also have qualifications and/or
experience in that domain.
On occasion the translator may have to consult either with the author or
other domain experts to fully comprehend the material and so translate it
appropriately.
Examples
Research papers, journal articles, experiment/trial results.
4. Medical Translation
What is it?
The translation of healthcare, medical product, pharmaceutical and
biotechnology materials.
Medical translation is a very broad term covering a wide variety of
specialist areas and materials – everything from patient information to
regulatory, marketing and technical documents.
As a result, this translation type has numerous potential sub-categories –
‘medical device translations’ and ‘clinical trial translations’, for
example.
What this means
As with any text, the translators need to fully understand the materials

65
they’re translating. That means sound knowledge of medical
terminology and they’ll often also need specific subject-matter expertise.
Good to know
Many countries have specific requirements governing the translation of
medical device and pharmaceutical documentation. This includes both
your client-facing and product-related materials.
Examples
Medical reports, product instructions, labeling, clinical trial
documentation
5. Financial Translation
What is it?
In broad terms, the translation of banking, stock exchange, forex,
financing and financial reporting documents.
However, the term is generally used only for the more technical of these
documents that require translators with knowledge of the field.
Any competent translator could translate a bank statement, for example,
so that wouldn’t typically be considered a financial translation.

66
What this means
You need translators with domain expertise to correctly understand and
translate the financial terminology in these texts.
Examples
Company accounts, annual reports, fund or product prospectuses, audit
reports, IPO documentation
6. Economic Translations
What is it?
1. Sometimes used as a synonym for financial translations.
2. Other times used somewhat loosely to refer to any area of economic
activity – so combining business/commercial, financial and some types
of technical translations.
3. More narrowly, the translation of documents relating specifically to
the economy and the field of economics.
What this means
As always, you need translators with the relevant expertise and
knowledge for this type of translation.
7. Legal Translation

67
What is it?
The translation of documents relating to the law and legal process.
What this means
Legal texts require translators with a legal background.
That’s because without it, a translator may not:
– fully understand the legal concepts
– write in legal style
– understand the differences between legal systems, and how best to
translate concepts that don’t correspond.
And we need all that to produce professional quality legal translations –
translations that are accurate, terminologically correct and stylistically
appropriate.
Examples
Contracts, legal reports, court judgments, expert opinions, legislation
8. Juridical Translation
What is it?
1. Generally used as a synonym for legal translations.

68
2. Alternatively, can refer to translations requiring some form of legal
verification, certification or notarization that is common in many
jurisdictions.
9. Judicial Translation
What is it?
1. Most commonly a synonym for legal translations.
2. Rarely, used to refer specifically to the translation of court proceeding
documentation – so judgments, minutes, testimonies, etc.
translation
-
of
-
https://www.globaltranslationhelp.com/blogs/theories
/

69
Chapter Four
Concepts of Translation
Theories of translation are basically the main concepts that theorists put
together to define the field in an academic fashion. In fact, one of the
prominent focuses of every translation program, especially at graduate
and post-graduate level is to teach translators about the theories of
translation. As Eugene Nida puts it, “Some professional translators take
considerable pride in denying that they have any theory of translation —
they just translate. In reality, however, all persons engaged in the
complex task of translating possess some type of underlying or covert
theory, even though it may be still very embryonic and described only as
just being “faithful to what the author was trying to say.” This shows the
importance of theories of translation both for professional and for
students of translation studies as well. Let’s see what are these theories
that we work with.
The Name and Nature of Translation Studies is the title of one of the
prominent papers published by James S Holmes. We translators
recognize this paper as one of the founding papers of the discipline that
really defined the scope, and the nature of the discipline. This paper, also
known as the map of the discipline, acts as a guide into the different
fields and scopes of Translation Studies, and many scholars have made

70
attempts to redefine and elaborate on that. Read on this article to get a
grasp of what this paper entails in a summary.
No one can understand the word “cheese” unless he has an acquaintance
with the meaning assigned to this word in the lexical code of English.
There is no signatum (signified) without signum (sign). For us, the
meaning of any linguistic sign is its translation into some further,
alternative sign, especially a sign “in which it is more fully developed”,
Peirce. Equivalence in difference is the cardinal problem of language
and the pivotal concern of linguistics. A faculty of speaking a given
language implies a faculty of talking about this language. All cognitive
experience and its classification is conveyable in any existing language.
Skopos Theory of Translation – What is Skopos? – Hans Vermeer
Skopos Theory of translation is one of the most important and
widespread theories of translation that defines the task of the translator
in the light of the purpose or aim he or she has from the translation. In
fact, the word Skopos means ‘purpose’ or ‘aim.’ This theory was put
forward by Hans Vermeer in the late 70s as a functionalist view for the
purpose of translation. He rejects most of other equivalence-based
theories of translation and claims that “when we translate, we should
have a purpose in mind, even before beginning to translate.” This is the
base of Skopos Theory.
https://studytranslation.com/theories
/

71
Translation Theories – Eugene Nida and Dynamic Equivalence
The Translation Theories of American linguist and translation theorist
Eugene Nida were among the most influenced theories in China since
the 1980s. His most notable contribution to translation theory is
Dynamic Equivalence, also known as Functional Equivalence.
Concept:
Nida gave up the long-term used words throughout history, such as
“literal translation”, “free translation”, and “faithful translation”. On the
contrary, he advocated two “equivalence” ways as the basic directions
and guidelines of translation: dynamic equivalence and formal
equivalence. Nida suggested the main difference between those two was
the purpose of the translation.
Dynamic Equivalence:
The most important thing in translating is the message received by the
audience. Messages that are significant in both form and content need
not only to be understood but also to be appreciated.
And only when the translator could state the original features, he can
achieve “dynamic equivalence”, which stressed the importance of
transferring meaning, not grammatical form.

72
In a word, “quality of a translation in which the message of the original
text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response
of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.”
Formal equivalence:
Formal equivalence focuses on the need to pay attention to the form and
content contained in the message. The so-called formal equivalence
means that the message in the target language should be in accordance
with the different parts in the original language.
Formal equivalence intends to achieve equivalence between original text
and translation text, and to some extent reflect the linguistical features
such as vocabulary, grammar, syntax and structure of the original
language which has great impact on the accuracy and correctness.
One of the most typical translation is “Gloss translations”, which is
closest to the original structure, and with attached comments to give
readers a better understanding of the culture and custom.
Implementation Patterns:
In Nida’ book, The Theory and Practice of Translation, he defined
translation as “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor
language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message,
first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”

73
This definition includes three basic terms:
(1) equivalence, which points to the original language;
(2) natural, it points to the receptor language;
(3) closest, it linked together on an extremely similar basis. Dynamic
Equivalence translation means to choose the translation which is closest
to the original language on a natural basis.
The so-called closest mainly in regards of the sense, and the translator
focus more on the meaning and spirit of the original text, rather than
rigidly adhere to the structure and form. In accordance with the
definition of Nida, the dynamic translation is not equal to the traditional
“free translation” or “live translation of” because of the stringent
requirements.
It requires translation text to reflect the original text as perfect as
possible in a different language structure, while there is no such
requirement in free translation.
-
and
-
nida
-
eugene
-
theories
-
https://www.ccjk.com/translation
equivalence
-
dynamic
/

74
Different Translation Theories
Translation is to render the meaning of a text into another language in
the way that the author intended the text. The translation cannot simply
reproduce, or be, the original. The first business of the translator is to
translate. There is a body of knowledge about translation which, if
applied to solving translation problems, can contribute to a translator’s
training. Everything without exception is translatable. There is no such a
thing as a perfect, ideal or “correct” translation.
In a narrow sense, translation theory is concerned with the translation
method appropriately used for a certain type of text. In a wide sense,
translation theory is the body of knowledge that we have about
translation. Translation theory is concerned with minute as well as
generalities, and both may be equally important in the context.
What is translation
Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language
text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Whereas
interpreting undoubtedly antedates writing, translation began only after
the appearance of written literature; there exist partial translations of the
Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (ca. 2000 BCE) into Southwest Asian
languages of the second millennium BCE.

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Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-language
idiom and usage into the target-language translation. On the other hand,
spill-overs have imported useful source-language calques and loanwords
that have enriched the target languages. Indeed, translators have helped
substantially to shape the languages into which they have translated.
Due to the demands of business documentation consequent to the
Industrial Revolution that began in the mid-18th century, some
translation specialties have become formalized, with dedicated schools
and professional associations.
Because of the laboriousness of translation, since the 1940s engineers
have sought to automate translation (machine translation) or to
mechanically aid the human translator (computer-assisted translation).
The rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation
services and has facilitated language localization.
The function of translation
(1) Translation is a means of communication;
(2) Translation is instrumental in transmitting culture;
(3) Translation is also a transmitter of the truth;
(4) Translation is a technique for learning foreign languages.

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What a translation theory does is
(1) to identify and define a translation problem
(2) to indicate all the factors that have to be taken into account in solving
the problem
(3) to list all the possible translation procedures
(4) to recommend the most suitable translation procedure, plus the
appropriate translation.
Translation Methods
The central problem of translating has always been whether to translate
literally or freely. The argument was theoretical. Now the context has
changed, but the basic problem remains.
The Methods are as follows:
• Word-for-word translation
• Literal translation
• Faithful translation
• Semantic translation
• Adaptation
• Free translation
• Idiomatic translation’
• Communicative translation

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In all those above, only semantic and communicative translation fulfill
the two main aims of translation: accuracy and economy. In general, a
semantic translation is written at the author’s linguistic level, a
communicative at the readership’s. Semantic translation is used for
“expressive” texts, communicative for “informative” and “vocative”
texts.
So, next we talk about the equivalent effect. Equivalent effect (produce
the same effect) is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any
translation. In the communicative translation of vocative texts,
equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential. In informative
texts, equivalent effect is desirable only in respect of their insignificant
emotional impact. The more cultural a text, the less is equivalent effect
even conceivable.
Different Types of Translation Theories
Literal Translation
According to the linguistic theory of discourse analysis, any deviation
from literal translation van be justified in any place appealing to the text
as an overriding authority. In fact, literal translation is correct and must
not be avoided, if it secures referential and pragmatic equivalence to the
original.

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Literal translation is different from word-to-word and one-to-one
translation. Literal translation ranges from one word to one word, group
to group, collocation to collocation, clause to clause, sentence to
sentence. It is to be the basic translation procedure, both in
communicative and semantic translations, I that translation starts from
there.
The translation of poetry is the field where most emphasis is normally
put on the creation of a new independent poem, and where literal
translation is usually condemned. However, a translation van be
inaccurate, it can never be too literal.
We must not be afraid of literal translation. For a TL word which looks
the same or nearly the same as the SL word, there are more faithful
friends than faux aims (false friends). Everything is translatable up to a
point, but there are often enormous difficulties.
We do translate words, because there is nothing else to translate. We do
not translate isolated words, we translate words all more or less bound
by their syntactic, collocational, situational cultural and individual
idiolect contexts.
Elegant variations on literal or one-to-one translation are common, but
they may not be justified in semantic or even communicative translation.

79
The validity of literal translation can sometimes be established by the
back-translation test. The back-translation test is not valid in the case of
SL or TL lexical gaps.
Some institutional terms are translated literally even though the TL
cultural equivalents have widely different functions. Some concept-
words are translated literally and often misleading, as their local
connotations are often different.
There are all kinds of insidious resistances to literal translation. It is
sometimes advisable to retreat from literal translation when faced with
SL general words for which there are no “satisfactory” one-to-one TL
equivalents even though one is over-translating. That is the so-called
Natural Translation.
Literal translation is the first step in translation. Re-creative translation is
possible, but “interpret the sense, not the words” is the translator’s last
resort. The modern literary translator continually pursues what is to them
more natural, more colloquial than the original. But their idiomatic
English may be in flagrant contrast with a neutral original.
If translation be an art, it is no easy one. In the 13th century, Roger
Bacon wrote that if a translation is to be true, the translator must know
both languages, as well as the science that he is to translate; and finding

80
that few translators did, he wanted to do away with translation and
translators altogether.
The translator of the Bible into German, Martin Luther, is credited with
being the first European to posit that one translates satisfactorily only
toward his own language. L.G. Kelly states that since Johann Gottfried
Herder in the 18th century, “it has been axiomatic” that one translates
only toward his own language.
Compounding the demands on the translator is the fact that no dictionary
or thesaurus can ever be a fully adequate guide in translating. The
British historian Alexander Tytler, in his Essay on the Principles of
Translation (1790), emphasized that assiduous reading is a more
comprehensive guide to a language than are dictionaries. The same
point, but also including listening to the spoken language, had earlier, in
1783, been made by the Polish poet and grammarian Onufry Andrzej
Kopczy.
The translator’s special role in society is described in a posthumous
1803 essay by “Poland’s La Fontaine”, the Roman Catholic Primate of
Poland, poet, encyclopedist, author of the first Polish novel, and
translator from French and Greek, Ignacy Krasicki:
“Translation is in fact an art both estimable and very difficult, and
therefore is not the labor and portion of common minds; it should be

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[practiced] by those who are themselves capable of being actors, when
they see greater use in translating the works of others than in their own
works, and hold higher than their own glory the service that they render
their country.”
Serious Literature Translation
Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four forms, no
redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater
importance. And if the word is the first unit of meaning, the second is
not the sentence or the proposition, but usually the line, thereby
demonstrating a unique double concentration of units.
The translator can boldly transfer the image of any metaphor where it is
known in the TL language. Original metaphors have to be translated
accurately, even if in the target language culture, the image is strange
and the sense it conveys may only be guessed. Sound-effects are bound
to come last for the translator.
The translation of Short Story/Novel: From a translator’s point of view,
the short story is, of literary forms, the second most difficult, but he is
released from the obvious constraints of poetry – meter and rhyme.
Further, since the line is no longer a unit of meaning, he can spread
himself a little – his version is likely to be somewhat longer than the
original though, always, the shorter the better.

Theories of Translation Course Specification

Theories of Translation Course Specification

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