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Developing Facilitation Skills

Presented by
Masilamani R
Contributed by Marya Axner
Edited by Bill Berkowitz and Phil Rabinowitz
The Presenter
• A professional trainer/consultant
• Has profound qualifications in training,
consulting and research
• Has conducted hundreds of meetings over 30
years and still performs as an active meeting
chairman
• A corporate leader and adviser
• Trained by leading professional educators and
firms like, Dale Carnegie, Kepner Tregoe, Covey
Inc. etc.
Introduction
•
•
•
•
•
•

Introduction
What are facilitation skills?
Why do you need facilitation skills?
How do you facilitate?
How do you plan a good facilitation process?
Facilitating a meeting or planning session: What's it all
about?
• Facilitator skills and tips
• Dealing with disrupters: Preventions and interventions
Why We’re Here?
4.
1.

3.

That’s
why
we’re
here!
2.
Quote
‘we use to guide and direct key parts of our
organizing work with groups of people such
as meetings, planning sessions, and training
of our members and leaders’
-Marya Axner
The Facilitator

.

1 Shapes and guides the process of

working together
2. Helps to meet your goals and
accomplish what you've set out to do

3. Needs to concentrate on how you are
going to move through your agenda, and
4. Leads you to meet those goals
effectively
When the
Chair is
facilitator?
When the Chair is Facilitator?
When the chair,
• See

themselves as facilitators
Make sure that important issues are
discussed
• Ensure decisions made, and actions
taken
• Don't feel that they have all of the
answers
• Don’t talk all the time
Make sure that everyone can
participate
What’s participation
• Making sure everyone feels comfortable
in participating
• Developing a structure that allows for
everyone's ideas to be heard
• Making members feel good about their
contribution to the meeting
• Making sure the group feels that the
ideas and decisions are theirs, not just the
leader's
• Supporting everyone's ideas and not
criticizing anyone for what they've said
Facilitation Isn’t Chairing
It is & It Isn’t!
A facilitator is a guide
Not the seat of wisdom and
knowledge
Facilitator isn't there to
give opinions
Is to help draw out
opinions and ideas
Facilitation focuses on
HOW not WHAT
A facilitator is neutral
Why do you need facilitation skills?

If you need,
 Good planning
 Key members involved
 Create real leadership opportunities
 Create staff skills
What the Organisation should Focus
on?
•Staff involvement
•Creation of real
leaders
•Instilling real skills
So FOCUS ON
FACILITATION SKILLS
Can anyone learn to facilitate a
meeting?
•
•
•
•
•

Yes, to a degree
Being a good facilitator is both skill and art
It is a skill-can learn certain techniques
Can improve his/her ability with practice
Organization can draw on members who
have the skill and the talent
Can anyone learn to facilitate a
meeting?
To put it another way…
facilitating actually means:
• Understanding the goals of the meeting and
the organization
• Keeping the group on the agenda and
moving forward
• Involving everyone in the meeting, including
drawing out the quiet participants and
controlling the domineering ones
• Making sure that decisions are made
democratically
Climate and Environment
• set an important tone for participation
• There are many factors
– that impact how safe and comfortable
people feel about interacting with each
other and participating
– The environment and general "climate" of a
meeting or planning session sets an
important tone for participation
The Factors of climate & environment

Is the location a familiar
place, one where people
feel comfortable?
Logistics
and Room
Logistics and Room Arrangements
• whether you're responsible for them or
not,
–The factors may include:
• Chair arrangements
• Places to hang newsprint
• Sign-In sheet
• Microphones and audio visual equipment
• Refreshments, etc
Ground Rules

 Most meetings have
some kind of operating
rules
 Some groups use
Robert's Rules of Order
(parliamentary
procedure)
Ground Rules
Ground Rules

"Hey, she isn't telling us
how to act. It's up to us
to figure out what we
think is important!"
Common
ground
rules
Common ground rules

•One person speaks at a time
•Raise your hand if you have something to say
•Listen to what other people are saying
•No mocking or attacking other people's ideas
•Be on time coming back from breaks
•Respect each other
A process to develop ground rules
• Tell folks that you want to set up some ground
rule
• Put a blank sheet of newsprint on the wall with
the heading "Ground Rules.“
• "check -in" with the whole group before you write
up an idea
• Once you have gotten 5 or 6 good rules up, check
to see if anyone else has other suggestions
• Ask the group if they agree with these Ground
Rules and are willing to follow them
Facilitating a meeting or planning
session
What's it all about?
Three basic parts of facilitation:

• The process of the meeting
• Skills and tips for guiding the
process
• Dealing with disrupters
The meeting process may look

!

defined but it’s really undefined
The meeting process

"What do I actually
do DURING the
meeting to guide the
process along?"
Steps and tips
Facilitating steps of a meeting
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

1. Start the meeting on time
2. Welcome everyone
3. Make Introductions
4. Review the agenda, objectives and ground rules for the meeting
5. Encourage participation
6. Stick to the agenda
7. Avoid detailed decision-making
8. Seek commitment
9. Bring closure to each items
10. Respect everyone's rights
11. Be flexible
12. Summarize the meeting results and needed follow-ups
13. Thank the participants
14. Close the meeting
Facilitator skills and tips
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

1. Don't memorize a script
2. Watch the group's body language
3. Always check back with the group
4. Summarize and pause
5. Be aware of your own behaviour
6. Occupy your hands
7. Watch your speech
8. Use body language of our own
9. Don't talk to the newsprint, blackboard or
walls--they can't talk back!
Get agreement, Get Consensus
Dealing with disrupters: Preventions
and interventions
• 1. Get agreement on the agenda, ground rules and
outcomes
• 2. Listen carefully
• 3. Show respect for experience
• 4. Find out the group's expectations
• 5. Stay in your facilitator role
• 6. Don't be defensive
(Try using these "Interventions" when disruption is happening during the
meeting)
Possible Interventions
Interventions
• 1. Have the group decide
• 2. Use the agenda and ground rules
• 3. Be honest: Say what's going on
• 4. Use humour
• 5. Accept or legitimize the point or deal
• 6. Use body language
• 7. Take a break
• 8. Confront in the room
Cultural Differences
Six Fundamental Patterns of Cultural Difference
–
–
–
–
–
–

Different Communications Styles
Different Attitudes Toward Conflict
Different Approaches to Completing Tasks
Different Decision-Making Styles
Different Attitudes Toward Disclosure
Different Approaches to Knowing

• Respecting Our Differences and Working Together
• Guidelines for Multicultural Collaboration
(Marcelle E. DuPraw and Marya Axner)
Resources
Auvine, B., Dinsmore, B., Extrom, M., Poole, S., Shanklin, M.
(1978). A manual for group facilitators.
Madison, WI: The Center for Conflict Resolution.
Bobo, K., Kendall, J., Max, S., (1991). A manual for activists in the
1990s. Cabin John, MD: Seven Locks Press.
Nelson-Jones, R. (1992). Group leadership: A training approach.
Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Schwarz, R.M. (1994). The skilled facilitator: Practical wisdom for
developing effective groups. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
We encourage
reproduction of this
material, but ask that you
credit
http://ctb.ku.edu
The END

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Developing Facilitation Skills

  • 1. Developing Facilitation Skills Presented by Masilamani R Contributed by Marya Axner Edited by Bill Berkowitz and Phil Rabinowitz
  • 2. The Presenter • A professional trainer/consultant • Has profound qualifications in training, consulting and research • Has conducted hundreds of meetings over 30 years and still performs as an active meeting chairman • A corporate leader and adviser • Trained by leading professional educators and firms like, Dale Carnegie, Kepner Tregoe, Covey Inc. etc.
  • 3. Introduction • • • • • • Introduction What are facilitation skills? Why do you need facilitation skills? How do you facilitate? How do you plan a good facilitation process? Facilitating a meeting or planning session: What's it all about? • Facilitator skills and tips • Dealing with disrupters: Preventions and interventions
  • 5. Quote ‘we use to guide and direct key parts of our organizing work with groups of people such as meetings, planning sessions, and training of our members and leaders’ -Marya Axner
  • 6. The Facilitator . 1 Shapes and guides the process of working together 2. Helps to meet your goals and accomplish what you've set out to do 3. Needs to concentrate on how you are going to move through your agenda, and 4. Leads you to meet those goals effectively
  • 8. When the Chair is Facilitator? When the chair, • See themselves as facilitators Make sure that important issues are discussed • Ensure decisions made, and actions taken • Don't feel that they have all of the answers • Don’t talk all the time Make sure that everyone can participate
  • 9. What’s participation • Making sure everyone feels comfortable in participating • Developing a structure that allows for everyone's ideas to be heard • Making members feel good about their contribution to the meeting • Making sure the group feels that the ideas and decisions are theirs, not just the leader's • Supporting everyone's ideas and not criticizing anyone for what they've said
  • 10. Facilitation Isn’t Chairing It is & It Isn’t! A facilitator is a guide Not the seat of wisdom and knowledge Facilitator isn't there to give opinions Is to help draw out opinions and ideas Facilitation focuses on HOW not WHAT A facilitator is neutral
  • 11. Why do you need facilitation skills? If you need,  Good planning  Key members involved  Create real leadership opportunities  Create staff skills
  • 12. What the Organisation should Focus on? •Staff involvement •Creation of real leaders •Instilling real skills So FOCUS ON FACILITATION SKILLS
  • 13. Can anyone learn to facilitate a meeting? • • • • • Yes, to a degree Being a good facilitator is both skill and art It is a skill-can learn certain techniques Can improve his/her ability with practice Organization can draw on members who have the skill and the talent
  • 14. Can anyone learn to facilitate a meeting?
  • 15. To put it another way… facilitating actually means: • Understanding the goals of the meeting and the organization • Keeping the group on the agenda and moving forward • Involving everyone in the meeting, including drawing out the quiet participants and controlling the domineering ones • Making sure that decisions are made democratically
  • 16. Climate and Environment • set an important tone for participation • There are many factors – that impact how safe and comfortable people feel about interacting with each other and participating – The environment and general "climate" of a meeting or planning session sets an important tone for participation
  • 17. The Factors of climate & environment Is the location a familiar place, one where people feel comfortable?
  • 19. Logistics and Room Arrangements • whether you're responsible for them or not, –The factors may include: • Chair arrangements • Places to hang newsprint • Sign-In sheet • Microphones and audio visual equipment • Refreshments, etc
  • 20. Ground Rules  Most meetings have some kind of operating rules  Some groups use Robert's Rules of Order (parliamentary procedure)
  • 22. Ground Rules "Hey, she isn't telling us how to act. It's up to us to figure out what we think is important!"
  • 24. Common ground rules •One person speaks at a time •Raise your hand if you have something to say •Listen to what other people are saying •No mocking or attacking other people's ideas •Be on time coming back from breaks •Respect each other
  • 25. A process to develop ground rules • Tell folks that you want to set up some ground rule • Put a blank sheet of newsprint on the wall with the heading "Ground Rules.“ • "check -in" with the whole group before you write up an idea • Once you have gotten 5 or 6 good rules up, check to see if anyone else has other suggestions • Ask the group if they agree with these Ground Rules and are willing to follow them
  • 26. Facilitating a meeting or planning session What's it all about? Three basic parts of facilitation: • The process of the meeting • Skills and tips for guiding the process • Dealing with disrupters
  • 27. The meeting process may look ! defined but it’s really undefined
  • 28. The meeting process "What do I actually do DURING the meeting to guide the process along?"
  • 30. Facilitating steps of a meeting • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1. Start the meeting on time 2. Welcome everyone 3. Make Introductions 4. Review the agenda, objectives and ground rules for the meeting 5. Encourage participation 6. Stick to the agenda 7. Avoid detailed decision-making 8. Seek commitment 9. Bring closure to each items 10. Respect everyone's rights 11. Be flexible 12. Summarize the meeting results and needed follow-ups 13. Thank the participants 14. Close the meeting
  • 31. Facilitator skills and tips • • • • • • • • • 1. Don't memorize a script 2. Watch the group's body language 3. Always check back with the group 4. Summarize and pause 5. Be aware of your own behaviour 6. Occupy your hands 7. Watch your speech 8. Use body language of our own 9. Don't talk to the newsprint, blackboard or walls--they can't talk back!
  • 32. Get agreement, Get Consensus
  • 33. Dealing with disrupters: Preventions and interventions • 1. Get agreement on the agenda, ground rules and outcomes • 2. Listen carefully • 3. Show respect for experience • 4. Find out the group's expectations • 5. Stay in your facilitator role • 6. Don't be defensive (Try using these "Interventions" when disruption is happening during the meeting)
  • 34. Possible Interventions Interventions • 1. Have the group decide • 2. Use the agenda and ground rules • 3. Be honest: Say what's going on • 4. Use humour • 5. Accept or legitimize the point or deal • 6. Use body language • 7. Take a break • 8. Confront in the room
  • 36. Six Fundamental Patterns of Cultural Difference – – – – – – Different Communications Styles Different Attitudes Toward Conflict Different Approaches to Completing Tasks Different Decision-Making Styles Different Attitudes Toward Disclosure Different Approaches to Knowing • Respecting Our Differences and Working Together • Guidelines for Multicultural Collaboration (Marcelle E. DuPraw and Marya Axner)
  • 37. Resources Auvine, B., Dinsmore, B., Extrom, M., Poole, S., Shanklin, M. (1978). A manual for group facilitators. Madison, WI: The Center for Conflict Resolution. Bobo, K., Kendall, J., Max, S., (1991). A manual for activists in the 1990s. Cabin John, MD: Seven Locks Press. Nelson-Jones, R. (1992). Group leadership: A training approach. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Schwarz, R.M. (1994). The skilled facilitator: Practical wisdom for developing effective groups. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
  • 38. We encourage reproduction of this material, but ask that you credit http://ctb.ku.edu

Editor's Notes

  1. What are facilitation skills?Community organizations are geared towards action. There are urgent problems and issues we need to tackle and solve in our communities. That's why we came together in the first place, isn't it? But for groups to be really successful, we need to spend some time focusing on the skills our members and leaders use to make all of this action happen, both within and outside our organizations. One of the most important sets of skills for leaders and members are facilitation skills. These are the "process" skills we use to guide and direct key parts of our organizing work with groups of people such as meetings, planning sessions, and training of our members and leaders. Whether it's a meeting (big or small) or a training session, someone has to shape and guide the process of working together so that you meet your goals and accomplish what you've set out to do. While a group of people might set the agenda and figure out the goals, one person needs to concentrate on how you are going to move through your agenda and meet those goals effectively. This is the person we call the "facilitator." So, how is facilitating different than chairing a meeting?Well, it is and it isn't. Facilitation has three basic principles: A facilitator is a guide to help people move through a process together, not the seat of wisdom and knowledge. That means a facilitator isn't there to give opinions, but to draw out opinions and ideas of the group members. Facilitation focuses on HOW people participate in the process of learning or planning, not just on WHAT gets achieved. A facilitator is neutral and never takes sides. The best meeting chairs see themselves as facilitators. While they have to get through an agenda and make sure that important issues are discussed, decisions made, and actions taken, good chairs don't feel that they have all of the answers or should talk all the time. The most important thing is what the participants in the meeting have to say. So, focus on how the meeting is structured and run to make sure that everyone can participate. This includes things like: Making sure everyone feels comfortable participating Developing a structure that allows for everyone's ideas to be heard Making members feel good about their contribution to the meeting Making sure the group feels that the ideas and decisions are theirs, not just the leader's. Supporting everyone's ideas and not criticizing anyone for what they've said
  2. Developing Facilitation SkillsMain SectionContributed by MaryaAxnerEdited by Bill Berkowitz and Phil RabinowitzWhat are facilitation skills?Why do you need facilitation skills?How do you facilitate?How do you plan a good facilitation process?Facilitating a meeting or planning session: What's it all about?Facilitator skills and tipsDealing with disrupters: Preventions and interventions
  3. Community organizations are geared towards action. There are urgent problems and issues we need to tackle and solve in our communities. That's why we came together in the first place, isn't it? But for groups to be really successful, we need to spend some time There are urgent problems and issues we need to tackle and solve in our communities, both within and outside our organizations. One of the most important sets of skills for leaders and members are facilitation skills. These are the "process" skills we use to guide and direct key parts of our organizing work with groups of people such as meetings, planning sessions, and training of our members and leaders.
  4. Whether it's a meeting (big or small) or a training session, someone has to shape and guide the process of working together so that you meet your goals and accomplish what you've set out to do. While a group of people might set the agenda and figure out the goals, one person needs to concentrate on how you are going to move through your agenda and meet those goals effectively. This is the person we call the "facilitator."
  5. The best meeting chairs see themselves as facilitators. While they have to get through an agenda and make sure that important issues are discussed, decisions made, and actions taken, good chairs don't feel that they have all of the answers or should talk all the time. The most important thing is what the participants in the meeting have to say. So, should talk all the time to make sure that everyone can participate.
  6. This includes things like: Making sure everyone feels comfortable participating Developing a structure that allows for everyone's ideas to be heard Making members feel good about their contribution to the meeting Making sure the group feels that the ideas and decisions are theirs, not just the leader's. Supporting everyone's ideas and not criticizing anyone for what they've said.
  7. Why do you need facilitation skills?If you want to do good planning, keep members involved, and create real leadership opportunities in your organization and skills in your members, you need facilitator skills. The more you know about how to shape and run a good learning and planning process, the more your members will feel empowered about their own ideas and participation, stay invested in your organization, take on responsibility and ownership, and the better your meetings will be
  8. Why do you need facilitation skills?If you want to do good planning, keep members involved, and create real leadership opportunities in your organization and skills in your members, you need facilitator skills. The more you know about how to shape and run a good learning and planning process, the more your members will feel empowered about their own ideas and participation, stay invested in your organization, take on responsibility and ownership, and the better your meetings will be
  9. Can anyone learn to facilitate a meeting?Yes, to a degree. Being a good facilitator is both a skill and an art. It is a skill in that people can learn certain techniques and can improve their ability with practice. It is an art in that some people just have more of a knack for it than others. Sometimes organization leaders are required to facilitate meetings: thus, board presidents must be trained in how to facilitate. But other meetings and planning sessions don't require that any one person act as facilitators, so your organization can draw on members who have the skill and the talent.
  10. To put it another way, facilitating actually means: Understanding the goals of the meeting and the organization Keeping the group on the agenda and moving forward Involving everyone in the meeting, including drawing out the quiet participants and controlling the domineering ones Making sure that decisions are made democratically
  11. Climate and EnvironmentThere are many factors that impact how safe and comfortable people feel about interacting with each other and participating. The environment and general "climate" of a meeting or planning session sets an important tone for participation. For example, key questions you would ask yourself as a facilitator include:
  12. Is the location a familiar place, one where people feel comfortable? Face it, if you're planning to have an interactive meeting sitting around a conference table in the Mayor's office, some of your folks might feel intimidated and out of their environment. A comfortable and familiar location is key. Is the meeting site accessible to everyone? If not, have you provided for transportation or escorts to help people get to the site? Psychologically, if people feel that the site is too far from them or in a place they feel is "dangerous," it may put them off from even coming. If they do come, they may arrive with a feeling that they were not really wanted or that their needs were not really considered. This can put a real damper on communication and participation. Another reminder: can handicapped people use the site as well? Is the space the right size? Too large? Too small? If you're wanting to make a planning group feel that it's a team, a large meeting hall for only 10 or 15 people can feel intimidating and make people feel self-conscious and quiet. On the other hand, if you're taking a group of 30 folks through a meeting, a small conference room where people are uncomfortably crunched together can make for disruption: folks shifting in their seats, getting up to stretch and get some air. This can cause a real break in the mood and feeling of your meeting or planning session. You want folks to stay focused and relaxed. Moral: choose a room size that matches the size of your group
  13. Logistics and Room ArrangementsBelieve it or not: how people sit, whether they are hungry and whether they can hear can make or break your planning process. As a facilitator, the logistics of the meeting should be of great concern to you, whether you're responsible for them or not. Some things to consider are:
  14. Chair arrangements: Having chairs in a circle or around a table encourages discussion, equality, and familiarity. Speaker's podiums and lecture style seating make people feel intimidated and formal. Avoid them at all costs. Places to hang newsprint: You may be using a lot of newsprint or other board space during your meeting. Can you use tape without damaging the walls? Is an easel available? Is there enough space so that you can keep important material visible instead of removing it? Sign-In sheet: Is there a table for folks to use? Refreshments: Grumbling stomachs will definitely take folks minds off the meeting. If you're having refreshments, who is bringing them? Do you need outlets for coffee pots? Can you set things up so folks can get food without disrupting the meeting? And who's cleaning up afterwards? Microphones and audio visual equipment: Do you need a microphone? Video cameras? Can someone set up and test the equipment before you start?
  15. Ground RulesMost meetings have some kind of operating rules. Some groups use Robert's Rules of Order (parliamentary procedure) to run their meetings while others have rules they've adopted over time. When you want the participation to flow and for folks to really feel invested in following the rules, the best way to go is to have the group develop them as one of the first steps in the process. This builds a sense of power in the participants ("Hey, she isn't telling us how to act. It's up to us to figure out what we think is important!") and a much greater sense of investment in following the rules.
  16. Common ground rules are: One person speaks at a time Raise your hand if you have something to say Listen to what other people are saying No mocking or attacking other people's ideas Be on time coming back from breaks (if it's a long meeting) Respect each other.
  17. A process to develop ground rules is: Begin by telling folks that you want to set up some ground rules that everyone will follow as we go through our meeting. Put a blank sheet of newsprint on the wall with the heading "Ground Rules." Ask for any suggestions from the group. If no one says anything, start by putting one up yourself. That usually starts people off. Write any suggestions up on the newsprint. It's usually most effective to "check -in" with the whole group before you write up an idea ("Sue suggested raising our hands if we have something to say. Is that O.K. with everyone?") Once you have gotten 5 or 6 good rules up, check to see if anyone else has other suggestions. When you are finished, ask the group if they agree with these Ground Rules and are willing to follow them. Make sure you get folks to actually say "Yes" out loud. It makes a difference!
  18. Facilitating a meeting or planning session: What's it all about?So much for background. Now, let's cover the three basic parts of facilitation: The process of the meeting Skills and tips for guiding the process Dealing with disrupters: preventions and
  19. The meeting processAs we've already said, the facilitator is responsible for providing a "safe" climate and working atmosphere for the meeting. But you're probably wondering, "What do I actually do DURING the meeting to guide the process along?" Here are the basic steps that can be your facilitator's guide:
  20. 1. Start the meeting on timeFacilitating a meeting or planning session: What's it all about?So much for background. Now, let's cover the three basic parts of facilitation: The process of the meeting Skills and tips for guiding the process Dealing with disrupters: preventions and interventions The meeting processAs we've already said, the facilitator is responsible for providing a "safe" climate and working atmosphere for the meeting. But you're probably wondering, "What do I actually do DURING the meeting to guide the process along?" Here are the basic steps that can be your facilitator's guide: 1. Start the meeting on timeFew of us start our meetings on time. The result? Those who come on time feel cheated that they rushed to get there! Start no more than five minutes late, ten at the maximum and thank everyone who came on time. When latecomers straggle in, don't stop your process to acknowledge them. Wait until after a break or another appropriate time to have them introduce themselves. 2. Welcome everyoneMake a point to welcome everyone who comes. Don't complain about the size of a group if the turnout is small! Nothing will turn the folks off who DID come out faster. Thank all of those who are there for coming and analyze the turnout attendance later. Go with who you have. 3. Make introductionsThere are lots of ways for people to introduce themselves to each other that are better than just going around the room. The kinds of introductions you do should depend on what kind of meeting you are having, the number of people, the overall goals of the meeting, and what kind of information it would be useful to know. Some key questions you can ask members to include in their introductions are: How did you first get involved with our organization? (if most people are already involved, but the participants don't know each other well) What do you want to know about our organization? (if the meeting is set to introduce your organization to another organization) What makes you most angry about this problem? (if the meeting is called to focus on a particular problem) Sometimes, we combine introductions with something called an "ice breaker." Ice breakers can: Break down feelings of unfamiliarity and shyness Help people shift roles--from their "work" selves to their "more human" selves Build a sense of being part of a team Create networking opportunities Help share participants' skills and experiences Some ways to do introductions and icebreakers are: In pairs, have people turn to the person next to them and share their name, organization and three other facts about themselves that others might not know. Then, have each pair introduce EACH OTHER to the group. This helps to get strangers acquainted and for people to feel safe--they already know at least one other person, and didn't have to share information directly in front of a big group at the beginning of the meeting. Form small groups and have each of them work on a puzzle. Have them introduce themselves to their group before they get to work. This helps to build a sense of team work. In a large group, have everyone write down two true statements about themselves and one false one. Then, every person reads their statements and the whole group has to guess which one is false. This helps folks get acquainted and relaxed. Give each participant a survey and have the participants interview each other to find the answers. Make the questions about skills, experience, opinions on the issue you'll be working on, etc. When everyone is finished, have folks share the answers they got. When doing introductions and icebreakers, it's important to remember: Every participant needs to take part in the activity. The only exception may be latecomers who arrive after the introductions are completed. At the first possible moment, ask the latecomers to say their name and any other information you feel they need to share in order for everyone to feel comfortable and equal. Be sensitive to the culture, age, gender and literacy levels of participants and any other factors when deciding how to do introductions. For example, an activity that requires physical contact or reading a lengthy instruction sheet may be inappropriate for your group. Also, keep in mind what you want to accomplish with the activity. Don't make a decision to do something only because it seems like fun. It is important to make everyone feel welcome and listened to at the beginning of the meeting. Otherwise, participants may feel uncomfortable and unappreciated and won't participate well later on. Also, if you don't get some basic information about who is there, you may miss some golden opportunities. For example, the editor of the regional newspaper may be in the room; but if you don't know, you'll miss the opportunity for a potential interview or special coverage. And don't forget to introduce yourself. You want to make sure that you establish some credibility to be facilitating the meeting and that folks know a bit about you. Credibility doesn't mean you have a college degree or 15 years of facilitation experience. It just means that you share some of your background so folks know why you are doing the facilitation and what has led you to be speaking up. 4. Review the agenda, objectives and ground rules for the meetingGo over what's going to happen in the meeting. Check with the group to make sure they agree with and like the agenda. You never know if someone will want to comment and suggest something a little different. This builds a sense of ownership of the meeting and lets people know early on that you're there to facilitate THEIR process and THEIR meeting, not your own agenda. The same is true for the outcomes of the meeting. You'll want to go over these with folks as well to get their input and check that these are the desired outcomes they're looking for. This is also where the ground rules that we covered earlier come in. 5. Encourage participationThis is one of your main jobs as a facilitator. It's up to you to get those who need to listen to listen and those who ought to speak. Encourage people to share their experiences and ideas and urge those with relevant background information share it at appropriate times. 6. Stick to the agendaGroups have a tendency to wander far from the original agenda, sometimes without knowing it. When you hear the discussion wandering off, bring it to the group's attention. You can say "That's an interesting issue, but perhaps we should get back to the original discussion." 7. Avoid detailed decision-makingSometimes, it's easier for groups to discuss the color of napkins than the real issues they are facing. Help the group not to get immersed in details. Suggest instead, "Perhaps the committee could resolve the matter." Do you really want to be involved in that level of detail? 8. Seek commitmentsGetting commitments for future involvement is often a meeting goal. You want leaders to commit to certain tasks, people to volunteer to help on a campaign, or organizations to support your group. Make sure adequate time is allocated for seeking commitment. For small meetings, write people's names down on newsprint next to the tasks they agreed to undertake. One important rule of thumb is that no one should leave a meeting without something to do. Don't ever close a meeting by saying "We'll get back to you to confirm how you might like to get involved." Seize the moment! Sign them up! 9. Bring closure to each itemMany groups will discuss things ten times longer than they need to unless a facilitator helps them to recognize they're basically in agreement. Summarize a consensus position, or ask someone in the group to summarize the points of agreement, and then move forward. If one or two people disagree, state the situation as clearly as you can: "Tom and Levonia seem to have other feelings on this matter, but everyone else seems to go in this direction. Perhaps we can decide to go in the direction that most of the group wants, and maybe Tom and Levonia can get back to us on other ways to accommodate their concerns." You may even suggest taking a break so Tom and Levonia can caucus to come up with some options. Some groups feel strongly about reaching consensus on issues before moving ahead. If your group is one of them, be sure to read a good manual or book on consensus decision making. Many groups, however, find that voting is a fine way to make decisions. A good rule of thumb is that a vote must pass by a two-thirds majority for it to be a valid decision. For most groups to work well, they should seek consensus where possible, but take votes when needed in order to move the process forward. 10. Respect everyone's rightsThe facilitator protects the shy and quiet folks in a meeting and encourages them to speak out. There is also the important job of keeping domineering people from monopolizing the meeting or ridiculing the ideas of others. Sometimes, people dominate a discussion because they are really passionate about an issue and have lots of things to say. One way to channel their interest is to suggest that they consider serving on a committee or task force on that issue. Other people, however, talk to hear themselves talk. If someone like that shows up at your meeting, look further ahead in this chapter for some tips on dealing with "disrupters." 11. Be flexibleSometimes issues will arise in the meeting that are so important, they will take much more time than you thought. Sometimes, nobody will have thought of them at all. You may run over time or have to alter your agenda to discuss them. Be sure to check with group about whether this is O.K. before going ahead with the revised agenda. If necessary, ask for a five-minute break to confer with key leaders or participants on how to handle the issue and how to restructure the agenda. Be prepared to recommend an alternate agenda, dropping some items if necessary. 12. Summarize the meeting results and needed follow-upsBefore ending the meeting, summarize the key decisions that were made and what else happened. Be sure also to summarize the follow-up actions that were agreed to and need to take place. Remind folks how much good work was done and how effective the meeting hopefully was. Refer back to the objectives or outcomes to show how much you accomplished. 13. Thank the participantsTake a minute to thank people who prepared things for the meeting, set up the room, brought refreshments, or did any work towards making the meeting happen. Thank all of the participants for their input and energy and for making the meeting a success. 14. Close the meetingPeople appreciate nothing more than a meeting that ends on time! It's usually a good idea to have some "closure" in a meeting, especially if it was long, if there were any sticky situations that caused tension, or if folks worked especially hard to come to decisions or make plans. A nice way to close a meeting is to go around the room and have people say one word that describes how they are feeling now that all of this work has been done. You'll usually get answers from "exhausted" to "energized!" If it's been a good meeting, even the "exhausted" ones will stick around before leaving. Few of us start our meetings on time. The result? Those who come on time feel cheated that they rushed to get there! Start no more than five minutes late, ten at the maximum and thank everyone who came on time. When latecomers straggle in, don't stop your process to acknowledge them. Wait until after a break or another appropriate time to have them introduce themselves.
  21. Facilitator skills and tipsHere are a few more points to remember that will help to maximize your role as a facilitator: 1. Don't memorize a scriptEven with a well-prepared agenda and key points you must make, you need to be flexible and natural. If people sense that you are reading memorized lines, they will feel like they are being talked down to, and won't respond freely. 2. Watch the group's body languageAre people shifting in their seats? Are they bored? Tired? Looking confused? If folks seem restless or in a haze, you may need to take a break, or speed up or slow down the pace of the meeting. And if you see confused looks on too many faces, you may need to stop and check in with the group, to make sure that everyone knows where you are in the agenda and that the group is with you. 3. Always check back with the groupBe careful about deciding where the meeting should go. Check back after each major part of the process to see if there are questions and that everyone understands and agrees with decisions that were made. 4. Summarize and pauseWhen you finish a point or a part of the meeting process, sum up what was done and decided, and pause for questions and comments before moving on. Learn to "feel out" how long to pause -- too short, and people don't really have time to ask questions; too long, and folks will start to get uncomfortable from the silence. 5. Be aware of your own behaviorTake a break to calm down if you feel nervous or are losing control. Watch that you're not repeating yourself, saying "ah" between each word, or speaking too fast. Watch your voice and physical manner. (Are you standing too close to folks so they feel intimidated, making eye contact so people feel engaged?) How you act makes an impact on how participants feel. 6. Occupy your handsHold onto a marker, chalk, or the back of a chair. Don't play with the change in your pocket! 7. Watch your speechBe careful you are not offending or alienating anyone in the group. Use swear words at your own risk! 8. Use body language of our ownUsing body language to control the dynamics in the room can be a great tool. Moving up close to a shy, quiet participant and asking them to speak may make them feel more willing, because they can look at you instead of the big group and feel less intimidated. Also, walking around engages people in the process. Don't just stand in front of the room for the entire meeting. 9. Don't talk to the newsprint, blackboard or walls--they can't talk back!Always wait until you have stopped writing and are facing the group to talk. Here are a few more points to remember that will help to maximize your role as a facilitator: 1. Don't memorize a scriptEven with a well-prepared agenda and key points you must make, you need to be flexible and natural. If people sense that you are reading memorized lines, they will feel like they are being talked down to, and won't respond freely. 2. Watch the group's body languageAre people shifting in their seats? Are they bored? Tired? Looking confused? If folks seem restless or in a haze, you may need to take a break, or speed up or slow down the pace of the meeting. And if you see confused looks on too many faces, you may need to stop and check in with the group, to make sure that everyone knows where you are in the agenda and that the group is with you. 2. Watch the group's body languageBe careful about deciding where the meeting should go. Check back after each major part of the process to see if there are questions and that everyone understands and agrees with decisions that were made.
  22. Dealing with disrupters: Preventions and interventionsAlong with these tips on facilitation, there are some things you can do both to prevent disruption before it occurs to stop it when it's happening in the meeting. The most common kinds of disrupters are people who try to dominate, keep going off the agenda, have side conversations with the person sitting next to them, or folks who think they are right and ridicule and attack other's ideas. Try using these "Preventions" when you set up your meeting to try to rule out disruption: 1. Get agreement on the agenda, ground rules and outcomesIn other wards, agree on the process. These process agreements create a sense of shared accountability and ownership of the meeting, joint responsibility for how the meeting is run, and group investment in whether the outcomes and goals are achieved. 2. Listen carefullyDon't just pretend to listen to what someone in the meeting is saying. People can tell. Listen closely to understand a point someone is making. And check back if you are summarizing, always asking the person if you understood their idea correctly. 3. Show respect for experienceWe can't say it enough. Encourage folks to share strategies, stories from the field, and lessons they've learned. Value the experience and wisdom in the room. 4. Find out the group's expectationsMake sure that you uncover at the start what participants think they are meeting for. When you find out, be clear about what will and won't be covered in this meeting. Make plans for how to cover issues that won't be dealt with: Write them down on newsprint and agree to deal with them at the end of the meeting, or have the group agree on a follow-up meeting to cover unfinished issues. There are lots of ways to find out what the group's expectations of the meeting are: Try asking everyone to finish this sentence: "I want to leave here today knowing...." You don't want people sitting through the meeting feeling angry that they're in the wrong place and no one bothered to ask them what they wanted to achieve here. These folks may act out their frustration during the meeting and become your biggest disrupters. 5. Stay in your facilitator roleYou cannot be an effective facilitator and a participant at the same time. When you cross the line, you risk alienating participants, causing resentment, and losing control of the meeting. Offer strategies, resources, and ideas for the group to work with, but NOT opinions. 6. Don't be defensiveIf you are attacked or criticized, take a "mental step" backwards before responding. Once you become defensive, you risk losing the group's respect and trust, and might cause folks to feel they can't be honest with you. 7. "Buy-in" power playersThese folks can turn your meeting into a nightmare if they don't feel that their influence and role are acknowledged and respected. If possible, give them acknowledgment up front at the start of the meeting. Try giving them roles to play during the meeting such as a "sounding board" for you at breaks, to check in with about how the meeting is going Dealing with disrupters: Preventions and interventionsAlong with these tips on facilitation, there are some things you can do both to prevent disruption before it occurs to stop it when it's happening in the meeting. The most common kinds of disrupters are people who try to dominate, keep going off the agenda, have side conversations with the person sitting next to them, or folks who think they are right and ridicule and attack other's ideas.
  23. Try using these "Interventions" when disruption is happening during the meeting: 1. Have the group decideIf someone is dominating the meeting, refuses to stick to the agenda, keeps bringing up the same point again and again, or challenges how you are handling the meeting: First try to remind them about the agreed-on agenda. If that doesn't work, throw it back to the group and ask them how they feel about that person's participation. Let the group support you. 2. Use the agenda and ground rulesIf someone keeps going off the agenda, has side conversations through the whole meeting, verbally attacks others: Go back to that agenda and those ground rules and remind folks of the agreements made at the beginning of the meeting. 3. Be honest: Say what's going onIf someone is trying to intimidate you, if you feel upset or undermined, if you need to pull the group behind you: It's better to say what's going on than try to cover it up. Everyone will be aware of the dynamic in the room. The group will get behind you if you are honest and up -front about the situation. 4. Use humorIf there is a lot of tension in the room, if you have people at the meeting who didn't want to be there, if folks are scared/shy about participating, if you are an outsider: Try a humorous comment or a joke. If it's self-deprecating, so much the better. Humor almost always lightens the mood. It's one of the best tension-relievers we have. 5. Accept or legitimize the point or deal:If there is someone who keeps expressing doubts about the group's ability to accomplish anything, is bitter and puts down others' suggestions, keeps bringing up the same point over and over, seems to have power issues: Try one or more of these approaches: Show that you understand their issue by making it clear that you hear how important it is to them. Legitimize the issue by saying, "It's a very important point and one I'm sure we all feel is critical." Make a bargain to deal with their issue for a short period of time ("O.K., let's deal with your issue for 5 minutes and then we ought to move on.") If that doesn't work, agree to defer the issue to the end of the meeting, or set up a committee to explore it further. 6. Use body languageIf side conversations keep occurring, if quiet people need to participate, if attention needs to be re-focused: Use body language. Move closer to conversers, or to the quiet ones. Make eye contact with them to get their attention and covey your intent. 7. Take a breakIf less confrontational tactics haven't worked, someone keeps verbally attacking others, shuffling papers, cutting others off: In case you've tried all of the above suggestions and nothing has worked, it's time to take a break, invite the disruptive person outside the room and politely but firmly state your feelings about how disruptive their behavior is to the group. Make it clear that the disruption needs to end. But also try to find out what's going on, and see if there are other ways to address that person's concerns. 8. Confront in the roomIf all else has failed, if you're sure it won't create backlash, if the group will support you, and if you've tried everything else: Confront the disruptive person politely but very firmly in the room. Tell the person very explicitly that the disruption needs to stop now. Use body language to encourage other group members to support you. This is absolutely the last resort when action must be taken and no alternatives remain!
  24. Toward a More Perfect Unionin an Age of DiversityWorking on CommonCross-cultural Communication Challengesby Marcelle E. DuPraw and MaryaAxnerSix Fundamental Patterns of Cultural Difference Different Communications StylesDifferent Attitudes Toward ConflictDifferent Approaches to Completing TasksDifferent Decision-Making StylesDifferent Attitudes Toward DisclosureDifferent Approaches to KnowingRespecting Our Differences and Working TogetherGuidelines for Multicultural CollaborationWe all have an internal list of those we still don't understand, let alone appreciate. We all have biases, even prejudices, toward specific groups. In our workshops we ask people to gather in pairs and think about their hopes and fears in relating to people of a group different from their own. Fears usually include being judged, miscommunication, and patronizing or hurting others unintentionally; hopes are usually the possibility of dialogue, learning something new, developing friendships, and understanding different points of view. After doing this activity hundreds of times, I'm always amazed how similar the lists are. At any moment that we're dealing with people different from ourselves, the likelihood is that they carry a similar list of hopes and fears in their back pocket.-- From Waging Peace in Our Schools,by Linda Lantieri and Janet Patti (Beacon Press, 1996)We all communicate with others all the time -- in our homes, in our workplaces, in the groups we belong to, and in the community. No matter how well we think we understand each other, communication is hard. Just think, for example, how often we hear things like, "He doesn't get it," or "She didn't really hear what I meant to say." "Culture" is often at the root of communication challenges. Our culture influences how we approach problems, and how we participate in groups and in communities. When we participate in groups we are often surprised at how differently people approach their work together.Culture is a complex concept, with many different definitions. But, simply put, "culture" refers to a group or community with which we share common experiences that shape the way we understand the world. It includes groups that we are born into, such as gender, race, or national origin. It also includes groups we join or become part of. For example, we can acquire a new culture by moving to a new region, by a change in our economic status, or by becoming disabled. When we think of culture this broadly, we realize we all belong to many cultures at once.Our histories are a critical piece of our cultures. Historical experiences -- whether of five years ago or of ten generations back -- shape who we are. Knowledge of our history can help us understand ourselves and one another better. Exploring the ways in which various groups within our society have related to each other is key to opening channels for cross-cultural communication.Six Fundamental Patterns of Cultural DifferencesIn a world as complex as ours, each of us is shaped by many factors, and culture is one of the powerful forces that acts on us. Anthropologists Kevin Avruch and Peter Black explain the importance of culture this way: ...One's own culture provides the "lens" through which we view the world; the "logic"... by which we order it; the "grammar" ... by which it makes sense. 1 In other words, culture is central to what we see, how we make sense of what we see, and how we express ourselves.As people from different cultural groups take on the exciting challenge of working together, cultural values sometimes conflict. We can misunderstand each other, and react in ways that can hinder what are otherwise promising partnerships. Oftentimes, we aren't aware that culture is acting upon us. Sometimes, we are not even aware that we have cultural values or assumptions that are different from others'.Six fundamental patterns of cultural differences -- ways in which cultures, as a whole, tend to vary from one another -- are described below. The descriptions point out some of the recurring causes of cross-cultural communication difficulties.2 As you enter into multicultural dialogue or collaboration, keep these generalized differences in mind. Next time you find yourself in a confusing situation, and you suspect that cross-cultural differences are at play, try reviewing this list. Ask yourself how culture may be shaping your own reactions, and try to see the world from others' points of view.Different Communication Styles The way people communicate varies widely between, and even within, cultures. One aspect of communication style is language usage. Across cultures, some words and phrases are used in different ways. For example, even in countries that share the English language, the meaning of "yes" varies from "maybe, I'll consider it" to "definitely so," with many shades in between.Another major aspect of communication style is the degree of importance given to non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication includes not only facial expressions and gestures; it also involves seating arrangements, personal distance, and sense of time. In addition, different norms regarding the appropriate degree of assertiveness in communicating can add to cultural misunderstandings. For instance, some white Americans typically consider raised voices to be a sign that a fight has begun, while some black, Jewish and Italian Americans often feel that an increase in volume is a sign of an exciting conversation among friends. Thus, some white Americans may react with greater alarm to a loud discussion than would members of some American ethnic or non-white racial groups.Different Attitudes Toward Conflict Some cultures view conflict as a positive thing, while others view it as something to be avoided. In the U.S., conflict is not usually desirable; but people often are encouraged to deal directly with conflicts that do arise. In fact, face-to-face meetings customarily are recommended as the way to work through whatever problems exist. In contrast, in many Eastern countries, open conflict is experienced as embarrassing or demeaning; as a rule, differences are best worked out quietly. A written exchange might be the favored means to address the conflict.Different Approaches to Completing Tasks From culture to culture, there are different ways that people move toward completing tasks. Some reasons include different access to resources, different judgments of the rewards associated with task completion, different notions of time, and varied ideas about how relationship-building and task-oriented work should go together.When it comes to working together effectively on a task, cultures differ with respect to the importance placed on establishing relationships early on in the collaboration. A case in point, Asian and Hispanic cultures tend to attach more value to developing relationships at the beginning of a shared project and more emphasis on task completion toward the end as compared with European-Americans. European-Americans tend to focus immediately on the task at hand, and let relationships develop as they work on the task. This does not mean that people from any one of these cultural backgrounds are more or less committed to accomplishing the task, or value relationships more or less; it means they may pursue them differently.Different Decision-Making StylesThe roles individuals play in decision-making vary widely from culture to culture. For example, in the U.S., decisions are frequently delegated -- that is, an official assigns responsibility for a particular matter to a subordinate. In many Southern European and Latin American countries, there is a strong value placed on holding decision-making responsibilities oneself. When decisions are made by groups of people, majority rule is a common approach in the U.S.; in Japan consensus is the preferred mode. Be aware that individuals' expectations about their own roles in shaping a decision may be influenced by their cultural frame of reference.Different Attitudes Toward DisclosureIn some cultures, it is not appropriate to be frank about emotions, about the reasons behind a conflict or a misunderstanding, or about personal information. Keep this in mind when you are in a dialogue or when you are working with others. When you are dealing with a conflict, be mindful that people may differ in what they feel comfortable revealing. Questions that may seem natural to you -- What was the conflict about? What was your role in the conflict? What was the sequence of events? -- may seem intrusive to others. The variation among cultures in attitudes toward disclosure is also something to consider before you conclude that you have an accurate reading of the views, experiences, and goals of the people with whom you are working.Different Approaches to KnowingNotable differences occur among cultural groups when it comes to epistemologies -- that is, the ways people come to know things. European cultures tend to consider information acquired through cognitive means, such as counting and measuring, more valid than other ways of coming to know things. Compare that to African cultures' preference for affective ways of knowing, including symbolic imagery and rhythm. Asian cultures' epistemologies tend to emphasize the validity of knowledge gained through striving toward transcendence.3Recent popular works demonstrate that our own society is paying more attention to previously overlooked ways of knowing.4 Indeed, these different approaches to knowing could affect ways of analyzing a community problem or finding ways to resolve it. Some members of your group may want to do library research to understand a shared problem better and identify possible solutions. Others may prefer to visit places and people who have experienced challenges like the ones you are facing, and get a feeling for what has worked elsewhere.Respecting Our Differences and Working TogetherIn addition to helping us to understand ourselves and our own cultural frames of reference, knowledge of these six patterns of cultural difference can help us to understand the people who are different from us. An appreciation of patterns of cultural difference can assist us in processing what it means to be different in ways that are respectful of others, not faultfinding or damaging.Anthropologists Avruch and Black have noted that, when faced by an interaction that we do not understand, people tend to interpret the others involved as "abnormal," "weird," or "wrong." 5 This tendency, if indulged, gives rise on the individual level to prejudice. If this propensity is either consciously or unconsciously integrated into organizational structures, then prejudice takes root in our institutions -- in the structures, laws, policies, and procedures that shape our lives. Consequently, it is vital that we learn to control the human tendency to translate "different from me" into "less than me." We can learn to do this.We can also learn to collaborate across cultural lines as individuals and as a society. Awareness of cultural differences doesn't have to divide us from each other. It doesn't have to paralyze us either, for fear of not saying the "right thing." In fact, becoming more aware of our cultural differences, as well as exploring our similarities, can help us communicate with each other more effectively. Recognizing where cultural differences are at work is the first step toward understanding and respecting each other.Learning about different ways that people communicate can enrich our lives. People's different communication styles reflect deeper philosophies and world views which are the foundation of their culture. Understanding these deeper philosophies gives us a broader picture of what the world has to offer us.Learning about people's cultures has the potential to give us a mirror image of our own. We have the opportunity to challenge our assumptions about the "right" way of doing things, and consider a variety of approaches. We have a chance to learn new ways to solve problems that we had previously given up on, accepting the difficulties as "just the way things are."Lastly, if we are open to learning about people from other cultures, we become less lonely. Prejudice and stereotypes separate us from whole groups of people who could be friends and partners in working for change. Many of us long for real contact. Talking with people different from ourselves gives us hope and energizes us to take on the challenge of improving our communities and worlds.Guidelines for Multicultural CollaborationCultural questions -- about who we are and how we identify ourselves -- are at the heart of Toward a More Perfect Union in an Age of Diversity, and will be at the heart of your discussions. As you set to work on multicultural collaboration in your community, keep in mind these additional guidelines:Learn from generalizations about other cultures, but don't use those generalizations to stereotype, "write off," or oversimplify your ideas about another person. The best use of a generalization is to add it to your storehouse of knowledge so that you better understand and appreciate other interesting, multi-faceted human beings.Practice, practice, practice. That's the first rule, because it's in the doing that we actually get better at cross-cultural communication.Don't assume that there is one right way (yours!) to communicate. Keep questioning your assumptions about the "right way" to communicate. For example, think about your body language; postures that indicate receptivity in one culture might indicate aggressiveness in another.Don't assume that breakdowns in communication occur because other people are on the wrong track. Search for ways to make the communication work, rather than searching for who should receive the blame for the breakdown.Listen actively and empathetically. Try to put yourself in the other person's shoes. Especially when another person's perceptions or ideas are very different from your own, you might need to operate at the edge of your own comfort zone.Respect others' choices about whether to engage in communication with you. Honor their opinions about what is going on.Stop, suspend judgment, and try to look at the situation as an outsider.Be prepared for a discussion of the past. Use this as an opportunity to develop an understanding from "the other's" point of view, rather than getting defensive or impatient. Acknowledge historical events that have taken place. Be open to learning more about them. Honest acknowledgment of the mistreatment and oppression that have taken place on the basis of cultural difference is vital for effective communication.Awareness of current power imbalances -- and an openness to hearing each other's perceptions of those imbalances -- is also necessary for understanding each other and working together.Remember that cultural norms may not apply to the behavior of any particular individual. We are all shaped by many, many factors -- our ethnic background, our family, our education, our personalities -- and are more complicated than any cultural norm could suggest. Check your interpretations if you are uncertain what is meant. FOOTNOTESAvruch, Kevin and Peter Black, "Conflict Resolution in Intercultural Settings: Problems and Prospects," in Conflict Resolution Theory and Practice: Integration and Application, edited by Dennis Sandole and Hugo van derMerwe. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993. (Return to referenced text)This list and some of the explanatory text is drawn from DuPraw and Warfield (1991), an informally published workshop manual co-authored by one of the authors of this piece. (Return to referenced text)Nichols, Edwin J., a presentation made to the World Psychiatric Association and Association of Psychiatrists in Nigeria, November 10, 1976. (Return to referenced text)For example, for research on women's approaches to knowledge, see Lorraine Code, What Can She Know?: Feminist Theory and the Construction of Knowledge. Ithaca: Cornell, 1991 M.F. Belenky, N.R. Goldberger, & J. M. Tarule, Women's Ways of Knowing: The Development of the Self, Voice and Mind. New York: Basic Books, 1986 Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development. Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, 1982. (Return to referenced text)Avruch and Black, 1993. (Return to referenced text
  25. ResourcesAuvine, B., Dinsmore, B., Extrom, M., Poole, S., Shanklin, M. (1978). A manual for group facilitators. Madison, WI: The Center for Conflict Resolution. Bobo, K., Kendall, J., Max, S., (1991). A manual for activists in the 1990s. Cabin John, MD: Seven Locks Press. Nelson-Jones, R. (1992). Group leadership: A training approach. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Schwarz, R.M. (1994). The skilled facilitator: Practical wisdom for developing effective groups. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.