PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCECHAPTER

PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN
ADOLESCENCE
CHAPTER 11
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
*
Learning Objectives
*Explain: These are the questions we will consider as we begin
our study of adolescence.
PHYSICAL MATURATION
*
Physical Manifestations of Puberty

*Start of physical maturation:Begins when the pituitary gland in
the brain signals other glands in children's bodies to begin
producing the sex hormones, androgens (male hormones) or
estrogens (female hormones), at adult levels. Males and females
produce both types of sex hormones, but males have a higher
concentration of androgens and females a higher concentration
of estrogens.) Pituitary gland also signals body to increase
production of growth hormones that interact with the sex
hormones to cause the growth spurt and puberty. In addition,
the hormone leptin appears to play a role in the start of puberty.
Growth during Adolescence: The Rapid Pace of Physical and
Sexual Maturation
Adolescent growth spurtWeight increase
Skeletal changes
Accelerated
Asynchronicity in growth
*Adolescence is the developmental stage that lies between
childhood and adulthood. It is generally viewed as starting just
before the teenage years and ending just after them. It is a
transitional stage. Adolescents are considered no longer
children, but not yet adults. It is a time of considerable physical
and psychological growth and change.One aspect of this
transformation is the adolescent growth spurt, a period of very
rapid growth in height and weight. On average, boys grow 4.1
inches a year and girls 3.5 inches a year. Some adolescents
grow as much as 5 inches in a single year.Boys’ and girls’

adolescent growth spurts begin at different times. As you can
see in Figure 11-1, girls begin their spurts around age 10, while
boys start at about age 12. During the 2-year period starting at
age 11, girls tend to be taller than boys. But by the age of 13,
boys, on average, are taller than girls—a state of affairs that
persists for the remainder of the life span.
Wt and ht increase due to simultaneous release of growth
hormone, thyroid hormones, and and androgens; peak height
velocity at adolescence and toddler yearsIn general two years
earlier in girls; girls taller between 11 and 13Changes in
composition of skeletal structure; closing of long bones; ethnic
differencesHeight changes in torso rather than leg
lengthAcc
Growth Pattern
Patterns of growth are depicted in two ways. The first figure
shows height at a given age, while the second shows the height
increase occurs from birth through the end of adolescence.
Notice that girls begin their growth spurt around age 10, while
boys begin the growth spurt at about age 12. However, by the
age of 13, boys tend to be taller than girls. What are the social
consequences for boys and girls of being taller or shorter than
average? (Source: Adapted from Cratty, 1986.)
*
What is a secular trend?Earlier start of puberty is example of
significant secular trendPattern of change occurring over
several generationsTrends occur when physical characteristic
changes over course of several generationsResult of better

nutrition over centuries
*
Puberty in Girls
Begins earlier for girls than for boysGirls start puberty at
around age 11 or 12, and boys begin at around age 13 or 14Wi de
variations among individuals
InfluencesNutritionHealthEnvironmental stress
*For example, some girls begin puberty as early as 7 or 8 or as
late as 16 years of age.
Onset of MenarcheVaries in different parts of worldBegins later
in poorer, developing countries Influenced by proportion of fat
to muscle in bodyRelated to environmental stress
*
Figure 11-2 Onset of Menstruation
The onset of menstruation occurs earlier in more economically
advantaged countries than in those that are poorer. But even in
wealthier countries, girls living in more affluent circumstances
begin to menstruate earlier than those living in less
affluent situations. Why is this the case? (Source: Adapted from
Eveleth & Tanner, 1976.)
Menarche, the onset of menstruation and probably the most

obvious signal of puberty in girls. Consequently, it appears that
girls who are better nourished and healthier are more apt to start
menstruation at an earlier age than those who suffer from
malnutrition or chronic disease. In fact, some studies have
suggested that weight or the proportion of fat to muscle in the
body play a critical role in the timing of
menarche.Environmental stress due to such factors as parental
divorce or high levels of family conflict can bring about an
early onset.
Puberty in BoysPenis and scrotum begin to grow at accelerated
rate around age 12 and reach adult size about 3 or 4 years later
Enlargement of prostate gland and seminal vesicles
Spermarche around age 13
*
A boy's first ejaculation, known as spermarche usually occurs
around the age of 13, more than a year after the body has begun
producing sperm. At first, the semen contains relatively few
sperm, but the amount of sperm increases significantly with age.
Primary Sex Characteristics
Further development of sex glandsTestes in males
Ovaries in females
*

Secondary Sex CharacteristicsChanges in genitals and breasts
Growth of hair:PubicFacialBody
Further development of sex organs
*In girls, the development of primary sex characteristics
involves changes in the vagina and uterus. Secondary sex
characteristics include the development of breasts and pubic
hair.Breasts begin to grow at around the age of 10, and pubic
hair beings to appear at about age 11. Underarm hair appears
about 2 years later.For some girls, indications of puberty start
unusually early. One out of 7 Caucasian girls develops breasts
or pubic hair by age 8. Even more surprisingly, the figure is 1
out of 2 for African American girls.
Body Image: Reaction to Physical Changes in Adolescence
Some of the changes of adolescence do not show up in physical
changes, but carry psychological weightMenstruation and
ejaculations occur privately, but changes in body shape and size
are public
Teenagers entering puberty frequently are embarrassed by the
changes
Girls are frequently unhappy about their changing bodies
Sexual Maturation

The changes in sexual maturation that occur for males and
females during early adolescence.
(Source: Based on Tanner, 1978.)
*
Timing and Tempo of PubertyVariation of timing and tempo
great
No relationship between onset and rate of pubertal development
Some differences; causes are inconclusive
*
Consequences of Early and Late Maturation
The Consequences of Early and Late Maturation

Nutrition, Food, and Eating Disorders:
Fueling the Growth of Adolescence
*
Fueling the Growth of Adolescence
For most adolescents, the major nutritional issue is ensuring the
consumption of a sufficient balance of appropriate foodsRapid
physical growth of adolescence is fueled by an increase in food
consumption
Particularly during the growth spurt, adolescents eat substantial
quantities of food, increasing their intake of calories rather
dramaticallyDuring the teenage years, the average girl requires
some 2,200 calories a dayThe average boy requires 2,800
Several key nutrients are essential, including, in particular,
calcium and iron
Nutritional Problems in Adolescence
Poor eating habitsHigh consumption of junk
food/sugar/fatsLarge portion sizesLack of variety
Related health concernsObesityOsteoporosisDiabetesHeart
disease

*
Nutritional Problems in Adolescents
The incidence of obesity among six- to eleven-year-olds in the
US has more than doubled in the past 20 years (USDHHS,
2004). As reported by the Office of the Surgeon General
(USDHHS, 2001), most young people are not following
recommendations set forth in the Dietary Guidelines for
Americans. For example, 67% of youths aged 6-19 exceed
dietary guidelines for fat intake and 72% exceed
recommendations for saturated fat intake.
Most nutritional problems in adolescents are related to the
consumption of too much “junk food,” or food with limited or
no nutritional value. Most junk food is characterized by high
levels of fats, particularly saturated fats, and refined sugar. The
portion sizes of junk food also typically are very large. In
addition, most adolescents eat very few fruits and vegetables
per day or chose items, such as iceberg lettuce, with low
nutritional values.
The eating habits of today's adolescents will lead to future
health care problems. Obesity is related to a number of health
problems, including Type 2 Diabetes, heart disease, stroke and
cancer (NHLBI, 2004). Osteoporosis also is a growing problem,
even among adolescents. Poor nutrition and insufficient
exercise both contribute to low bone density among teenagers.
References:
[NHLBI] National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, National
Institutes of Health. (2004). Aim for a Health Weight (website).
Retrieved 6-16-2004 from
http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/public/heart/obesity/lose_wt/in
dex.htm
[USDHHS] US Department of Health and Human Services,
Centers for Disease Control, National Center for Chronic

Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. (2004).
Resource Guide for Nutrition and Physical Activity
Interventions to Prevent Obesity and Other Chronic Diseases.
Retrieved 6-16-2004 from
http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/obesityprevention.htm
[USDHHS] US Department of Health and Human Services.
(2001). The Surgeon General's call to action to prevent and
decrease overweight and obesity. Rockville, MD: U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service, Office of the Surgeon General.
Pubertal Changes and Eating Disorders
*
Pubertal Changes and Eating DisordersRatio of body fat to
muscle increases
Basal metabolism rate decreases
Overall physical appearance changes
20% overweight; 5% obese; 15% seriously overweight
Figure 11-4 No Sweat
Physical activity among both white and black adolescent emales
declines substantially over the course of adolescence. What
might be the reasons for this decline? Source: Based on Kimm

et al., 2002.)
*
Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia
DefinitionsAnorexia=starvation to maintain low
weightBulimia=binge and purge eating1% anorexic and 3%
bulimicHigher incidence among females
Disordered eating and body dissatisfaction reported across
socioeconomic lines
*
Brain Development and Thought: Paving the Way for Cognitive
Growth
*
A No Brainer?????Brain changes
Growth spurts
No clear 1:1 correspondence
*Brain changes: SizeMaturity Growth spurtsDifferent part of
brainDifferent timesNo clear 1:1 correspondenceWith specific

changes in brain sizeWith structures and intellectual changes in
adolescenceAs the number of neurons (the cells of the nervous
system) continue to grow, and their interconnections become
richer and more complex, adolescent thinking also becomes
more sophisticated.
Use It or Lose ItBrain produces oversupply of gray matter
during adolescence which is later pruned back at rate of one to
two percent per year
Myelination increases and continues to make transmission of
neural messages more efficient
*
Number of neurons (the cells of the nervous system) continue to
grow.
Interconnections become richer and more complex.
Adolescent thinking becomes more sophisticated.Myelination—
the process in which nerve cells are insulated by a covering of
fat cells—increases and continues to make the transmission of
neural messages more efficient. Both the pruning process and
increased myelination contribute to the growing cognitive
abilities of
How is this related to adolescent impulse control?Prefrontal
cortex provides for impulse control
Adolescence prefrontal cortex is biologically immature = ability
to inhibit impulses is not fully developed
Figure 11-5 Pruning Gray Matter
This three-dimensional view of the brain shows areas of gray
matter that are pruned from the brain between adolescence and

adulthood. (Source: Sowell et al., 1999.)
*Rather than simply reacting to emotions such as anger or rage,
an individual with a fully developed prefrontal cortex is able to
inhibit the desire for action that stems from such emotions.
The Immature Brain Argument: Too Young for the Death
Penalty?
Are the brains of adolescents so immature that teenage
offenders should receive less harsh punishment for their crimes
than those with older, and therefore more mature, brains?
What do you think?
*
Yawning of the Age of Adolescence
Sleep DeprivationAdolescents go to bed later and get up earlier
Sleep deprivation takes its tollLower gradesMore
depressedGreater difficulty controlling their moodsGreater risk
for auto accidents
*Older adolescents in particular experience the need to go to
bed later and to sleep later in the morning, and they require nine
hours of sleep each night to feel rested. Because they typically
have early morning classes but don’t feel sleepy until late at

night, they end up getting far less sleep than their bodies crave.
Review and Apply
rapid; pubertyconfusion; self esteemearly; late; gender;
psychologicalnutrition; physicalobesity; eating
*
Review and Apply
anorexia nervosa; bulimia; physical; psychologicalbrain
*
Review and Apply
*
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND SCHOOLING
*
Cognitive Development

ApproachesPiaget
Information processing
Adolescent egocentrism
*
Piagetian PerspectiveFixed sequence of qualitatively different
stages
Fundamentally different than child thinking
Utilized in variety of settings and situations
*Incorporates new, more advanced, and more adaptive form of
reasoningOccurs when biological readiness and increasingly
complex environmental demands create cognitive disequilibrium
Piagetian Stages Related to Youth Development
Formal operations11+ years
Development of abstract and hypothetical reasoning
Development of propositional logic
Cultural differences in use
*

Developmental of Formal Operations
EmergentEarly adolescenceVariable usage depends on
conditions surrounding assessment
EstablishedLate adolescenceConsolidated and integrated into
general approach to reasoning
*
Consequences of Adolescents’ Use of Formal Operations
Ability to reason abstractly, embodied in their use of formal
operations, leads to a change in their everyday
behaviorQuestioning parents and authority figures
Exhibiting greater idealism and impatience with imperfections
Experiencing indecision
Piaget…Pros and Cons
ProsCatalyst for much researchAccounts for many changes
observed during adolescenceHelps explain Developmental
differencesMultidimensionalityMetacognition
ConsFails to proveStage like fashion of cognitionFO is
adolescent cognitive stageFails to account for
variabilityBetween childrenWithin childWithin specific
situations

*
Information Processing Perspectives: Gradual Transformations
in AbilitiesChanges in adolescents’ cognitive abilities are
evidence of gradual transformations in the capacity to take in,
use, and store information
Number of progressive changes occur in the ways people
organize their thinking about the world, develop strategies for
dealing with new situations, sort facts, and achieve advances in
memory capacity and perceptual abilities
Incorporates same techniques to understanding human reasoning
that computer scientists employ in writing programs
*
Changes in Information ProcessingGains during adolescence
help to explain developmental differences in abstract,
multidimensional, and hypothetical thinking
Store of knowledge increases as the amount of material to which
they are exposed grows and their memory capacity enlarges
*

Egocentrism in Thinking: Adolescents’ Self-AbsorptionNew
abilities make adolescents particularly introspective and self-
conscious
These hallmarks of may produce a high degree of egocentrism
Adolescent egocentrism is a state of self-absorption in which
the world is viewed as focused on oneselfImaginary
audiencePersonal fables
*Imaginary audience Belief that one is center of everyone else's
concern and attentionPersonal fables Egocentric belief that
one's experiences are uniqueAssessment methodologyMay be
right about existence of adolescent egocentrism but wrong about
underlying processes
Thinking about Thinking…
Metacognition improves during adolescenceThinks about own
-consciousness
Monitors own learning processes more efficiently
Paces own studying
*

School Performance
*
True or False?
Grades awarded to high school students have shifted upward in
the last decade.
*
TrueThe mean grade point average for college-bound seniors
was 3.3 (out of a scale of 4), compared with 3.1 a decade ago.
More than 40 percent of seniors reported average grades of A+,
A, or A- (College Board, 2005).Independent measures of
achievement, such as SAT scores, have not risen. Consequently,
a more likely explanation for the higher grades is the
phenomenon of grade inflation. According to this view, it is not
that students have changed. Instead, instructors have become
more lenient awarding higher grades for the same
performance.Ask: What consequences does this have
(potentially) for college-bound students?
School Performance
Do higher grades mean smarter students?Independent measures
of achievement, such as SAT scores, have not risen
Consequently, a more likely explanation for the higher grades is

the phenomenon of grade inflation
According to this view, it is not that students have changed, but
grades have been inflated
This is future supported by comparison of U.S. students to those
in other countries
Students Around the World
Figure 11-6 U.S. 15-Year-Old Performance
Compared with Other Countries
When compared to the academic performance of students across
the world, U.S. students perform at below-average levels.
(Source: Based on National Governors Association,
2008.)
*Ask: Why do you think US students performance is lower than
that of students in other parts of the world?Less time spent in
classes and less intensive instruction The broad diversity of the
U.S. school populationDifferences in socioeconomic status
The Lazy Days of Summer
Summer learning lossSocioeconomic differences
RemedySummer enrichment programs
Stealth learning/Not traditional summer school

Socioeconomic Status and School Performance
Individual Differences in AchievementChildren living in
poverty lack many advantages
Later school success builds heavily on basic skills presumably
learned or not learned early in school
*There are several reasons. For one thing, children living in
poverty lack many of the advantages enjoyed by other children.
Their nutrition and health may be less adequate. Often living in
crowded conditions and attending inadequate schools, they may
have few places to do homework. Their homes may lack the
books and computers commonplace in more economically
advantaged households.
Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement
Significant achievement differences between ethnic and racial
groupsOn average, African American and Hispanic students
tend to perform at lower levels, receive lower grades, and score
lower on standardized tests of achievement than Caucasian
students
Asian American students tend to receive higher grades than
Caucasian students
*
What is the source of such ethnic and racial differences in

academic achievement?
*Ask: What do you think?Much of the difference is due to
socioeconomic factors.More African American and Hispanic
families live in poverty so their economic disadvantage may be
reflected in their school performance.Members of certain
minority groups may perceive school success as relatively
unimportant: may believe that societal prejudice in workplace
will dictate that they will not succeed, no matter how much
effort they expend. Attributions effect.Beliefs about the
consequences of not doing well in school. Process of
involuntary immigration apparently leaves lasting scars,
reducing the motivation to succeed in subsequent generations.
Achievement Testing in High School: Will No Child Be Left
Behind?
No Child Left Behind ActPassed by Congress in 2002, requires
that every U.S. state design and administer achievement tests
that students must pass in order to graduate fromhigh
schoolSchools are graded so that the public is aware of
whichschools have the best (and worst) test results
Unintended consequencesTeaching to testApproaches to
teaching designed to foster creativity and critical thinking
discouragedAnxiety level raised in students
Adolescent Media Usage
Kaiser Family Foundation surveyYoung people spend an

average of 6.5 hours a day with mediaAround a quarter of the
time they are using more than one form of medium
simultaneously, they are actually being exposed to the
equivalent of 8.5 hours per daySome teenagers send nearly
30,000 texts a month
See Figure 11-7 for additional information on teenagers, cell
phones, and texting
The Downside of ClickObjectionable material available
Growing problem of Internet gambling
Safety
Digital divide
*Poorer adolescents and members of minority groups have less
access to computers than more affluent adolescents and
members of socially-advantaged groups—a phenomenon known
as the digital divide.
Dropping Out of School
Adolescents leave school for variety of reasonsMales are more
likely to drop out of school than females
Hispanics and African American students still are more likely to
leave high school before graduating than non-Hispanic white
students

Not all minority groups show higher dropout rates: Asians, for
instance, drop out at a lower rate than Caucasians
Poverty plays larger role in higher dropout rate
Review and Apply
formal operations; abstract reasoningquantitative; gradual;
memorymetacognition
*
Review and Apply
egocentrism; imaginary audiencepersonal fablessocioeconomic;
race; ethnicity
*
Review and Apply
*
THREATS TO ADOLESCENTS’ WELL-BEING
*

Adolescent Drug UseOne in 15 high school seniors smokes
marijuana on a daily or near-daily basis
Marijuana usage has increased over the last few years
Daily marijuana use is at a 30-year high for high school seniors
How Common is Illegal Drug Use during Adolescence?
Figure 11-8 Downward Trend
According to an annual survey, the proportion of students
reporting marijuana use over the past 12 months has decreased
since 1999.
What might account for the decline in drug use?
(Source: Johnston et al., 2011.)
Why Do Adolescents Use Drugs?Pleasurable experience
EscapePeer pressureEnhanced academic performance
*
Why Do Adolescents Use Drugs?
Biological and psychological addictionAddictive drugs are
drugs that produce a biological or psychological dependence in
users, leading to increasingly powerful cravings for them.

*Addictive drugs are drugs that produce a biological or
psychological dependence in users, leading to increasingly
in
body becomes so common that body is unable to function in
their absence; causes actual physical—and potentially
lingering—
may provide a “high,” but may be necessary simply to maintain
the perception of everyday normalcy.Psychological
—and potentially
solving— problems that led them to drug use in first place.
Why do adolescents use drugs?Psychological a
adolescents from confronting—and potentially solving—
problems that led them to drug use in first place.Biological
unable to function in their absence; causes actual physical—and
potentially lingering—
no longer may provide a “high,” but may be necessary simply to
maintain the perception of everyday normalcy.
*Addictive drugs are drugs that produce a biological or
psychological dependence in users, leading to increasingly
body becomes so common that body is unable to function in
their absence; causes actual physical—and potentially
lingering—
may provide a “high,” but may be necessary simply to maintain
the perception of everyday normalcy.Psychological

from confronting—and potentially
solving— problems that led them to drug use in first place.
Alcohol: Use and Abuse
Figure 11-9 Binge Drinking Among College Students
For men, binge drinking is defined as consuming
five or more drinks in one sitting; for women, the total is four
or more.
Why is binge drinking
popular?
(Source: Wechsler et al., 2003.)
*
Binge Drinking Effects on Brain
Binge drinking affects certain areas of the white matter of the
brain, as shown in this scan.
(Source: McQueeny et al., 2009, Figure 2)
Binge drinking affects even those who don’t drink or drink very
little. Two-thirds of lighter drinkers reported that they had been
disturbed by drunken students while sleeping or studying.
Around a third had been insulted or humiliated by a drunken
student, and 25 percent of women said they had been the target
of an unwanted sexual advance by a drunk classmate.
*

Why do adolescents start to drink? Genetics
Way of proving themselves
Release of inhibitions and tension and reduction of stress
False consensus effect
*
From Activity to Addiction
Adolescent alcoholicsAlcohol use becomes uncontrollable habit
Increasing ability to tolerate alcohol
Increasing need to drink ever-larger amounts of liquor to bring
about positive effects craved
*Alcoholics, those with alcohol problems, learn to depend on
alcohol and are unable to control their drinking.Reasons for
addiction not understood.Genetics StressEnvironment
Hooked on Drugs or Alcohol?
SignalsIdentification with the drug culture
Signs of physical deterioration

Dramatic changes in school performance
Changes in behavior
(Adapted from Franck & Brownstone, 1991, p. 593–594)
*Identification with the drug culture
Drug-related magazines or slogans on clothing
Conversation and jokes that are preoccupied with drugs
Hostility discussing drugs
Collection of beer cansSigns of physical deterioration
Memory lapses, short attention span, difficulty concentrating
Poor physical coordination, slurred or incoherent speech
Unhealthy appearance, indifference to hygiene and grooming
Bloodshot eyes, dilated pupilsDramatic changes in school
performance
Marked downturn in grades—not just from C's to F's, but from
A's to B's and C's; assignments not completed
Increased absenteeism or tardinessChanges in behavior
Chronic dishonesty (lying, stealing, cheating); trouble with the
police
Changes in friends; evasiveness in talking about new ones
Possession of large amounts of money
Increasing and inappropriate anger, hostility, irritability,
secretiveness
Reduced motivation, energy, self-discipline, self-esteem
Diminished interest in extracurricular activities and hobbies
(Adapted from Franck & Brownstone, 1991, p. 593–
594.)National Institute on Drug Abuse at (800) 662-4357 or
website at www.nida.nih.gov.
Tobacco: The Dangers of SmokingIncidence

DifferencesGenderInternationalRacial
*Most adolescents are well aware of the dangers of smoking,
but many still indulge in it. Overall, smaller proportion of
adolescents smoke than in prior decades, but numbers remain
substantial.Within certain groups numbers are increasing.
Smoking is on the rise among girls, and in several countries,
including Austria, Norway, and Sweden, the proportion of girls
who smoke is higher than the proportion of boys. There are
racial differences.White children and children in lower
socioeconomic status households are more likely to experiment
with cigarettes and to start smoking earlier than African
American children and children living in higher socioeconomic
status households.Significantly more white males of high school
age smoke than do African American males in high school,
although the differences have narrowed in recent years.
Why do adolescents begin to smoke and maintain the habit?
Advertisements in the media
Addiction
Parent and peer models
Adolescent rite of passage
*

Selling Death: Pushing Smoking to the Less
AdvantagedTobacco companies carve out new markets by
turning to least advantaged
Tobacco companies aggressively recruit adolescent smokers
abroad
*According to the World Health Organization, smoking will
prematurely kill some 200 million of the world's children and
adolescents, and overall, 10 percent of the world's population
will die because of smoking.
Sexually Transmitted Infections
AIDSLeading cause of death among young women worldwide
Already, over 25 million people have died from AIDS
worldwide, and people living with the disease number 34
million worldwide
African Americans and Hispanics account for 70 percent of new
AIDS cases, African American males have almost 8 times the
prevalence of AIDS as white males
*
AIDS Around the World
The number of people carrying the AIDS virus varies
substantially by geographic region. By far the most cases
(Source: UNAIDS & World Health Organization, 2009.)

Other Sexually Transmitted Infections
*The most common STI is human papilloma virus (HPV). HPV
can be transmitted through genital contact without intercourse.
Most infections do not have symptoms, but HPV can produce
genital warts and in some cases lead to cervical cancer. A
vaccine that protects against some kinds of HPV is now
available. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
recommends it be routinely administered to girls 11 to 12 years
of age—a recommendation that has provoked considerable
political reaction (Friedman et al., 2006; Kahn, 2007). Another
common STI is trichomoniasis, an infection in the vagina or
penis, which is caused by a parasite. Initially without
symptoms, it can eventually cause a painful discharge.
Chlamydia, a bacterial infection, initially has few symptoms,
but later it causes burning urination and a discharge from the
penis or vagina. It can lead to pelvic inflammation and even to
sterility. Chlamydial infections can be treated successfully with
antibiotics (Nockels & Oakshott, 1999; Favers et al.,
2003).Genital herpes is a virus not unlike the cold sores that
sometimes appear around the mouth. The first symptoms of
herpes are often small blisters or sores around the genitals,
which may break open and become quite painful. Although the
sores may heal after a few weeks, the infection often recurs
after an interval, and the cycle repeats itself. When the sores
reappear, the infection, for which there is no cure, is
contagious.Gonorrhea and syphilis are the STIs that have been
recognized for the longest time; cases were recorded by ancient
historians. Until the advent of antibiotics, both infections were
deadly. However, today both can be treated quite effectively.
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) Among Adolescents
Why are adolescents in particular in danger of contracting an

STI? (Sources: Alan Guttmacher Institute, 2004; Weinstock,
Berman, & Cates, 2006.)
Avoiding STIS
Review and Apply
pleasure; pressure; approvalalcohol; inhibitionssmoking
*
Review and Apply
AIDSsexual abstinence; ignorechlamydia; genital herpes;
trichomoniasis; gonorrhea; syphilis
*
Review and Apply
*
EPILOGUE
Before turning to the next chapter, return for the moment to the
opening prologue of this chapter, about Beth and Bryce
Chadwick's the following questions about Peter. Is Beth

Chadwick right to be worried about the changes she sees in her
son Peter?
Is Peter Chadwick's withdrawal from his family normal for a
boy his age? Why might he be spending so much time in his
room with the door closed?
What other changes might be occurring to Peter apart from the
behavioral and personality changes mentioned by his parents?
*
EPILOGUEWhat factors might be influencing Peter's declining
school performance?
What advice would you give Peter's parents to deal with the
changes they see in Peter?
*
ASSIGNMENT 5 (CHAPTERS 14-15) QUESTIONS
Name:
Sarah Tawfik MTMAIL Address:
[email protected]
Type accurate, detailed, and explanatory answers in the spaces
below. Email them in Word document to [email protected] (Do
not use D2L). Feel free to email me or call me at 615-292-3030
or 615-585-5353 (leave message if no answer; do not text) if
you have any questions.

Chapter 14 (Sales and Lease Contracts)
1. What does UCC Article 2 cover?
Article 2 of the UCC sets forth the requirements for the sales
contracts, or contracts for the sale of goods, as well as the
duties and obligations of the parties involved in the sales
contract. Article 2 modifies some of the common law contract
requirements. Article 2 deals with the sale of goods, not real
property (real estate), services, stocks, or bonds.
2. Who is considered a Merchant under the UCC?
A merchant is considered a person who, by occupation, holds
themselves out as having knowledge and skill unique to the
practices or goods involved in the transaction. It also may
include banks or universities. A person is a merchant when
they, acting in a mercantile capacity, possess or use an expertise
specifically related to the goods being sold. State courts
sometimes split on whether farmers should be considered
merchants.
3. What is considered a sale under the UCC?
The UCC defines a sale as “the passing of title (evidence of
ownership rights) from the seller to the buyer by a price set by
the seller. The price may be payable in cash or in other goods or
services.
4. What is considered a lease under the UCC?

A lease is a transfer of the right to possess and use goods for a
period of time in exchange for payment. Article 2A covers any
transaction that creates a lease of goods or a sublease of goods.
Article 2A applies to the leases of goods rather than sales of
goods, thus reflect differences between sales and lease
transactions. Leases of personal property have become
increasingly common (goods such as automobiles and industrial
equipment).
5. Does the UCC Article 2 apply to shares of stock?
Article 2 only deals with the sale of goods. It does not apply to
shares of stock or bonds.
6. Under the UCC, is the payment term in a contract fully
enforceable?
An agreement to modify a sales or lease contract without
consideration must be in writing form to be enforceable.
Sometimes, when a consumer is buying goods from a merchant-
seller, the merchant supplies a form that contains a prohibition
against oral modification. In this situation, the consumer must
sign a separate acknowledgment of the clause for it to be
enforceable.
7. If A orders items from B which delivers those items to A, is
this considered a sale of goods?

8. What will a court generally presume in case of a dispute if
some terms in a deal are left open?
9. Recognize an example of an offer that is irrevocable for a
stated period of time?
A used car dealer emails a letter to Fernando on January 1,
stating, “I have a used Toyota RAV4 on the lot that I will sell to
you for $22,000 anytime between now and January 31.” This
email creates a firm offer, which is a written offer that the offer
will remain open. The car dealer will be liable for breach of
contract if he sells that car to another person before January 31.
This is because the merchant’s firm offer is irrevocable without
the necessity of consideration for the stated period of time.
10. Recognize some examples of when identification has taken
place under the UCC.
11. Are the concepts of identification and risk of loss the main
criteria for determining the rights and liabilities of the parties
to a contract where the items are destroyed before they can be
delivered?
There are three concepts to determine the rights and liabilities
of the parties to a contract where the items are destroyed before

they are delivered. Those concepts include identification, risk
of loss, and insurable interest. These three concepts have
replaced the concept of title. The title concept made it difficult
to determine when title actually passed from the seller to the
buyer, and it was also difficult to predict how a court would
decide which party had the title at the time of a loss. This is
why the three concepts were created.
12. When does title to goods generally pass from seller to
buyer?
Title and risk of loss cannot pass to the buyer from the seller
unless the goods are identified to the contract. Once goods exist
and are identified, the provisions of UCC 2-401, the buyer and
seller can reach an explicit agreement as to when title will pass
(“unless otherwise explicitly agreed”). Without an explicit
agreement, title passes to the buyer at the time and place the
seller performs by delivering the goods.
13. What generally determines when risk or loss passes from
seller to buyer?
At the various stages of a sale or lease transaction, the question
arises as to who bears the risk of loss, or who suffers the
financial loss if the goods are damaged, destroyed, or lost in
transit. Under the UCC, the risk of loss does not necessarily
pass with title. When risk of loss passes from a seller to a buyer
is generally determined by the contract between the parties.
14. What is a shipment contract?
In a shipment contract, the seller or lessor is required or

authorized to ship goods by carrier, but is not required to
deliver them to a particular destination. The risk of loss in a
shipment contract passes to the buyer or lessee when the goods
are delivered to the carrier.
15. Does the seller or buyer generally suffer the loss when
goods in transit (being shipped from seller to buyer) are
destroyed or ruined?
Depending on the circumstances, the seller or the buyer may be
responsible for the value of damaged goods. If there is no
contract involved in the sale of goods, a civil court judge may
determine who is responsible for the damaged goods if a lawsuit
is filed. Generally, a sale of goods involves a sal e of goods
contract, and the terms of the contract usually explain who is
responsible for the value of the damages goods. The seller is
usually responsible in the beginning of the transaction. This is
because only the seller has been in possession of the goods. The
responsibility for the goods will pass to the buyer after the
seller has successfully delivered the goods directly to the buyer.
16. Does the seller or buyer pay the cost of transport when the
seller arranges with the buyer to transport goods as “F.O.B.”
(from the seller’s location)?
17. What is an insurable interest?
Insurable interest is when parties to sales and lease contracts

obtain insurance coverage to protect against damage, loss, or
destruction of the goods. Any party purchasing insurance must
have sufficient interest in the insured item to obtain a valid
policy
18. If A agrees to sell goods to B under a shipment contract,
must A place the goods into the hands of a carrier?
19. For the seller to exercise its right to cure a faulty shipment
received by the buyer, how soon must the seller notify the buyer
of its intent to cure?
20. What are the options for a buyer who is notified by the
seller that delivery of goods will be delayed longer than the
terms in the contract?
21. What can a seller do when the buyer refuses delivery of
goods it bought and cancels the contract?

22. What is the measure of damages for a seller who delivers
goods to a buyer but then the buyer does not pay for them?
23. What is the measure of damages for a buyer when the seller
fails to deliver goods as contracted?
24. Under most circumstances, is a seller presumed to have
warranted its title as good and valid to goods it sold to a buyer?
25. What is an implied warranty of merchantability?
An implied warranty is one that the law derives by inference
from the nature of the transaction or the relative situations or
circumstances of the parties. An implied warranty of
merchantability is when every sale or lease of goods made by a
merchant who deals in goods of the kind sold or leased
automatically gives rise to an implied warranty of
merchantability. A merchant who is in the business of selling
ski equipment makes an implied warranty of merchantability

every time he sells a pair of skis. A neighbor selling her skis at
a garage sale, does not. To be merchantable, goods must be
reasonably fit for the ordinary purposes for which goods are
used.
Chapter 15 (Creditor-Debtor Relations and Bankruptcy)
26. What is meant by pledging collateral to get a loan?
Collateral in this sense means a specific property such as a car
or house pledged by a borrower to ensure payment. This means
those assets are being used to secure a loan. The collateral is
pledged when the loan contract is signed and serves as
protection for the lender. The pledging of collateral by a
financial institution is necessary to protect the federal
government against risk of loss.
27. What is a writ of execution?
A writ of execution is when a creditor wins a judgement against
a debtor and the debtor will not or cannot pay the amount due.
The writ of execution is what the creditor can request from the
court. It is an order that directs the sheriff to seize and sell any
of the debtor’s nonexempt real or personal property. The writ
applies only to property that is within the court’s geographic
jurisdiction. The proceeds of the sale are used to pay the
judgement.
28. Is A discharged from an agreement after he co-signs B’s
credit application and B then agrees to a higher rate of interest
without telling A?

29. What would require a president’s personal guaranty to pay a
loan for her business be in writing if the business defaults on
the loan?
30. Why should a lender record a mortgage that it has given a
loan on?
31. What does the Statute of Frauds require for a mortgage
involving the transfer of real property or real estate?
32. What would give a lender the right to foreclose on a
mortgage for which it has lent money?
33. Can the homestead exemption sometimes operate to cancel
out a portion of a lien on a debtor’s real property?

34. Under any chapter of the Bankruptcy Code, what can failing
to file the necessary documents with the debtor’s petition for
relief result in?
35. What must a voluntary petition in bankruptcy include?
36. Under the Bankruptcy Code, what is the means test used
for?
37. What is a court likely to do if it finds the use of Chapter 7
would constitute substantial abuse?
38. If a voluntary petition in bankruptcy is found to be proper,
would the court’s entry of an order for relief put an automatic
stay into place?

39. Under Chapter 7, what may happen to a debtor who fails to
appear at the creditors’ meeting when required?
40. For what is a bankruptcy trustee accountable?
41. Under Chapter 7, what is the highest priority class for
payment of claims?
42. Under Chapter 7, what happens to the debtor’s remaining
debts once the proceeds of the bankruptcy have been
distributed?
43. What is a Chapter 11 reorganization?
44. What is the primary effect of a discharge under Chapter 7?

45. Under Chapter 11, what two parties must approve a plan to
conserve and administer the debtor’s assets?
46. Under Chapter 11, what debtor’s obligations are most likely
to be discharged?
47. Does a Chapter 13 plan allow a debtor to retain possession
of his or her assets?
48. Under Chapter 13, must a repayment plan provide for the
same treatment of each claim within a particular class of claim?
49. Does Chapter 13 impose on the debtor the requirement of
good faith at the time of the filing of the petition and the time
of the filing of the plan?

50. Under Chapter 13, after the completion of all payments
under the plan, which debts will the court grant a discharge of?
SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN
ADOLESCENCE
CHAPTER 12
*
Learning Objectives
our study of adolescence.
IDENTITY:
ASKING “WHO AM I?”

*
Identity: Asking "Who Am I?" Self consciousness takes center
stage
WHY?More like adults intellectuallyMore like adults physically
*
Teens begin to become more like adults intellectually. Realize
the importance of establishing self in society, and shaping their
individuality.Teens become more like adults
physically.Dramatic changes during puberty make teens acutely
aware of their own bodies.This broader view of themselves is
one aspect of adolescents’ increasing understanding of who they
are. They can see various aspects of the self simultaneously,
and this view of the self becomes more organized and coherent.
They look at the self from a psychological perspective, viewing
traits not as concrete entities but as abstractions.
Self Concept: What Am I Like?
View broadens One's own assessment of who they are Others'
views
More organized and coherent View self in terms of traits and
multiple aspects
*Self concept broadens during adolescence to include both one's
own assessment of who they are and also includes others' views.
The view of self becomes more organized and coherent.

Adolescents can look at themselves in terms of traits and can
see multiple aspects of themselves (which can be confusing at
first).
Self-esteem: How Do I Like Myself?
Knowing who you are and liking who you are two different
thingsAlthough adolescents increasingly accurate in
understanding who they are, this knowledge does not guarantee
that they like themselves any better
Increasingly accurate in understanding self
Influenced by gender and SES
*During adolescence, teens become increasingly accurate in
understanding who they are (they develop their self
concept).Gender - especially in early adolescence, girls have
lower self-esteem.SES - higher SES leads to more self-esteem
(especially in late adolescence when one can buy things of
value). The increase in self-concept does not mean that they like
themselves any better (self esteem may still be low).The same
cognitive sophistication that allows adolescents to differentiate
various aspects of the self also leads them to evaluate those
aspects in different ways (Chan, 1997; Cohen, J., 1999). For
instance, an adolescent may have high self-esteem in terms of
academic performance, but lower self-esteem in terms of
relationships with others. Or it may be just the opposite.
Identity Formation: Change or Crisis?

*
Identity Formation: Crisis or Change?
Identity-Versus-Identity Confusion StageIdentity = appropriate
identity that sets foundation for future psychosocial
development
Confusion = sense of self is "diffuse“ with adoption of socially
unacceptable roles
*Erik Erikson asserted that adolescents may encounter
substantial psychological difficulties in their search for identity
(“the adolescent identity crisis”).Erikson's stage is IDENTITY-
VERSUS-IDENTITY-CONFUSION STAGE, where adolescents
seek to determine what is unique and distinctive about
themselves.Those who do not find a suitable identity, tend to
follow a dysfunctional path because their sense of self is
"diffuse". There are a lot of social pressures to achieve a secure
identity (or at least have clear career or major goals). Which job
track to follow?Attend college? Which one?Now, adolescents
rely more on friends and peers than adults.
Erikson's Stages
*

Societal Pressures and Reliance on Friends and Peers
Societal pressures high during identity versus identity confusion
stage Difficult choices about future plans
Gender differences
*Reliance on peers to help adolescents define their identities
and learn to form relationships is the link between this stage of
psychosocial development and the next stage Erikson proposed,
known as intimacy versus isolation. Males are more likely to
proceed through the social development stages in the order,
developing stable identity before committing to an intimate
relationship with another person. Females reverse order, seeking
intimate relationships and then defining their identities through
these relationships. Findings tied to historical setting in which
data were collected.
Erikson: Identity versus Confusion
Psychological moratoriumExperimentation periodProbably no
lasting, negative psychological affects
Some benefits
*Erikson suggests that adolescents pursue a psychological
moratorium to let go of responsibilities for awhile and explore
new roles and possibilities. For many, this experimentation
period is an economic impossibility. Probably no lasting,
negative psychological affects.Some benefits (satisfaction from
working, independence, etc.).

Limitations of Erikson's Theory Male identity development used
as standard against which to compare female identity
*Erikson saw males as developing intimacy only after they have
achieved a stable identity, which is viewed as the normative
pattern. To critics, Erikson's view is based on male-oriented
concepts of individuality and competitiveness.Carol Gilligan
has suggested that women develop identity through the
establishment of relationships. In this view, a key component of
a woman's identity is the building of caring networks between
herself and others.
Marcia's Approach to Identity Development: Updating Erikson
*
Marcia's Approach to Identity Development
*
James Marcia suggests four categories within which either: A
crisis (a period of identity development in which an adolescent
consciously chooses between various alternatives and makes
decisions) or A commitment (a psychological investment in a
course of action or an ideology), takes place.
1) IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT - where adolescents consider

and explore various alternatives without commitment.
2) IDENTITY FORECLOSURE - adolescents here did not do
adequate personal exploration but made a commitment (usually
following others' directives).
3) IDENTITY DIFFUSION - adolescents explore various
options but never commit to one.
4) MORATORIUM - adolescents explore and do not commit to
an option and that creates anxiety and conflict. An identity is
usually defined later, after a struggle.
Religion and SpiritualityQuestions of religion and spirituality
begin to be asked during adolescence
Increasing cognitive abilities facilitate more abstract thinking
about religious matters
Adolescents begin to develop core set of beliefs and values
*
Religion and Spirituality
Fowler's stages of understanding and practice of faith and
spiritualityChildhoodFairly literal view of God and biblical
figuresAdolescenceIndividuative-reflective stage of faith with
possible multiple views of GodAdulthoodConjunctive stage
which includes broad, inclusive view of religion and humanity

*
Identity, Race and EthnicityCultural assimilation model
Pluralistic society model
Bicultural identity
*Forming an identity presents a particular challenge for
members of ethnic and racial backgrounds because of
contradictory societal values.Society should be color blind, race
and ethnic background should not affect opportunity or
achievement.Cultural assimilation model holds that individual
cultural identities should be assimilated into a unified culture
(“melting pot model”). Racial and ethnic factors should be a
central part of teenagers’ identities.Pluralistic society model
suggests that the U.S. society is made up of diverse, coequal
cultural groups that should preserve their individual cultural
features (“tossed salad model”). Research suggests that the
cultural assimilation model denigrates the cultural heritage of
minorities and lowers self esteem.Bicultural identity suggests
that adolescents can draw from their own culture and integrate
themselves into the dominant culture (“the middle ground
model”). Suggests that the teen live as a member of two
cultures, and have two cultural identities without having to
choose one.
Bicultural Identity in the US

Figure 12-1 Bicultural Identity in the United States
The number of Americans who identified themselves as
belonging to more than one race grew substantially between
2000 and 2010. Almost 10 percent report belonging to three or
more races.
(Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2011.)
*
Psychological Difficulties in Adolescence
*More than one-quarter of adolescents report periods of feeling
sad and hopeless for two or more weeks in a row.But only a
small number (3 percent) experience a major depression, a full -
blown psychological disorder in which depression is severe and
lingers for long periods.Depression has several causes,
including biological, environmental, and social factors. Genetic
predispositionDeath of loved oneDepressed
parentUnpopularFew close friendsExperiencing rejectionGi rls
have higher incidences of depression than boys but the cause is
not clear. Are there more stresses on the female gender role? Is
this the results of girls' tendencies to react to stress by turning
inward, thus experiencing helplessness and hopelessness? Little
evidence that hormones are a factor.African-Americans and
Native Americans also have higher depression rates (same
suspected reasons as for girls). Not all research supports this
conclusion.

Gender Differences in DepressionHigher incidence among girls
than boys
Stress more pronounced for girls due to many, sometimes
conflicting demands of traditional female gender role
*Stress coping may be different for females.
Adolescent Suicide
RateTriples in last 30 yearsOne teen suicide every 90 mi nutes;
12.2 suicides per 100,000 adolescentsCluster suicide
GenderSuccess higher in boys; attempts higher in girls
*
What contributes most to the increased suicide rate among US
adolescents today?
*The most obvious explanation is that the stress experienced by
teenagers has increased, leading those who are most vulnerable
to be more likely to commit suicide.Increase in depression.
Depressed teenagers who are experiencing a profound sense of
hopelessness are at greater risk of committing suicide.Social
inhibition, perfectionism, and a high level of stress and anxiety

are related to a greater risk of suicide. Easy availability of
guns—which are more prevalent in the U.S. than in other
industrialized nations—also contributes to the suicide rate.Some
cases of suicide are associated with family conflicts and
relationship or school difficulties. Some stem from a history of
abuse and neglect. Rate of suicide among drug and alcohol
abusers is also relatively high.
Adolescent Difficulties
Family, peer relationships, and self-esteem problems were most
often mentioned by adolescents contemplating
suicide, according to a review of phone calls to a telephone help
line.
(Source: Based on Boehm & Campbell, 1995.)
*
Warning Signs
*Direct or indirect talk I wish I were dead.”“Don't worry, I’ll be
out of your hair soon.”School difficulties Missed classes, drop

in gradesWriting a willChanges in eating habitsGeneral
depression Sleep habits, lack of energy,
uncommunicativeDramatic behavior changesPreoccupation with
deathArt, music, conversation
How Can You Help?Take 5 minutes to brainstorm about ways
you might help a friend you believe is at risk for suicide.
Find a class partner/group to share your ideas.
Identify the top three suggestions in your group.
Share your suggestions with the class.
*
Adolescent Suicide: How to HelpListen without judging
Talk specifically about suicidal thoughts
Evaluate the situation, trying to distinguish between general
upset and more serious danger
Be supportive, let the person know you care
Take charge of finding help
*Talk to the person, listen without judging, and give the person
an understanding forum in which to try to talk things

through.Talk specifically about suicidal thoughts, asking such
questions as: Does the person have a plan? Has he or she bought
a gun? Where is it? Has he or she stockpiled pills? Where are
they? The Public Health Service notes that, “contrary to popular
belief, such candor will not give a person dangerous ideas or
encourage a suicidal act.”Evaluate the situation, trying to
distinguish between general upset and more serious danger, as
when suicide plans have been made. If the crisis is acute, do not
leave the person alone.Be supportive, let the person know you
care, and try to break down his or her feelings of isolation.Take
charge of finding help, without concern about invading the
person's privacy. Do not try to handle the problem alone; get
professional help immediately.Make the environment safe,
removing from the premises (not just hiding) weapons such as
guns, razors, scissors, medication, and other potentially
dangerous household items.Do not keep suicide talk or threats
secret; these are calls for help and call for immediate action.Do
not challenge, dare, or use verbal shock treatment on the person
in an effort to make them realize the errors in their thinking.
These can have tragic effects.Make a contract with the person,
getting a promise or commitment, preferably in writing, not to
make any suicidal attempt until you have talked further.Don't be
overly reassured by a sudden improvement of mood. Such
seemingly quick recoveries sometimes reflect the relief of
finally deciding to commit suicide or the temporary release of
talking to someone, but most likely the underlying problems
have not been resolved.
Adolescent Suicide: How to HelpMake the environment safe
Do not keep suicide talk or threats secret
Do not challenge, dare, or use verbal shock treatment

Make a contract with the person
Don't be overly reassured by a sudden improvement of mood
*Talk to the person, listen without judging, and give the person
an understanding forum in which to try to talk things
through.Talk specifically about suicidal thoughts, asking such
questions as: Does the person have a plan? Has he or she bought
a gun? Where is it? Has he or she stockpiled pills? Where are
they? The Public Health Service notes that, “contrary to popular
belief, such candor will not give a person dangerous ideas or
encourage a suicidal act.”Evaluate the situation, trying to
distinguish between general upset and more serious danger, as
when suicide plans have been made. If the crisis is acute, do not
leave the person alone.Be supportive, let the person know you
care, and try to break down his or her feelings of isolation.Take
charge of finding help, without concern about invading the
person's privacy. Do not try to handle the problem alone; get
professional help immediately.Make the environment safe,
removing from the premises (not just hiding) weapons such as
guns, razors, scissors, medication, and other potentially
dangerous household items.Do not keep suicide talk or threats
secret; these are calls for help and call for immediate action.Do
not challenge, dare, or use verbal shock treatment on the person
in an effort to make them realize the errors in their thinking.
These can have tragic effects.Make a contract with the person,
getting a promise or commitment, preferably in writing, not to
make any suicidal attempt until you have talked further.Don't be
overly reassured by a sudden improvement of mood. Such
seemingly quick recoveries sometimes reflect the relief of
finally deciding to commit suicide or the temporary release of
talking to someone, but most likely the underlying problems
have not been resolved.

For immediate help with a suicide-related problem, call:
(800) 784-2433
or
(800) 621-4000,
national hotlines staffed with trained counselors
*
Review and Apply
differentiated; organized; abstract; othersvalues; aspectsidentity
versus identity confusion; role
*
Review and Apply
depressionsuicide
*

Review and Apply
*
RELATIONSHIPS: FAMILY AND FRIENDS
*
Family Ties: Changing Relations with RelationsParental views
questioned
Role shifts
Cultural factors
*Family relationships change during when adolescents begin to
question, and sometimes rebel, against their parents' views.
Shift in roles because of the quest for adulthood and autonomy
by people that were considered children until recently.Cultural
factors play a rule in the degree of autonomy achieved by
adolescents and the degree in which adolescents feel obligated
to family duties and support.
The Quest for Autonomy

Adolescents increasingly seek autonomy, independence and a
sense of controlPrimary developmental task
Grows gradually over course of adolescence
Consists of changes in relational symmetry
*At the start of adolescence, the relationship tends to be
asymmetrical: Parents hold most of the power and influence
over the relationship. By the end of adolescence, however,
power and influence have become more balanced, and parents
and children end up in a more symmetrical, or egalitarian,
relationship. Power and influence are shared, although parents
typically retain the upper hand.
Changing View of Parents
As adolescents become older, they come to perceive their
parents in
less idealized terms and more as individuals. What effect is this
likely to have on family relations?
(Source: Based on Steinberg & Silverberg, 1986.)
*
Culture and Autonomy Cultural and gender factors play an
important roleWestern societiesAsian societies
Adolescents from different cultural backgrounds also vary in
degree of felt family obligation

In general, male adolescents are permitted more autonomy at
earlier age than female adolescents
*Degree of autonomy that is eventually achieved varies from
one family and one child to the next. Cultural factors play an
important role. In Western societies, which tend to value
individualism, adolescents seek autonomy at a relatively early
stage of adolescence.Asian societies are collectivistic; they
promote the idea that the well-being of the group is more
important than that of the individual. In such societies,
adolescents’ aspirations to achieve autonomy are less
pronounced.
Family Obligations
Adolescents from Asian and Latin American groups feel a
greater sense of respect and obligation toward their families
than those adolescents with European backgrounds.
(Source: Fulgini, Tseng, & Lam, 1999.)
The Myth of the Generation Gap
Generation gapSocial, political, and religious issues
Dress, music, friends
Difference in values and attitudes between teens is greater than
the difference between parent and teen
*The GENERATION GAP, a divide between parents and

adolescents in attitudes, values, aspirations, and worldviews, is
mostly a myth: adolescents and their parents tend to share the
same major values. On social, political, and religious issues,
parents and teens are mostly in synch.The difference in values
and attitudes between teens is greater than the difference
between parent and teen.Most parents and teens get along well.
What's the Problem?
Parents are most likely to agree with their adolescents’ views of
society's ills. Source: Based on PRIMEDIA/Roper National
Youth Survey, 1999.)
*
Conflicts with ParentsPrimary issues
Cultural differences
What do you think the main issues are?
*Conflicts likely to arise during early adolescence.Parents
trying to discern what is appropriate conduct, children more
likely to be argumentative and assertive.As parents trust more,
combativeness declines.Most teenagers have stable family
relationships, but as many as 20 percent have a rough time.Less
conflict in “traditional,” unindustrialized countries than in
developed countries.Adolescents expect more independence and
individualism in industrialized cultures.In more traditional
societies, individualism, and thus independence, not as highly

valued.
Time Spent by Adolescents with Parents
Despite their quest for autonomy and independence, most
adolescents have deep love, affection, and respect for their
parents, and the amount of time they spend alone with each
parent (the lower two segments) remains remarkably stable
across adolescence. (Source: Larson et al., 1996.)
*
Relationships with Peers:
The Importance of Belonging
Peer relationshipsCritical during adolescence
Provide opportunity for social comparison and information
Reference groups
*Peer relationships are more critical to adolescents than any
other time of life. Peers provide an opportunity for social
comparison and information. REFERENCE GROUP, a group of
people with whom one compares oneself. Reference groups
present a set of norms or standards, against which adolescents
judge their social success.

Cliques and Crowds: Belonging to a Group Cliques
Crowds
Sex cleavage
*CLIQUES are 2 to 12 people who have frequent
interaction.CROWDS are larger groups where people share
some characteristic but often don't interact with each other.
Membership in cliques and crowds determined by degree of
similarity with members in a group.Stereotypes: jocks, brains,
druggiesThere are strong expectations that people in a particular
crowd behave in specific ways. (Is it a self-fulfilling prophesy?)
Gender relations change during the period of adolescence. SEX
CLEAVAGE is characteristic of early adolescence where girls
play with girls, boys with boys. With puberty, there is hormonal
and social pressure to interact and eventually most adolescents
are in mixed-sex cliques. At the end of adolescence, cliques
become less powerful and male-female relationships become the
focus.
Race Segregation:
The Great Divide of Adolescence
Adolescents of different ethnicities and races
interact very little
Adolescents who interact regularly and extensively with those
of different races earlier in their lives are more likely to have
friends of different races

Schools that actively promote contact among members of
different ethnicities in classes help create an environment in
which cross-race friendships can flourish
More generally, cross-group friendships promote more positive
intergroup attitudes
*Even when they attend desegregated schools with significant
ethnic and racial diversity, people of different ethnicities and
races interact very little. Moreover, even if they have a friend
of a different ethnicity within the confines of a school, most
adolescents don't interact with that friend outside of school
Why does racial and ethnic segregation often exist, even in
schools that have been desegregated for some time?
*Ask: Why do you think this occurs?Minority students may
actively seek support from others who share their minority
status (where “minority” is used in its sociological sense to
indicate a subordinate group whose members lack power,
compared to members of a dominant group). By associating
primarily with other members of their own group, members of
minority groups they are able to affirm their own
identity.Members of different racial and ethnic groups may be
segregated in the classroom.Because members of groups that
have been historically discriminated against, they tend to
experience less school success than members of the majority
group. It may be that ethnic and racial segregation in high
school is based not on ethnicity itself, but on academic
achievement.Lack of contact among students of different racial

and ethnic backgrounds in school may also reflect prejudice,
both perceived and real, toward members of other group.
Popularity and Rejection
Adolescent social world is complexHigh status categories
Low status categories
*High status categoriesPopular adolescents, who are most
liked.Controversial adolescents, who are like by some and
disliked by others.Low status categoriesRejected teens, who are
uniformly disliked.Neglected teens adolescents, who are neither
liked nor disliked.
The Social World of AdolescenceAn adolescent's popularity can
fall into one of four categories, depending on the opinions of
his or her peersPopularity is related to differences in status,
behavior and adjustment
*Some adolescents are controversial; in contrast to popular
adolescents, who are mostly liked, controversial adolescents are
liked by some and disliked by others. A controversial
adolescent may be highly popular within a particular group such
as the string orchestra, but not popular among other classmates.
There are rejected adolescents, who are uniformly disliked, and
neglected adolescents, who are neither liked nor disliked.
Neglected adolescents are the forgotten students —the ones
whose status is so low that they are overlooked by almost
everyone.

What determines status in high school?
*Say: Look at the Table. Did these results surprise you? Why?
Why not?
Conformity: Peer Pressure in Adolescence
Susceptibility and conformityFew empirical studies
Gender differences
Kinds of peer pressure
*Some teens are highly susceptible to peer pressure, the
influence of one's peers to conform to their behavior and
attitudes.Susceptibility to peer pressure does not rise in
adolescence; in fact conformity decreases as adolescents
increase their own autonomy.Ultimately, adolescents conform
less to both peers as adults, as they grow in confidence in the
ability to make their own decisions.If teens do not resist the
urge to conform to peers, they will likely get into trouble.
Although people assume that peer pressure is an influential
component of adolescent development, few empirical studies
have investigated the nature and extent of its influence. Using
retrospective accounts from 297 college undergraduates, the
present study assessed how much pressure peers exerted in
numerous areas of high school life and how this pressure
influenced teenagers' attitudes and behaviors. One-third of both

genders identified peer pressure as one of the hardest things
they had to face as a teenager. Generally, however, peer
pressure appeared stronger for females than males, and the
genders disagreed about the areas in which pressure was
strongest. Perceptions of peer pressure were significantly
associated with dating attitudes, sexual activity, and use of
drugs and alcohol, but not with relationships with parents. The
findings suggested that adolescents may be their own worst
enemy in any attempt to break away from gender-stereotypic
attitudes and behavior.BB Brown
Juvenile Delinquency:
Crimes of Adolescence
*
Who are they?Undersocialized delinquents
Socialized delinquents
*Overall violent crimes by juveniles decreasing, but 16 percent
of arrests for serious crimes involved juveniles.Why do teens
become involved in criminal activity?UNDERSOCIALIZED
DELINQUENTS are raised with little parental supervision or
discipline: they have not been appropriately socialized. They

tend to be relatively aggressive and violent early in life;
rejected by peers; likely to have ADHD; and are usually less
intelligent than average. They are relatively unlikely to be
rehabilitated.SOCIALIZED DELINQUENTS are adolescent
delinquents who know and subscribe to the norms of society,
and who are fairly normal psychologically. They are usually
influenced by a group & their criminal behavior is usually
committed with a group. Crimes by this group tend to be minor.
R U Friends 4 Real?: Are Digital Communications Changing
Teenagers’ Friendships?
Adolescents are missing out on the kinds of connections that
help them to learn social cues, nuanced emotional expressions,
and nonverbal communication such as body language and facial
expressionsAdolescents’ mode of communication is rapidly
changingCommunication is less personal, and emotion and other
nuances of conversations are more difficult to convey
Pew Research CenterText messaging has overtaken every other
form of interaction between teenagersSocial networking rivals
face-to-face conversations in popularitySexting
Review and Apply
readjustment; teenagers; parents; less widereference; social
comparisonsex cleavageracial; academic experiences
*
Review and Apply

popular; controversial; neglected; rejectedexperts;
expertisedisproportionatelyundersocialized; socialized
*
Review and Apply
popular; controversial; neglected; rejectedexperts;
expertisedisproportionatelyundersocialized; socialized
*
DATING, SEXUAL BEHAVIOR, AND TEENAGE
PREGNANCY
*
Dating: Close Relationships in the 21st Century
DatingLearning to establish intimacy
Learning to engage in entertainment
Shaping identity
Cultural influences affect dating patterns

*Adolescents today talk more of “hooking up”, which means
anything from kissing to sexual intercourse.Dating, though, is a
common form of social interaction that serves developmental
functions:Learning how to establish intimacy.Learning how to
engage in entertainment.Contributes to an identity in
progress.Cultural influences affect dating patterns, especially if
the concept of dating is unfamiliar to the parents (often more
control, attempts to maintain cultural patterns).
What are the functions of dating? Pattern of courtship that lead
to marriage
Way to learn to establish intimacy
Mechanism to provide entertainment and prestige
Resource to develop a sense of one's own identity
*Part of pattern of courtship that can potentially lead to
marriageWay to learn how to establish intimacy with another
individualMechanism to provide entertainment and, depending
on the status of the person one is dating, prestigeUsed to
develop a sense of one's own identity
Dating and the Development of Psychological IntimacyDating
in early and middle adolescence is not terribly successful at
facilitating intimacy
True intimacy becomes more common during later adolescence
Gay and lesbian couples experience a variety of challenges

related to dating
*Dating in early and middle adolescence is not terribly
successful at facilitating intimacy. On the contrary, dating is
often a superficial activity in which the participants so rarely let
down their guards that they never become truly close and never
expose themselves emotionally to each other. Psychological
intimacy may be lacking even when sexual activity is part of the
relationship.For homosexual adolescents, dating presents
special challenges. In some cases, blatant homophobic prejudice
expressed by classmates may lead gays and lesbians to date
members of the other sex in efforts to fit in. If they do seek
relationships with other gays and lesbians, they may find it
difficult to find partners, who may not openly express their
sexual orientation. Homosexual couples who do openly date
face possible harassment, making the development of a
relationship all the more difficult.True intimacy becomes more
common during later adolescence. At that point, the dating
relationship may be taken more seriously by both participants,
and it may be seen as a way to select a mate and as a potential
prelude to marriage.
Sexual Relationships
Hormonal changes of puberty not only trigger the maturation of
the sexual organs, but also produce a new range of feelings in
the form of sexualityMaturation of sexual organs
Initiation into sexuality
Masturbation
Sexual intercourse

*The maturation of sexual organs during the teen years creates a
whole new world of relationship issues and possibilities for
teens.Research shows that teens think about sex a substantial
amount of time each day.For most adolescents, their initiation
into sexuality begins with masturbation (self stimulation).Since
masturbation often produces feelings of shame and guilt in the
American culture. Experts view masturbation as normal and
harmless.Ages for sexual intercourse have been decliningThe
average age at which adolescents first have sexual intercourse
has been steadily declining over the last 50 years, and about 13
percent of adolescents have had sex before the age of 15.
Overall, sex before the age of 20Numbers postponing sex is
rising.Today, premarital intercourse is viewed as acceptable for
males and females, no more “double standard.”
Adolescents and Sexual Activity
The age at which adolescents have sexual intercourse for the
first time is declining, and around three-quarters have had sex
before the age of 20.
(Source: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 2008.)
*The average age at which adolescents first have sexual
intercourse has been steadily declining over the last 50 years,
and about one in five adolescents have had sex before the age of
15. Overall, around half of adolescents begin having intercourse
between the ages of 15 and 18, and at least 80 percent have had
sex before the age of 20 (see Figure 12-8). At the same time,
though, many teenagers are postponing sex, and the number of
adolescents who say they have never had sexual intercourse
increased by nearly 10 percent from 1991 to 2001, largely as a

response to the threat of infection by the virus that causes
AIDS.
Permissiveness with AffectionIn past, gender-related double
standard for premarital sexual activity
Today premarital intercourse is viewed as permissible for both
men and women if it occurs in the context of long-term,
committed, or loving relationship
Significant cultural and subcultural variation about premarital
sex
*Prevailing norm several decades ago was the double standard
in which premarital sex was considered permissible for males
but not for females. Women were told by society that “nice girls
don't,” while men heard that premarital sex was permissible—
although they should be sure to marry virgins.
Sexual Orientation: Heterosexuality, Homosexuality, and
Bisexuality
Sexual orientation questions occur at
adolescenceHeterosexuality
Homosexuality
Bisexuality
*Sexual orientation questions occur at adolescence.The most
frequent pattern of adolescent sexual development is
heterosexuality (sexual attraction and behavior directed at
someone of the opposite sex).Yet some are homosexual

(attracted to same sex) and bisexual (attracted to both).About
25% of boys and 10% of girls have had at least one same-sex
encounter.Far fewer numbers become exclusively homosexual,
maybe 4 to 10 percent.Sexual orientation relates to sexual
interests, while gender identity refers to ones psychological
orientation, of feeling, behaving, like assigned sex.
What Determines Sexual Orientation?Genetic and biological
factor
Family and peers
Conditioning
*Genetic and biological factorIdentical twins are more likely to
both be homosexual.Hormones may play a factor.Family and
peersInappropriate identification with same sex parent?Learning
theory plays a roleRewarding homosexual experience versus
unsatisfying heterosexual encounters.
Teenage Pregnancies
Number of teenage pregnancies has decreased significantly in
the last two decadesIn 2012, the birth rate for U.S. teenagers
was the lowest level ever reported in the seven decades that the
government has been tracking pregnancies
Birth rates disparities remain, with the rate of teenage births
higher for non-Hispanic blacks and Hispanics
Overall, the pregnancy rate of teenagers is 34.3 births per 1,000

Teenage Pregnancy Rates
*
What contributes to the decline in teenage pregnancy?New
initiatives have raised awareness among teenagers of the risks
of unprotected sex
The rates of sexual intercourse among teenagers has declined
The use of condoms and other forms of contraception has
increased
Substitutes for sexual intercourse may be more prevalent
*Ask: Why do you think the teen pregnancy rate has declined?
List reasons before advancing items on the slide.New initiatives
have raised awareness among teenagers of the risks of
unprotected sex. For example, about two-thirds of high schools
in the United States have established comprehensive sex
education programs (Villarosa, 2003; Corcoran & Pillai, 2007).
The rates of sexual intercourse among teenagers has declined.
The percent of teenage girls who have ever had sexual
intercourse dropped from 51 percent to 43 percent from 1991 to
2001. The use of condoms and other forms of contraception has
increased. For example, 57 percent of sexually-active high
school students reported using condoms. Substitutes for sexual
intercourse may be more prevalent. For example, data from the
1995 National Survey of Adolescent Males found that about half
of 15- to 19-year-old boys reported having received oral sex, an
increase of 44 percent since the late 1980s. It is possible that
oral sex, which many teenagers do not even consider “sex,” may

increasingly be viewed as an alternative to sexual intercourse
Does “Just say NO” work?
*Ask: What do you think? Be prepared for a wide variety of
responses.Public pledges to refrain from premarital sex—a
centerpiece of some forms of sex education—apparently are
ineffective. For example, in one study of 12,000 teenagers, 88
percent reported eventually having sexual intercourse. However,
pledges did delay the start of sex an average of 18 months.
Review and Apply
intimacy; entertainment; prestigemasturbationadolescencefirst
intercourse
*
Review and Apply
continuumnegative; children
*
Review and Apply

*
EPILOGUE
Before we move to the next chapter, recall the experience of
Teodoro Moreno and Beatriz Portillo, who were having
difficulty maintaining their commitment to remaining celibate
until marriage. Consider the following questions.What
environmental factors (e.g., cultural, religious) do you think are
motivating Teodoro?
Do you think Teodoro and Beatriz are equally committed to
virginity? Will their commitment change as they grow a year or
two older?
Do you think peer pressure will affect the couple's resolve? Are
they likely to receive different messages from their parents
stronger?
*
EPILOGUEWhat tentative conclusions can you draw about how
Teodoro's and Beatriz's personalities relate to their notions
about sexuality? How typical do they seem to be?
*

SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE
CHILDHOOD
CHAPTER 10
*
Learning Objectives
our journey into the field of life span development.
THE DEVELOPING SELF
*
Who Am I?
During middle childhood, children begin to view
themselves:Less in terms of external physical attributes

More in terms of psychological traits
*
Psychosocial Development in Middle Childhood
Success in the industry-versus-inferiority stage brings with it
feelings of mastery and proficiency and a growing sense of
competenceIndustry = feelings of mastery and proficiency and a
growing sense of competence
Inferiority = feelings of failure and inadequacy
*Lasting from roughly age 6 to age 12, the industry-versus-
inferiority stage is characterized by a focus on efforts to meet
the challenges presented by parents, peers, school, and the other
complexities of the modern world.
Erik Erikson's middle childhoodEncompasses the INDUSTRY-
VERSUS-INFERIORITY STAGEPeriod from ages 6 to 12 years
of ageCharacterized by a focus on efforts to attain competence
in meeting the challenges related to:ParentsPeersSchoolOther
complexities of the modern world
*

Understanding One's Self: A New Response to “Who Am I?”
How do school-agers change?Children realize they are good at
some things and not so good at others
Self-concept and self-esteem continue to develop
Children's self-concepts become divided into personal and
academic spheres
*
Looking Inward: The Development of Self
As children get older, their views of self become more
differentiated, comprising several personal and academic
spheres.
What cognitive changes make this possible?
(Source: Based on Shavelson, Hubner, & Stanton, 1976.)
*
Social Comparison
Children use social comparison to themselves to abilities,
expertise, and opinions of others
Festinger (1959)When objective measures are absent children
rely on social reality How others act, think, feel, and view the
world

Festinger is known for the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
which suggests a tendency for individuals to seek consistency
among their cognitions, and if conflict exists between attitude
and behavior, attitude will likely change first.
*
Sometimes…
Children Make Downward Social Comparisons
With others who are:Less competentLess
successful
To raise or protect their self-esteem
*
Self-Esteem: Developing a Positive-or Negative-View of the
Self
Develops in important ways during middle childhoodChildren
increasingly compare themselves to others
Children are developing their own standards
For most children self-esteem improves in middle childhood
As children progress into the middle childhood years, however,
their self-esteem is higher for some areas and lower in others.
For example, a boy's overall self-esteem may be composed of

positive self-esteem in some areas (such as the positive feelings
he gets from his artistic ability) and more negative self-esteem
in others (such as the unhappiness he feels over his athletic
skills). On the other hand, students with high self-esteem travel
a more positive path, falling into a cycle of success. Having
higher expectations leads to increased effort and lower anxiety,
increasing the probability of success. In turn, this helps affirm
their higher self-esteem that began the cycle.
*
Change and Stability in Self-Esteem
Generally, overall self-esteem is high during middle childhood,
but it begins to decline around the age of 12School transition
Chronically low self-esteem for some
A Cycle of Low Self-Esteem
Because children with low self-esteem may expect to do poorly
on a test, they may experience high anxiety and not work as
hard as those with higher self-esteem.As a result, they actually
do with high self-esteem have more positive expectations,
which leads to lower anxiety and higher motivation. As a
consequence, they perform better, reinforcing their positive
self-image.How would a teacher help
students with low self-esteem break out of
their negative cycle?
*
Breaking the Cycle of Failure Promoting development of self-

esteem
Using authoritative child-rearing style
Why do you think this style is recommended?
*Authoritative parents are warm and emotionally supportive,
while still setting clear limits for their children's behavior. In
contrast, other parenting styles have less positive effects on
self-esteem.Parents who are highly punitive and controlling
send a message to their children that they are untrustworthy and
unable to make good decisions—a message that can undermine
children's sense of adequacy. Highly indulgent parents, who
indiscriminately praise and reinforce their children regardless of
their actual performance, can create a false sense of self-esteem
in their children, which ultimately may be just as damaging to
children.
Race and Self-Esteem
Early research found that African Americans had lower self-
esteem than whites More recent research shows these early
assumptions to be overstatedAfrican AmericansHispanic
AmericansAsian Americans
*Set of pioneering studies a generation ago found that African
American children shown black and white dolls preferred the
white dolls over the black ones (Clark & Clark, 1947).Picture is
more complex regarding relative levels of self-esteem between
members of different racial and ethnic groups. For example,
although white children initially show higher self-esteem than
black children, black children begin to show slightly higher
self-esteem than white children around the age of 11. This shift
occurs as African-American children become more identified

with their racial group, develop more complex views of racial
identity, and increasingly view the positive aspects of their
group membership.Hispanic children, also show an increase in
self-esteem toward the end of middle childhood, although even
in adolescence their self-esteem still trails that of whites. In
contrast, Asian-American children show the opposite pattern:
their self-esteem in elementary school is higher than whites and
blacks, but by the end childhood, their self-esteem is lower than
that of whites.
Why Does This Occur?
Social Identity Theory Members of a minority group accept
negative views held by majority group only if they perceive
little realistic possibility of changing power and status
differences between groups
*If minority group members feel that prejudice and
discrimination can be reduced, and they blame society for the
prejudice and not themselves, self-esteem should not differ
between majority and minority groups.As group pride and
ethnic awareness on the part of minority group members has
grown, differences in self-esteem between members of different
ethnic groups have narrowed.
Are Children of Immigrant Families Well Adjusted?Tend to
have equal or better grades than children with US born parents
Often more highly motivated to succeed and place greater value
on education than do children in nonimmigrant families
Show similar levels of self-esteem to nonimmigrant children

Report feeling less popular and less in control of their lives
*More than 13 million children in the U.S. are either foreign
born or the children of immigrants—some one-fifth of the total
population of children.The story is less clear, however, when
immigrant children reach adolescence and adulthood.
Moral Development: KohlbergProposes series of fixed stages in
development of moral reasoning
Uses moral dilemmas to assess moral reasoning
Provides good account of moral judgment but not adequate at
predicting moral behavior
*
Kohlberg Stages
*
Kohlberg CriticismsBased solely on observations of members of

Western cultures
Theory initially based largely on data from males
*Cross-cultural research finds that members of more
industrialized, technologically advanced cultures move through
the stages more rapidly than members of nonindustrialized
countries.Nature of morality may differ in diverse cultures.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT IN GIRLS
*
Carol GilliganWay boys and girls raised leads to differences in
moral reasoning
Suggests Kohlberg's theory inadequate and places girls’ moral
reasoning at lower level than boys’
*Boys view morality primarily in terms of justice and
fairness.Girls see morality in terms of responsibility and
compassion toward individuals and a willingness to sacrifice for
relationships.

Gilligan's Stages of Morality in Girls
*“Orientation toward individual survival” - where females
concentrate on what is practical and best for them.“Goodness as
self-sacrifice” - where females think they must sacrifice their
own wishes to what others want.“Morality of nonviolence” -
women come to see hurting anyone as immoral, including
themselves.
Review and Apply
industrysocial comparison; psychological comparison; success;
low
*
Review and Apply
moral; rewards; punishments; moralgirls; moral
*
Review and Apply
*
RELATIONSHIPS: BUILDING FRIENDSHIP IN MIDDLE

CHILDHOOD
*
Friends in Middle ChildhoodProvide emotional support and help
kids to handle stress
Teach children how to manage and control their emotions
Teach about communication with others
Foster intellectual growth
Allow children to practice relationship skills
*
Damon's Stages of Friendship
*

*
*
Likes me…likes me not!
*Children develop clear ideas about which behaviors they seek
in their friends—and which they dislike. As can be seen in
Table 10-3, fifth- and sixth-graders most enjoy others who
invite them to participate in activities and who are helpful, both
physically and psychologically. In contrast, displays of physical
or verbal aggression, among other behaviors, are disliked.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN CHILDREN’S FRIENDSHIP
*

King or Queen of the Hill…Status HierarchiesChildren's
friendships show clear hierarchies in terms of status
Status is the evaluation of a role or person by other relevant
members of a group
*
High Status ChildrenForm friendships with high status children
More likely to form exclusive and desirable cliques
Tend to play with a greater number of children
Have greater access to resources such as games, toys, books,
and information
*
Popular Children
*Although generally popular children are friendly, open, and
cooperative, one subset of popular boys displays an array of
negative behaviors, including being aggressive, disruptive, and
causing trouble. Despite these behaviors, they may be viewed as
cool and tough by their peers, and they are often remarkably
popular. This popularity may occur in part because they are
seen as boldly breaking rules that others feel constrained to
follow.

Social Problem-Solving and Information Processing
*
Figure 10-3 Problem-Solving Steps
Children’s problem solving proceeds
through several steps involving different
information processing strategies.
According to developmental psychologist Kenneth Dodge,
successful social problem-solving proceeds through a series of
steps that correspond to children's information-processing
strategies. Dodge argues that the manner in which children
solve social problems is a consequence of the decisions that
they make at each point in the sequence.Ask: Can you think of
examples to apply to each of these stages?
Low Status ChildrenForm friendships with other lower status
childrenTend to play with a lower number of children than
higher status childrenAre more likely to play with younger or
less popular childrenTend to follow the lead of higher status
children
*
Unpopular Children

*
Unpopular Children
Lack of popularity may take two forms
Neglected childrenReceive relatively little attention from their
peers in the form of either positive or negative interaction
Rejected childrenAre actively disliked and their peers may react
to them in an obviously negative manner
*
Teaching Social Competence
Several programs teach children set of social skills that underlie
general social competence
Before we review these, take a few minutes to visit with a
classmate about what kind of program would best enhance
social competence.
Report to the class.
*See: Susan H. Spence. (2003) Social Skills Training with
Children and Young People: Theory, Evidence and Practice.
Child and Adolescent Mental Health: 2, 84–96, Making Friends:
Parents Can Teach Children How to Make Friends/Boystown
Tip Sheet. Available at:
http://www.boystownpediatrics.org/ParentTips/makefriends.asp

Schoolyard-and Cyber-Yard-Bullies
At school160,000 U.S. schoolchildren stay home from school
each day because they are afraid of being bullied
Almost 85 percent of girls and 80 percent of boys report
experiencing some form of harassment in school at least once
Others encounter bullying on the Internet, which may be even
more painful because often the bullying is done anonymously or
may involve public postings
*
Schoolyard-and Cyber-Yard-Bullies
The bullyAbout 10 to 15 percent of students bully others at one
time or another
About half of all bullies come from abusive homes
Bullies tend to watch more television containing violence, and
they misbehave more at home and at school than dononbullies
When their bullying gets them into trouble, they may try to lie
their way out of the situation, and they show little remorse for
their victimization of others
*

Bully
School-bulliedSome 90 percent of middle-school students report
being bullied at some point in their time at school, beginning as
early as the preschool years
CharacteristicsLoners who are fairly passiveOften cry
easilyLack the social skills that might otherwise defuse a
bullying situation
*
Reducing BullyingOne of the most effective ways to reduce the
incidence of bullying is through school programs that enlist and
involve students
For example, schools can train students to intervene when they
see an instance of bullying, rather than watching passively
Empowering students to stand up for victims has been shown to
reduce bullying significantly
Gender and Friendships: The Sex Segregation of Middle
Childhood
*

Boyfriend, girlfriend…any friend?Avoidance of opposite sex
becomes very pronounced during middle childhood
Children's friendships are almost entirely sex-segregated
When sexes interact it is called “border work,” is often
romantic, and helps emphasize clear boundaries between sexes
*
Boys and Friendship
*
Strict DOMINANCE HIERARCHY, which is composed of
rankings that represent the relative social power of those in a
group hierarchy.Attempt to maintain and improve status in
hierarchy, which makes for a style of play known as restrictive
play where interactions are interrupted when status is
challenged.
Girls and Friendships
*
Are friendships color-blind?

*Ask: Are friendships color blind? Why? Why not?On the other
hand, although they may not choose each other as best friends,
whites and African Americans—as well as members of other
minority groups—can show a high degree of mutual acceptance.
This pattern is particularly true in schools with ongoing
integration efforts.
Cross-Race Friendships: Integration In and Out of the
ClassroomClosest friendships largely with others of same race
Decline with age in number and depth of friendships outside
own racial group
*By the time they are 11 or 12, it appears that African American
children become particularly aware of and sensitive to the
prejudice and discrimination directed toward members of their
race.
At that point, they are more like to make distinctions between
members of ingroups (groups to which people feel they belong)
and members of outgroups.
A good deal of research supports the notion that contact
between majority and minority group members can reduce
prejudice and discrimination (Kerner & Aboud, 1998;
Hewstone, 2003).
Reducing Prejudice through

Contact Between Groups
ContactMust occur in equal status settings
Enhanced through cooperative activities that are important to
children
Must promote equality and disconfirm negative stereotypes
*
Increasing Children's Social Competence
*It is clear that building and maintaining friendships is critical
in children's lives. Is there anything that parents and teachers
can do to increase children's social competence?
Encourage social interaction. Teachers can devise ways in
which children are led to take part in group activities, and
parents can encourage membership in such groups as Brownies
and Cub Scouts or participation in team sports.
Teach listening skills to children. Show them how to listen
carefully and respond to the underlying meaning of a
communication as well as its overt content.
Make children aware that people display emotions and moods
nonverbally and that consequently they should pay attention to
others’ nonverbal behavior, not just to what they are saying on a
verbal level.

Teach conversational skills, including the importance of asking
questions and self-disclosure. Encourage students to use “I”
statements in which they clarify their own feelings or opinions,
and avoid making generalizations about others.
Don't ask children to choose teams or groups publicly. Instead,
assign children randomly: It works just as well in ensuring a
distribution of abilities across groups and avoids the public
embarrassment of a situation in which some children are chosen
last.
Review and Apply
friendship; enjoyable; personal; intimacystatus; problem
solving; interpersonalsame sex; group; pairings
*
Review and Apply
Interracial; mutual bullies; reduce
*
Review and Apply
*

PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCECHAPTER

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