This document discusses developments in language learners' strategies. It covers defining learning strategies, classifying them, factors that influence strategy choice, relationships between strategies and language learning, and developments in strategy-based instruction. Key points include: learning strategies are techniques used by language learners to help acquisition and use; they have been classified into categories like cognitive, metacognitive, and social strategies; individual learner differences and task characteristics influence strategy use; and training learners in strategy use may help language development.

1. LEARNING STRATEGIES
GROUP 3 :
1. SISKA FEBRI NURIZA
(14178055)
2. MELLATI MANDASARI
(14178032)
DEVELOPMENTS IN LANGUAGE
LEARNERS STRATEGIES

2. LEARNING STRATEGIES
By Rod Ellis

3. INTRODUCTION
Individual learner differences
Believe
Affective states
General factors
Previous learning experiences
Situational factors The setting formal or informal
The nature of the instruction
Specific task of learner

4. INTRODUCTION
Main finding of this research
1. A number of definitions learning
strategy
2. Main method that have to
investigate them
3. Discussion of various frameworks
for classifying them
4. Factors that influence learners’
choice of strategy

5. Defining learning
strategy
The concept of strategy is
unclear until now
General definition
Strategy consisted of mental behavioral
activity related to some specific stage in
the overall process of language
acquisition or language use
General distinction made by three
types of strategies:
- Production
- Communication
- learning

6. A production strategy consists of an attempt to use
ones linguistic system efficiently and clearly with a
minimum effort
Communication strategies consists of attempt to deal
with the problem in communication that have arisen
in interaction
Language learning strategy is an attempt to develop
linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in target
language

7. Source Definition
Stern 1983
Weinstein and Mayer 1986
Chamot 1987
Rubin 1987
Oxford 1989
-Strategy is best reserved for general
tendencies or overall characteristic of the
approach employed by the language
learner. Techniques as the term to refer to
particular forms of observable learning
behavior.
-Behavior and thoughts that a learner
engages in during learning that are
intended to influence the learners’
encoding process
-Learning strategies are techniques
approaches or deliberates actions that
students take in order to facilitate learning
recall of both linguistic and content area
information
-Learning strategies are strategies which
contributes to the development of the
language system which the learner
constructs and affect learning directly
-LLS are behavior or actions which learners
use to make language learning more
successful, self-directed and enjoyable.

8. Cohen (1990:15) refers to learning strategies
directed at the language skill of vocabulary learning
(linguistic knowledge)
The table shows reveals a number of problems,
because it is not clear whether they are to be
perceived of as behavioral or mental
1. Oxford (1989) appears to see them as essentially
behavioral, whereas Weinstein and Mayer (1989)
see them as both behavioral and mental.
2. Stern (1983) distinguish strategies and techniques.
(such grammar and vocabulary). In other hand the
other researcher use the term strategy to refer the kind
of behaviors Stern calls techniques

9. 4. Learning strategy have seen direct r indirect effect
on interlanguage development
3. Whether learning strategy – conscious or
subconscious

10. List the main characteristic of learning strategy
1. Strategy refer to both general approach or
specific action or technique used to learn an
L2
2. Strategies are problem oriented
3. Learner are generally aware of the strategy
they use
4. Strategy involve linguistic behavior and non
linguistic
5. Linguistic strategy can be perform in L1 and
L2
6. Some strategy are behavioral and other are
mental
7. In the main strategy contribute indirect to
learning and other indirect
8. learning strategy use various considerably
as a result of both the kind of the task the
learner is engage and individual preference.

11. Anderson distinguish 3 stages of skill learning
1. Cognitive sage (concious strategy )
2. Associate stage (connect the skill and
construct efficient product)
3. Automatic stage (the action become
subconscious)

12. Method used to investigate learning strategy
Interview and questionnaire are require learner to
report on the learning strategies they use or an relation
to specific activity .
Questionaire- Naiman et al (1978) ask general question
about the learner technique for studying the sound
system, grammar, vocabulary, and the four skills
Interview- Wenden 1987 conduct interview on which she
asked learner to comment on specific learning activities.
Interview and questionnaire diary studies, think
aloud task

13. Collecting the
Diary studies- collecting the information of learning
strategies by retrospective report
Think aloud- require learner to introspect the strategy that
they use in particular task

14. Collecting the
Classifying learner strategy
Little classify learning
strategies into general
categories
Type of learner
Setting
Particular interest
Scehan 1989 identifies in
different taxonomies
1. Learner capacity to impose himself on learning
situation (how to use word expression, putting
word in a sentence to check understanding)
2. Technical predisposition (Naiman et al- realizing
that language as a system- analysis the target
language and making inferring about it)
3. Learner capacity to evaluate for example
Naiman and Rubin both refer to the importance of
monitoring (guesses, correction error)

15. Collecting the
Three major type of strategy
(o,melly and chamots)
Cognitive strategy
Repetition
Note-taking
Elaborating
Metacognitive
Planning
Monitoring
Evaluating
Working with peers and asking questions to
teacher and native speakerSocial / affective

16. Collecting the
Oxford (1985) classify leaning strategy into primary strategy and
secondary strategy
1990 Classify learning strategy into direct and indirect
Learning
strategy
Direct
strategy
Memory strategies
Cognitive srategy
Compensation strategies
Indirect strategy
Metacognitive strategies
Affective strategies
Social strategies

17. Collecting the
Factors affecting strategy choice
1. Individual learner
differences
1. Attitude
2. Affective strategy
3. General factors
2. Believe about
language learning
1. Learner with emphasized on the importance
of learning
2. Learner with emphasized on the importance
of using language
3. Learner who stress on personal factors

18. Collecting the
3. Learner factors
a. Age
Young children Older children
•Employ strategy in a task
specific manner
•Often simple
Example repetition
•Make use of general strategies-
more flexible
•More complex and sophisticated
example: active systematic and
elaboration procedures

19. Collecting the
3. Learner factors
b. Aptitude
It is not strongly related to strategy .
Bialystok (1981) found aptitude was not influence as learners’
believes , in other hand, learner with decontextualized language skill
(aspect of aptitude skill) will be able to talk about the strategy they
use
Leino (1998) learner with high conceptual level were better
describing their strategies or vice versa

20. Collecting the
b. Learning style
Oxford (1989) people with different learning style
have different learning strategy
c. Learner motivation
Oxford and Nyikos (1989) study at university in the US found that
degree of motivation influence the choice of language learning.
Formal practice more popular than functional practice
d. Learner goal
Also determine strategy use . For example strategy us in expression
students should concern to with developing communicative
competence rather than reading technical literature

21. Collecting the
e. Learner personality
Its not reliable because extrovert students are expected to report
they strategy use but in some cases the introvert students can
report significantly greater use of strategies than extrovert

22. Collecting the
The learner personality
background
Erman (1990)
Found that professional linguistic reported using more strategies
more frequently that untrained instructed and students
Chamoet et al (1987) higher level students at Spanish and Russian
in US using more strategies rather than beginning level of students

23. Factors in strategy use
Indivudual learner
differences Social factors
Leaner factors of age and
motvation, backgroud
emerge as important
factors
The language being learnt
The language setting
The type of learning task
The learner sex

24. Learning strategies and language use
There are some studies about relationship
learning strategies and languge learning
Focus on strategies
used to learn
vocabulary
The population
1. Adult L2
learner
2. Learning
strategies
used by
children
The strategies
Vs the
criterion of
learning
measurement

25. Good language learner
Successful learner
Five major aspects
successful language learning
1. A concern for language
form
2.A concern for
communication
3. An active task approach
4. An awareness of the
learning process
5. A capacity to use
strategies a flexibly in
accordance with task
requirement

26. Study Learner Method Result
Rubin 1975 Lerner of mixed
ages in
classroom
settings
Observation
(emphazise in
importang using video
camera)
Following strategies disscussed :
1. Preparedness to guess
2. Attempt to to communcate
3. Willing for appear
4. Attention to form
5. Practising
6. Moitoring and other’s speech
7. Attending the meaning
Naiman et al.
1978
1. 34 graduate
L2 learner –
many
multilingual
2. Students of
L2 French
in grades 8,
10, 12
1.Interview-
questionaire
2. Classroom
observation schedule
Following strategies disscussed
identified :
1. Active task approach
2. Realization of language as
system
3. Realization of language as a
means communication and
interaction
4. Management of affective
commands
5. Monitoring of L2 performance
Rubin 1981 Young adults in
classroom
setting
1. Classroom
observation
schedule
Strategies in these areas identified
1. Clarification
2. Monitoring

27. Studies of vocabulary learning strategies
Brown and Perry (1991)
Investigate the success of three vocabulary learning
keyword semantic
A keyword
semantic

28. Studies of learning strategies used by children
Wong Fillmore (1976 ; 1979)
Five mexican children learning
english in the Unites States
Collecting data : children
natural speaking in the pair
with native speaker child in a
play situation.
Chesterfield and chesterfield (1980)
Succesfully by children in the
early stages of language
learning
Fourteen mexican american children
where sudy indifferent point during
their first year schooling
Data collected by using observtion
in bilingual classroom.
The strategies use is
repetition, memorization and
use of formulac expressions

29. Relating learning strategies to second
language development
conclusion
.1.The strategies that learner elect to use reflect their general stage of L2
development.
2.Successfulrner appear to use learning strategies more frequently and in
qualitatively different ways than learner whoa are less successful
3.successful language learning involves attention in both form and meaning
4. different kinds of language strategies many contribute to different aspects of
l2 profiency
5. learner need to employ the strategies flexibly by selecting those strategies
that are appropriate for performing a particular learning tasks
6.because of metacognitive strategies is involving identification planning
monitoring
and evaluation assume considerable importance at least for adults
7. the successful learner able tot talk what the strategies' that they use
8. the leaner strategies may difference social and interactional strategies
maybe more important with young learner

30. Training learner in the use of learning strategies
Bialystock (1983b )
The ability of grade 10 student of
L2 French to inferences meaning
of words in a text
The
experimental
class: using
picture cues
and use
dictionaries
improved
Other class:
Less effective
Cohen and Aphek (1980
) adult learner of L2
Hebrew in vocabulary
acquisition through
assosiations
The students
more
proficient in
using
association in
recall tasks
O’Malley (1985b) the effect
of two kinds of training on
75 intermedite level ESL
students of mixed ethnic
background
The control
group
The experimental
group 1 using
imagery and
grouping (cognitive
strategy). The second
group received
training with the
similar strategy and
also in self evaluation
(metalingual
strategy)
More
useful for
advanced
learners
The learning styles
of different groups
need to be
account in
planning strategy
training

31. There are many issues that need we choose before
strategy training can be implemneted effectively
1. More work is need to discover what strategies and, in
particular, what combination of strategies that should
be taught
2. we have to found of taking into account learner own
preferred learning strategies
3. some learner need convincing that strategy learning in
worth while
4. it is not clear whether learner training will work best
when the exists as separate strand in language program
or when is fully into the language teaching materials
5. When strategy training should be attempted
6. Whether learners should be made conscious of the
strategies they are taught, or whether just providing
practice opportunities is sufficient

32. DEVELOPMENTS IN
LANGUAGE LEARNERS
STRATEGIES
Written by : Ernesto Macaro

33. 1. The origins of Language Learners Strategies
The history of
research in second
language acquisition
Two lines of development that
show the birth of LLS
Researchers’ attention
changed from the teacher
and his/her method of
teaching
The revolution of the
researchers, practitioners
and policy makers’ beliefs
about definition of learning
a language

34. a. Rejoice :
The ‘Good Language Learner’
is Born
In the late 1960s
and early 1970s
Why some learners learnt
language better than others?
The characteristics of good
learners
Large and universal
Researchers’ attention changed from
the teacher and his/her method of
teaching
Disappoinment

35. • Characteristics of good language learners
• 1. An active approach to the task
• 2. Experimentation and planning
• 3. Willingness to practice
• 4. self-monitoring and critical sensitivity
Stren (1975)
• Characteristics of good language learners
• 1. The willingness and ability to guess the meaning of
unknown words
• 2. The willingness to monitor one’s own speech
• 3. A strong drive to communicate
• 4. A willingness to attend to both form and meaning
• 5. A lack of inhibition
Rubin (1975)
• Characteristics of good language learners
• 1. The comprehension of the learners about language
as a means of communication
• 2. An ability to manage the affective demands of
language learning
Naiman et al.
(1978/1995)

36. b. Searching for Communicative
Competence
The conceptualization about what it was to be competent in language
was changing in 1980 where the communicative competence include
not only grammatical competence but also sociolinguistic and
discourse competence and it also includes strategic competence
Linguistic knowledge and strategic knowledge
Strategic competence focused on communication strategies
Means a sufficiently large mental
lexicon and a rule system sufficiently
to allow learner to put an utterance
or sentence together. For example,
grammatical knowledge
Knowing what to do with
linguistic knowledge: knowing
how to put it to its best use

37. 2. Exploring a Language Learner Strategy
a. The Relationship between
Knowing and Doing
If you are being able to do something requires you to have the
knowledge about it. And also you to have knowledge of the
strategies .
The knowledge- behavior relationship in a strategy has become an
issues because the theory of ‘proceduralization or automaticity

38. b. The Size of Strategy
Practically achievable
The strategies must bee
effective
The achievement (learning goal in a
specific task or learning situation)
SMALL

39. c. What Makes an Action Strategic?
Dornyei (2005) Whether strategies actually exist? The previous
researcher didn’t confirm which strategy that indicate the behavior
or non strategic
Good learners = good strategies
Poor learners = bad strategies
Choosing all of strategies in the right combination, available and
in appropriate time
The solution of the problem :
- Small and mental activity
- Conscious behavior should be classified
- There are no good or bad strategies

40. 3. Developments in Strategy
Elicitation Instruments
There are two types of elicit instruments : the questionnaire and the
verbal self-report (think aloud protocol). LLS questionnaire here
divided into two types :
The general questionnaire : try to draw out the overall strategic
behavior of the learners. The best general questionnaire is the Strategy
Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) , developed by Rebecca
Oxford in the late 1980s
Task specific questionnaire

41. 4. The Good Language Learner Reborn
There are four terms that usually use in the LLS
literature by some researchers: ‘proficiency’,
‘successful’, ‘high achieving’, and ‘experienced’.
‘proficiency’ = the measurement
‘achievement’ = the outcome of education
‘success’ = someone has gotten the good result in
language test
‘expertise’ = someone who learnt a lot of
languages and show their ability in language
continually.

42. 5. Developments in Strategy-based Instruction
There are five familiar steps in SBI:
1. Increase the size and types of LLS that
appropriate for the students
2. In the process of introduction the teacher or
peers show the model of strategies that they use
directly
3. Students’ opportunity to practice the strategies
with teacher/researchers’ support
4. Elimination of the support
5. Evaluation the effectiveness of the SBI
Strategy evaluation – attribution – self efficacy
(Graham, 2004)

43. The phenomena that also happened in
implementing SBI for young children and adult:
1. Older learners seem opposed to SBI
2. Using L1
The solution : change the strategic behavior as part of the assessment
system. Assessment would need to focus on the process of learning than the
product of learning
The solutions : 1. mixing the L1 and L2 in the instruction, but trying to increase the
use of L2.
2. To provide evidence that SBI instruction is so effective in raising achieving

44. 6. The Research Evidence in LLS and SBI
The relationship between LLS –other Variables
and research on SBL = in the learning process
The research evidences:Learners that have high levels of proficiency, use more and very different
strategies
In fact, higher proficiency facilitates different strategic behavior
Its not mean that using more different strategies make the students reach
the high levels of proficiency
The second evidence is the older learners use different strategies than
younger learners
The result of the study show that the older learners using more cognitively
complex strategies while the younger learners tend to use the social
strategies

45. Females are more strategic than males
Whatton (2003) and Griffiths (2003) did not find females using more or particularly
different strategies than males
The differences of cultural groups approaches to L2 study have also not
been support by LLS research
Beddel (1993) found that only limited differences between the Chinese
students he studied and Western students report in other studies
Grainger (1997) found that no significant differences in reported strategy
use
The variable that occur to interact with high or different strategy use the
most is motivation
Motivated learners = use more or different strategies
Different strategies = learning is success and higher levels of motivation
The fact both of them achieve the learners with high levels of education

46. There is no evidence for
a causal link between
Strategic behavior Proficiency or achievement
measure
One of the evidence that show the link, if the research
evidence on strategy based instruction was POSITIVE

47. Hasan (2005) stated that some evidence that L2 learners using strategic
behavior give the faster progress than do not
Flaitz and Feyten (1996) and Nunan (1992) didn’t find the
improvement because of the strategic behavior
The vast majority of SBI studies have focused on a single skill and the result
of study showed the positive improvement toward four skills (Listening,
Speaking, Reading and Writing)

48. CONCLUSION
1. This study described about LLS movement because of the
interest of researchers have changed and their interest in the
learners because what learners do with their linguistics
knowledge is important than the knowledge itself.
2. Without understanding of how the good language learners
becomes good it is impossible to say that strategic behaviour
as a students’ factor in success
3. In explaining the strategy the teacher should be explained
carefully and make it as small as possible, should consider
with the material and flexible combination
4. Strategic behaviour can be achieved by beginning investigate
if and how strategies transfer from one task to another and
one educational setting to another
5. We should be considering ‘achievement’. By identify high-
achieving and low-achieving students and identify the
strategies they use and why they use them

49. Suggestion
M.Hafdi : we should be careful as a teacher in
order to believe our students in doing the task
or assignment or their proficiency. Because as I
saw in the reality many students are doing the
task. The tend to copy/paste in the internet.
Elwin Zebua: I did not agree with mr.Hafdi’s
statement because proficiency cannot see as
the students’ ability is good or bad. If you do
not trust the students, you won’t be able to
transfer the knowledge to the students

50. Questions
1. Hesti : related to the first article, stage of learning: cognitive, associative and
automatic. How to determine these stage of learning?
2. Desfi yenti : should the strategy based instruction be taught to the students?
3. Robby Ibrahim : what is the appropriate strategy for each level of students that
related to the Oxford strategy?
4. Iftitah Rahmi: asking about our opinion about ‘the attitude that is not strongly
related with the strategy’ which is the researchers said in the article.
Additional idea:
Question no 2= Dorsy Deshongfa : yes, because it is really important. Strategy
based instructor also finding the students’ difficulties before decide the
appropriate strategy for the students.
Question no 3=
Ifitah rahmi : not the appropriateness, but how the strategy influence that use by
the students and frequency the use of strategy.
Elwin Zebua : strategy is the key of the students’ need. What aspect or
considering about and it will in crease the size or types LLS.