Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All righ.docx

Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All
rights reserved
Fundamentals of Organizational
Communication:
Knowledge, Sensitivity, Skills, Values
9th Edition
Prepared by Pamela S. Shockley-Zalabak
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Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Fundamentals of Organizational
Communication
Theoretical Perspectives for Organizational
Communication
Chapter Two
Prepared by Pamela S. Shockley-Zalabak
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Objectives
organizational communication
-Centered approach to
for

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Objectives
-
Centered, and Emerging Perspectives
generation for organizational communication
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Objectives
creates and shapes organizational events
Meaning-Centered, and Emerging
Perspectives

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Objectives
the fundamental
organizational process
variety of value and ethical issues
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Key terms
- a set of principles enabling
communicators to construct tentative models

and approaches relevant to broad ranges of
practical situations.
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Key Terms
- way of understanding
organizational communication by describing
what messages do and how they move
through organizations.
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Functional Tradition
■ Describes…
s

that serves organizing, relationship, and change
functions
examining communication networks, channels, message
directions, communication load, and distortion.
information throughout the organization.
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Functional Tradition
External
Environment
External
Environment
External
Environment

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Key Terms
-
number of related units that operate together
to create and shape organizational events.
Information processing is the primary function
of the units.
tem?
organizational events?
dynamic?
cease to exist?
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Key Terms
- information in the
external environment that may influence the
decision making of the organization.
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Key Terms
- transforming
and changing of input information for internal
organizational use and the generation and
transmission of internal information
throughout the organization.
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Key Terms
- messages to the
external environment from within the
organization.
- organizations that continually
take in new information, transform that
information, and give information back to the
environment.
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How to Create an Open System
ew advertising and outreach methods
issues

departments to solve issues
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Key Terms
- organizations that lack
input communication, making it difficult to
make good decisions and stay current with
the needs of the environment.
– potential for the use of a variety
of approaches to reach system goals.
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Key Terms
- what communication does or how it
contributes to the overall functioning of the organization.
- messages that establish the rules
and regulations of a particular environment.
The adequacy and effectiveness of organizing messages
can be evaluated by how well organizational members
understand and perform tasks, how rules and regulations
are understood and followed, and how adequately daily
operations support organizational goals. In sum, the
organizing function of communication guides, directs, and
controls organizational activity.
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Key Terms
- communication that helps
individuals define their roles and assess the

compatibility of individual and organizational
goals.
ed
in individual satisfaction with work relationships,
productivity, employee turnover, overall support for
organizational practices, and a variety of other less
obvious ways.
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Relationship Functions
Relationship functions range from informal
conversations to visible symbols of status such as
large offices and reserved parking spaces, job
titles, awards, and promotions are other examples
of relationship communication that determine how
individuals identify with or relate to the
organization

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Key Terms
- messages that help
organizations adapt what they do and how they
do it; viewed as essential to an open system.
determined by whether the organization gathers
information from the best available sources and acts on
that information with a timely, quality decision.
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Change Functions

f new ideas and information
and for meeting the complex needs of individuals
working together
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Key Terms
- movement of organizing,
relationship, and change messages throughout
the organization and between the organization
and its external environment.

organization (networks),
nd the types of distortions that can
be
expected to occur in organizational communication. In other
words, the
structure of organizational communication can be understood in
terms
of networks, channels, message directions, load, and distortion.
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Organizing Messages
Rules and regulations
Organizational policies
Task definition
Task instruction

Task evaluation
Relationship Messages
Individual role definition
Individual/organizational goals
Status symbols
Integration among supervisor/employees, peers
Change Messages
Decision making
Market analysis
New idea processing
Environmental inputs
Employee suggestions
Problem solving
The Functional Tradition
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Key Terms
- the formal and informal patterns
of communication that link organizational
members together.
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Communication Networks
contact
and in what area of responsibility can be described
as blueprints for the way decisions are to be made,
the way conflicts are to be resolved, and which
groups are responsible for “networking” to reach
organizational goals

communication networks or the formal
communication system
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Informal
Networks
Formal
Networks
Interpersonal
relationships that
develop between
individuals in a work
group
Interpersonal
relationships that
develop between
individuals and extend
beyond the requirements
of the work group
Facilitated by

technology
Communication Networks
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Key Terms
- means for the transmission of
messages. Common means are face-to-face
interaction, group meetings, memos, letters,
electronic mail systems, computer-assisted
data transmission, and teleconferencing. The
choice and availability of communication
channels influence the way the organization
can and does operate
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Channels
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Channel Selection
communicate subtle and important attitudes about
both the message receiver and the message itself

ch suggests that our attitude about the
message and our willingness to have contact with
the receiver significantly influence the channels we
use for communication
capability, and judgments about channel
effectiveness all contribute to the mode or modes
we use
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Key Terms
- description of the movement of
messages in organizations based on
authority or position levels of message
senders and receivers; typically described as
downward, upward, and horizontal

communication
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Directions
- message movement that begins with lower
organizational levels and is transmitted to higher
levels of authority
- message movement that begins with
higher organizational levels of authority and is
transmitted to lower levels of the organization
- horizontal communication moves
laterally across the organization among individuals
of approximately the same level and without distinct
reporting relationships to one another.
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Key Terms
- the volume, rate, and complexity of
messages processed by an individual or the
organization as a whole
– when the volume, rate, and
complexity of messages exceed the system’s
capacity
capacity of individuals to deal with information
permanent overload
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Key Terms
– the volume, rate, and complexity

of messages to an individual or organization
are lower than the capacity of the individual
or system
repetitive tasks that are no longer challenging.
potential
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Key Terms
rtion - anything that contributes to
alterations in meaning as messages move
through the organization
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Distortion Distortino
Disotrinot

Tornitsido
Tornadoes?
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Key Terms
-Centered approach - way of
understanding organizational communication
by discovering how organizational reality is
generated through human interaction. The
approach describes organizational
communication as the process for generating
shared realities that become organizing,
decision making, influence, and culture.
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Key Terms
-Centered approach - way of
understanding organizational communication
by discovering how organizational reality is
generated through human interaction. The
approach describes organizational
communication as the process for generating

shared realities that become organizing,
decision making, influence, and culture.
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Key Terms
- bringing order out of chaos with
organizations as the products of the organizing
process; described as almost synonymous with
the communication process.
- process of choosing from
among numerous alternatives; the part of the
organizing process necessary for directing
behaviors and resources toward organizational
goals.
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Assumptions of Meaning-Centered Approach
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1. All ongoing human interaction is communication in one form
or
another.
2. Organizations exist through human interaction; structures and
technologies result from the information to which individuals
react.
3. Shared organizational realities reflect the collective
interpretations
by organizational members of all organizational activities.
4. Organizing and decision making are essentially
communication
phenomena.
5. Sensemaking combines action and interpretation
FIGURE 2.2
Key Assumption of the Meaning-Centered Approach

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6. Identification, socialization, communication rules, and power
all are
communication processes that reflect how organizational
influence
occurs.
7. Organizing, decision making, and influence processes
describe the
cultures of organizations by describing how organizations do
things
and how they talk about how they do things.
8. Organizational cultures and subcultures reflect the shared
realities in
the organization and how these realities create and shape
organizational events.
9. Communication climate is the subjective, evaluative reaction
of
organization members to the organization’s communication
events,
their reaction to organizational culture.
FIGURE 2.2

Key Assumption of the Meaning-Centered Approach
Assumptions of Meaning-Centered Approach
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Karl Weick (1979)
do not exist but rather
are in the process of existing through ongoing
human interaction.
there is only the ongoing interaction among
human activities.
interaction
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Karl Weick (1979)
as the communication links and messages
that are the basis of human interaction
environments through information exchanges
and the active creation of meaning
environments differs among individuals,
resulting in multiple and diverse meaning and
interpretations
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Organizational Rules are…
continually process “equivocal” messages or
messages susceptible to varying

interpretations
processes that guide organizational behavior
idance for most inquiries
are successful, retention occurs and the
process is stored as an organizational rule
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Steps to Making a Decision
- Choosing ways to approach the goal
- Assigning individual responsibilities
within the project
– Deciding what resources the group
will need

each group member’s truths, backgrounds,
experiences, abilities, expectations and
premises into more general ones that most
members of the group can accept
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Key Terms
- organizational and individual
attempts to persuade; frequently seen in
organizational identification, socialization,
communication rules, and power.
- Relative stable characteristics
including core beliefs, values, attitudes,
preferences, decisional premises, and more
which make up self.
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Influence
decision making include…
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Key Terms
- perception of a sense of

belonging usually associated with the belief
that individual and organizational goals are
compatible.
with the organization are more
likely to be positively influenced by and accept the
organization’s decisional premises or reasoning
their work setting, identification will not motivate
them to speak up when change is necessary
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Key Terms
- active organizational attempts
to help members learn appropriate behaviors,
norms, and values.

commitment, decision making, perceptions of
communications climate, and overall job
satisfaction
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Key Terms
- pre-entry
information about the organization and
anticipated work role.
- early organizational
experiences reducing uncertainty about all
aspects of organizational life.
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Key Terms
- initial mastery
of basic skills and information and
adjustments to organizational life.
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Assimilation
dimensions:

otiation
seeking] along multiple dimensions within organizational social
and work systems
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Key Terms
- general prescriptions
about appropriate communication behaviors
in particular settings. Thematic rules are
general prescriptions of behavior reflecting
the values and beliefs of the organization,
whereas tactical rules prescribe specific
behaviors as related to more general themes.
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Communication Rules…
communication is desirable in a particular
organization
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Communication Rules…
– general prescriptions of behavior
reflecting the values and beliefs of the
organization

– prescribe specific behaviors as related
to more general themes and may evolve from one
general thematic rule
indicates that an individual has received
socializing information and identifies with the
organization
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Key Terms
- production and reproduction of social
systems via the application of generative rules and
resources in interaction.
– rules not only influence
behavior but also are influenced by members’
conceptions of appropriate behaviors

outcome of interaction
rise in the hierarchy therefore structuration produces
the status system(Poole & McPhee 1983)
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Key Terms
- attempts to influence another
person’s behavior to produce desired
outcomes. The process occurs through
communication and is related to resources,
dependencies, and alternatives.
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Power and Resources
– something owned or controlled
by an individual, group, or organization.
Owning or controlling resources (especially
scarce, unique or highly critical resources)
allows individuals or organizations to
influence interactions with others
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Power is…
at permits all
involved to gain more power, lose more
power, or share power.
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Key Terms
ture - unique sense of the place that organizations
generate through ways of doing and ways of
communicating about the organization; reflects the shared
realities and shared practices in the organization and how
they create and shape organizational events.
when taken together, help us describe the culture of
organizations by describing how organizations do things
and how they talk about how they do things
outine practices, and texts are
the regular communication interactions among
organizational members that generate uniqueness or
culture
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Metaphors
communication, we attempt to understand
communication by understanding
, symbols, jargon and
specialized vocabulary
symbolic common ground
tion can be manipulated, shared
or withheld for personal benefit
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Key Terms
te - reaction to the
organization’s culture; consists of collective
beliefs, expectations, and values regarding
communication that are generated as
organizational members continually evaluate
their interactions with others.
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21st Century Emerging Perspectives
(CCO)

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Key Terms
- communication seen
as a process of meaning development and
social production of perceptions, identities,
social structures, and affective responses.
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Stan Deetz (1992)
issue where meanings are assumed to be already existing,
but must be seen as a process of meaning development
and social production of perceptions, identities, social
structures, and affective responses.”

and transfer and the Meaning-Centered issues of “realities”
and cultures to a fundamental view of communication that
constitutes or brings about self and social environments.
decision making, and influence but is better understood as
the process that literally produces organizing, decision
making, and influence.
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Key Terms
(CCO)
generate and sustain organizations through
balances between agency and structure.

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CCO
organizations develop
identities, exercise power and influence, and
sustain themselves
balances among agency (communicative
actions) and broad structures.
mutually constitutive, that is, how they
construct each other.
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James Taylor and Elizabeth Van
Every (2011) “Thirdness”
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Actions and events of
the organization
All of the people (agents)
engaging in these activities
An abstract representation of what an
organization is about and how its “authority”
influences present and future actions
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Key Terms
- theoretical perspectives
representing an alienation from the past,
skepticism about authority structures,
ambiguity of meanings, and mass culture.

seeks to understand how multiple meanings
and multiple interpretations of organizational
events influence multiple and diverse
behaviors.
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Key Terms
- refers to the examination of
taken-for-granted assumptions, the
examination of the myths we utilize to explain
how things are the way they are, and the
uncovering of the interests involved in
socially constructed meanings.
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Key Terms
- focuses attention to studies of power and
abuses of power through communication and organization.
organizational
communication studies has been to create a society and
workplaces that are free from domination and where all
members can contribute equally to produce systems that meet
human needs and lead to the progressive development of all”
(Deetz 2001, p. 26).
that organizations are not simply neutral sites of meaning
formation; rather, they are produced and reproduced in the
context of struggles between competing interest groups and
systems of representation” (Mumby 1993, p. 21).
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Critical Theory Seeks to…
derstand power structures and identify interests
served by various types and alignments of power and
control.
fulfilling organizations and entire societies
whether stimulating
resistance, promoting change, or focusing on
emancipating those abused by power structures
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Key Terms
- process of control based on a
dominant group leading others to believe

their subordination is the norm.
accepted as normal if not desirable
ganizations are
oppressed even when they do not recognize
their experience as such
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exercised through communication, and power
influences communication rules and structures
getting people to organize their behavior around
particular rule systems. Legitimate control emerges
through stories, myths, rituals, and a variety of other
symbolic forms. These forms in turn become the rules
that prescribe appropriate behavior. This “legitimate” yet

hidden exercise of power can contribute to the
suspension of critical thinking. (Mumby 1987).
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CPomomuwniecartion
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Key Terms
- focus on the
marginalization and domination of women
and people of color in the workplace and
describe how communication of social class
influences identity and contributes to privilege
and marginalization. These theories focus on
valuing of diverse voices in all organizational
processes.
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Key Terms
- focuses on the
marginalization and domination of women in
the workplace and the devaluing of women’s
voices in all organizational processes.
Although diverse in perspective and
approaches, feminist theory generally attempts
to move our society beyond patriarchal forms
and social practices by critiquing power
relationships that devalue women
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Judi Marshall (1993)
The Male Principle vs. The Female Principle

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Self-assertion
Separation
Independence
Control
Competition
Focused perception
Rationality
Analysis
Clarity
Discrimination
Activity
Interdependence
Cooperation
Receptivity
Merging
Acceptance
Awareness of patterns

Awareness of wholeness
Synthesizing
Females in organizations adapt to male norms while being
evaluated against female stereotypes. “The male domination of
cultures goes largely unrecognized in organizational life and in
mainstream organizational theory.”
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Patrice Buzzanell (1994)
Feminist Organizational Communication
ment to investigate the
subordinated, to focus on gendered interactions in
ordinary lives, and to explore the standpoints of
women who have been rendered invisible by their
absence in theory and research.”
cted in
organizations, with messages, structures, and
practices becoming the contexts for gender

construction and negotiation. Organizational
communication is therefore the focal process for this
construction and negotiation.
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Karen Ashcraft and Brenda Allen (2003)
Racial Bias in Organizations
ed but
also fundamentally raced.
contributions of women apply to people of color.
by race, are evidenced in all types of organizational
settings.
marginalization will
be eliminated when more people of color and women are in
more

diverse organizational positions.
gender and
race of ongoing concern for individuals as well as
organizational
excellence.
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Karen Ashcraft & Brenda Allen (2011), Karen Lucas (2011)
Social Class Bias in Organizations
Allen (2011) illustrates how occupational differences
create class:
tional requirements for promotional mobility
locations; and numerous other

distinctions. In a specific example of understanding mobility
aspirations and social class,
dislocation arise when people from blue-collar, working
class backgrounds enter the world of white-collar, idle to
upper class work. In contrast to all they have gained by
upward social mobility, many feel a deep sense of loss.”
(p. 348)
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Connie Bullis (1993)
Feminist Theory Alternative Perspective
socialization practices can construct women as
marginalized others.

outsiders, unsocialized, uncommitted, disloyal, absentee,
unemployable, or dropouts.
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Key Terms
- race perspectives focus on
the domination of those not of a majority
race and the uncovering of practices which
both silence and devalue minority voices
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Key Terms
- a high prestige organization, process,
practice or groupings of similar organizations, providing
our environments, relatively stable traditions, practices,
standards, customs, rules and laws.

on: If institutions are more permanent and established
than individual organizations, the question becomes: how does
an organization or groups of organizations, processes, or
practices become institutionalized?
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Institutionalization
sedimentation.
fundamental in this
description
field of practice, organization, or related group of
organizations.
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Pamela Tolbert and Lynne Zucker (1996),
Tim Kuhn (2005)
Institutionalization
habitualization phase must
occur, whereby the innovation becomes part of patterned
approaches to
problem solving usually used by a limited set of individuals
who have contact
with each other across organizations
f the
innovation, often
based on limited knowledge about the specifics of the
innovation but
agreement that based on convincing arguments of merit the
innovation has
significant potential.
he value of the

innovation, often
based on limited knowledge about the specifics of the
innovation but
agreement that based on convincing arguments of merit the
innovation has
significant potential.
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Lammers and Barbour
Institutions
or
organizations
ce decisions and choices
that
individuals make
characterized by low rates of change with fixed and enduring
qualities, often formalized with specific rules for conduct and

specific
prescriptions for rational purpose and how to get things done
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Key Terms
– regional or country-specific
societal values and practices including core
dimensions such as uncertainty avoidance,
power distance, institutional collectivism, in-
group collectivism, gender egalitarianism,
assertiveness, future orientation, performance
orientation, and humane orientation.
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House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, Gupta (2004)
Participants were asked to describe varying values and

roblem solving
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Technology and Organizational Communication
communication influences changing the way
work is performed, how people relate to each
other, how power is exercised, and a host of
organizational participation practices.
of these technologies changes fundamental
assumptions in all of the theoretical perspectives
we discussed
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Discussion Question #1
Meaning-Centered, or Emerging
Perspectives) to organizational
communication do you think better describes
organizations? Why?
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when organizational communication
influenced effectiveness.
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at you know well.
Identify message functions and the structure
of that organization.
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organization.
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whether or not we should view

communication as the fundamental
organizational process.
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The Functional Tradition
1. How effective are organizing, relationship, and change
messages?
2. What types of formal and informal communication networks
exist? What network roles can you
identify? Are they adequate?
3. Is channel use appropriate for effective communication?
4. Is the load on the communication system part of the
problem?
5. What types of communication distortion exist?
6. Does the organization get good input communication from
its environment? How effective is
throughput and output communication? Is the system open or
closed?

The Meaning-Centered Approach
1. Do organizing activities help reduce message equivocality?
2. How effective is decision-making communication?
3. Do most organizational members identify with the
organization? How do you know?
4. What attempts are made at organizational socialization? Are
they appropriate and effective?
5. How does power relate to the problem?
6. Do organizational stories, rituals, and events provide
important information?
7. What type of culture exists? Is it effective? How do you
know?
8. How can the communication climate be characterized? Is
that appropriate? What should
change?
Emerging Perspectives
1. Describe how communication constitutes an organization.
2. What are the hidden power relationships?
3. Are women and people of color marginalized?

4. How are social classes represented?
5. Describe abuses of power
6. Do stories, rituals, and events sustain hierarchical and
patriarchal systems?
7. Is decision making characterized by domination or
codetermination? How can change occur?
8. How is rationality conceptualized and presented?
9. How do institutions influence particular organizations?
10. How do global cultural differences influence organizational
collaborations?
11. Describe how technology influences issues of power,
marginalization, culture, and
participation in decision making
Figure 2.3
Analyzing Organizational Problems
BBA 2026, Organizational Communication 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit II

Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
3. Distinguish between the responsibilities of communicators at
different levels of an organization.
3.1 Classify message directions within organizations.
7. Discuss the impact that organizational culture has on
employees, processes, and functions within an
organization.
7.1 Identify factors that adhere to various approaches for
studying organizational communication.
7.2 Categorize factors associated with major organizational
theories.
7.3 Evaluate the organizational culture within an organization.
Reading Assignment
Chapter 2:
Perspectives for Organizational Communication
Chapter 3:
Communication Implications of Major Organizational Theories
Click here to access the Chapter 2 Presentation.
Click here to access a PDF version of the Chapter 2
Presentation.
Click here to access the Chapter 3 Presentation.
Click here to access a PDF version of the Chapter 3
Presentation.

Unit Lesson
Would you rather swim with sharks or whales? The answer to
this question may seem straightforward, but
within businesses and other organizations such a metaphor can
be formed to describe the culture of an
organization. Observing organizational culture is just one way
to critically evaluate the structure and function
of an organization and the effectiveness of the communication
processes within. According to Daniela (2013),
“Knowledge of organizational behavior helps to better
understand oneself and other people” (p.1555).
Employing perspectives including functional tradition, the
Meaning-Centered approach, and emerging
perspectives can provide a way to focus questions for studying
organizations and their communication
implications (Shockley-Zalabak, 2015). In addition, there are
also theories to consider that can help
conceptualize the phenomenon of organizational operations
from various viewpoints such as scientific
management, human behavior, postmodern, critical, and
feminist perspectives (Shockley-Zalabak, 2015).
Each of these perspectives can enhance the study of
organizational communication from various viewpoints
and provide one with tools to study individuals and groups
within these organizations.
The key focus in this unit will be on the influence that
organizational culture, also known as corporate culture,
has on overall operations and communication practices. Using
this perspective, one can observe how
organizational culture influences operations, members, and
leadership within an organization. Additionally,
one can see how these elements interact to create and preserve a
vibrant, efficient, and effective culture for

the well-being of the organization (including employees,
external stakeholders, and the overall success and
longevity of an organization).
UNIT II STUDY GUIDE
The Impact of Organizational Culture
on Operations and Processes
https://online.columbiasouthern.edu/CSU_Content/Courses/Busi
ness/BBA/BBA2026/14H/Chapter2_Presentation.ppsx
ness/BBA/BBA2026/14H/Chapter2_Presentation.pdf
ness/BBA/BBA2026/14H/Chapter3_Presentation.ppsx
ness/BBA/BBA2026/14H/Chapter3_Presentation.pdf
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Organizational Culture
To begin, it is important to understand what organizational
culture means. Shockley-Zalabak (2015) defines
organizational culture as a sense that organizations create
through specific ways of accomplishing tasks and
communicating internally and externally. Organizational culture

“reflects the shared realities and shared
practices in the organization and how they create and shape
organizational events” (Shockley-Zalabak, 2015,
p. 46). Additionally, Jones (2010) defines organizational culture
as the “set of shared values and norms that
control organizational members’ interactions with each other
and with suppliers, customers, and other people
outside the organization” (p. 179). Culture can help or hinder
organizational effectiveness because
organizational culture can influence the way members make
decisions, interpret and manage the
environment, decide what is done with information, and
determine how members behave (Jones, 2010).
Hence, organizational culture can have a profound effect on a
company’s competitive position in the market
as well as on the members within the organization. Doina,
Mirela, and Constantin (2008) explain that
“companies have ‘cultures’ as people have ‘personalities’” (p.
560). The culture of a company is composed of
its collection of beliefs and reactions that are almost
“instinctive, of heroes and negative characters, of
realizations, interdictions and commandments” (Doina et al.,
2008, p. 560). The idea of heroes and negative
characters is very interesting, for such characters can represent
members or leaders within an organization.
Organizational Culture as a Metaphor: Sharks or Whales
There are many ways to describe an organization’s culture.
Referring back to the metaphor of sharks and
whales, a culture that is made up of whales can be described as
cooperative and supportive. A culture that is
composed of sharks can be described as ultra-competitive and
ruthless. Both organizational cultures can be
observed in companies present in the market place, institutions,
and non-profit arenas, but what is important

is not to mix these two varying ideologies by placing a shark
leader in a culture of whales or dropping a whale
type employee in shark infested waters.
An organization’s culture can be a powerful influence on day-
to-day operations. “Cultural inclinations are well
entrenched. But it’s possible to draw on the positive aspects of
culture, turning them to your advantage, and
offset some of the negative aspects as you go” (Katzenback,
Steffen, & Kronley, 2012, p. 111). For example,
in an organization it is important to recognize creative
employees and enhance the culture by taking
advantage of the skill sets and innovative ideas the employees
want to share by reinforcing a cooperative
environment where information sharing is rewarded. “One of
the greatest challenges of guiding cultural
change, development, or stability, is influencing the
organization to follow the same guiding principles, to
understand the values and priorities, and to make choices
consistent with how we want the culture to operate”
(Nicol, 2014, p. 34). Maintaining a culture of whales can be a
challenge, and using the values that epitomize
the organization’s missions can help this endeavor succeed.
Organizational Culture: Morale and Cooperativeness
Organizational culture can affect the level of cooperativeness
found within an organization. Workplace culture
can affect employee satisfaction levels for the job or contribute
to employee burn-out (Watts, Robertson,
Winter, & Leeson, 2013). Grant (2013) purports that a
significant predictor of group or cultural effectiveness is
the amount of help that employees and team members give one
another. Grant (2013) contends that in an
organization that invests “extensive time and energy in
coaching, teaching, and consulting with their

colleagues,” the productivity and effectiveness of an
organization improves (p. 8). The organization in a
whale-type culture must establish “an environment in which
customers and suppliers feel that their needs are
the organization's top priority” (Grant, 2013, para. 10). Grant
refers to this type as an organizational culture of
givers.
Conversely, Grant (2013) explains how company culture can
also stack employees against each other for the
control of resources, which makes it ineffective for them to
provide help to others unless they can expect a
reciprocal investment. In this type of culture, employees who
pour out to others unselfishly and freely provide
information and resources soon find out the negatives of this
type of cooperative behavior, for the “takers
exploit them by monopolizing their time or even stealing their
ideas. Over time, employees anticipate taking-
behavior and protect themselves by operating like takers or by
becoming matchers, who expect and seek
reciprocity whenever they give help” (Grant, 2013, para. 15).
The culture of an organization and how the
culture can be positively or negatively affected by supporting
and condoning either value system. Grant
(2013) posits that an ineffective organization can be turned
around to a more cooperative style by
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employing three practices: facilitate help-seeking, recognize
and reward givers, and screen out takers. Thus,
a whale-type culture that supports a spirit of cooperation can
maintain or improve an organizational culture.
Organizational Culture: Overcoming Conflict
An organization’s culture can influence how members involved
in that culture make decisions and view
conflict. “The more talented an individual, the greater the risk
that they’ll leave” if the employee feels
disrespected and unsupported in the organizational culture
(Meshanko, 2013, p. 8). This would be an
example of a whale member swimming with the sharks, so it is
important to get the right fit. When employees
are on board with the culture and direction of the company,
leaders can continue to inspire positive changes
to the culture through clear communication of values, providing
rewards and public acknowledgments for
employee contributions and innovate ideas, and removing fear
of retribution for making mistakes (Davis,
2010).
Davis (2010) offers an example of changing a component of
corporate culture by using the blame game as an
example. The author contends that when endeavoring to resolve
conflicts and establishing processes to solve
problems, and leaders perpetuate a culture of blaming other
departments or individuals, this component of the
culture will not change. The leaders on top instill this behavior
by reemploying and reinforcing its use. To
overcome this negative component of organizational culture and
others there are two methods Davis (2010)
suggests employing. First, leaders must create “inspiring

customs that enable employees and managers to
creatively work together without sabotage or blame” (Davis,
2010, pp. 10-11). Next, leaders must
communicate the “destructive power of negative thoughts to
sabotage desired outcomes” (Davis, 2010, p.
11). In using the blame game example, one way to overcome
this would be to incorporate new practices to
resolve conflict at every level using “curiosity rather than
blame” (Davis, 2010, p. 11). The example of the
blame game is a tendency for employees in organizations with
shark-type leaders in place to begin using as a
means to demonstrate each individuals own effectiveness in the
company. However, this is counterproductive
to productivity and morale. A whale-type leader can instill a
sense of safety and reinforce a spirit of
cooperation among employees to enhance the culture and
increase productivity.
An organization can be positively or negatively influenced by
how members communicate with one another.
Pirjol and Maxim (2012) found that organizational culture
guides employees to meet certain expectations.
Members of an organization can “create misunderstandings,
quarrels, frustration and all this leads to a drastic
decrease in performance. Usually employees are frustrated not
by their work, but by the working environment,
by colleagues, by managers, by the fact that they are not
appreciated” (Pirjol & Maxim, 2012, p. 374). Thus,
the influence of organizational culture is significant. An
example of a successful company culture made up of
whales is the company Federal Express. Doyle (2013) reveals
that the practice of leaders fostering a culture
of people first, then profit helps the company stay competitive.
According to Doyle (2013), “FedEx’s People
Service Profit (P-S-P) corporate philosophy takes care of the
people who deliver impeccable service to the

company” (p. 37). When the company culture to cultivate and
nurture its employees is a primary focus, then
the employees will take care of the customers.
Organizational Culture: Leadership
The way in which a high-level leader chooses to fill his or her
position can affect the company culture.
Valentine (2012) explains that “cultural leadership indicates the
degree to which cultural ideologies and
expressive behaviors are affected by leadership” (p. 130). There
is much research in the field that supports
this supposition. A leader in a high position of authority and
influence can directly affect a company’s culture
and thus improve it or diminish it. Drawing on the initial
analogy of culture as sharks and whales—if an
organization places a shark-type leader in a key leadership
position within an organization made up of
whales, the results could be disastrous and many casualties
would be a result (including a decrease in
productivity and buy-in to the new company mission and values,
lowered morale, and increased turnover
rate). On the other hand, if a whale were placed over a company
composed of sharks, then the whale would
not long be in the position but be eaten alive by the aggressive
culture. Some organizations foster a company
culture that reinforces shark behavior, whereas others foster a
culture that is conducive to a whale-type
mentality. It is important to place the right person in the
position that fits the best. The focus of this discussion
will be on ways to reinforce a whale-type culture by placing a
whale-type leader in a leadership position.
Organizational culture can be influenced positively or
negatively based on communication techniques. Paul
and Berry (2013) conducted a study using questionnaires to

determine the significance that executive leaders
had on organizational culture in a post-merged organizational
environment. The findings suggest that leaders
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in authoritative positions had a profound impact on maintaining
or changing organizational culture. Some
specific areas that leaders can engage employees in include
exemplifying the values of the organization as a
leader and communicating to employees the “mission, vision,
and strategy” of the organization (Paul & Berry,
2013, p. 9).
Rogers (2013) supplies an example of leadership positively
affecting a company culture that was causing the
company to falter in the market. The new leader changed the
culture to one of accountability and began to
communicate the business plan and expectations of the company
mission, vision, and values to employees
and external stakeholders (Rogers, 2013). The turnaround of the
company was evidenced as productivity
increased, and the company repositioned itself as a competitive
player in the market once again (Roberts,
2013). One way to describe a healthy company culture is one
that is flexible, transparent, and responsive
(Battley, 2013). However, it also must be clearly aligned with

the organization’s strategic objectives and
priorities.
Organizational Culture: Decision Making
The systems in an organization can have a significant effect
upon the culture of a group and influence how
decisions are made. Shockley-Zalabak (2015) reveals that an
open system within an organization continually
takes in new information; whereas, a closed system “lacks input
communication, making it difficult to make
good decisions and stay current” (p. 30) with the needs of the
members/employees. For example, if a leader
is not accessible or distances him or herself from employees,
the impact on the culture could be negative.
The trust in the leader can favorably influence the cohesion of
the group (Doina et al., 2008). The influence
the closed or open system has on a culture can positively or
negatively influence the productivity of its
employees. Organizational culture is a topic that can affect
anyone who works with a group of people in
various arenas.
In order to influence organizational culture positively, there are
certain skills that leaders in positions of
authority and influence should employ. Schoemaker, Krupp, and
Howland (2013) reveal that the ability to
“anticipate, challenge, interpret, decide, align, and learn” (p.
131) are all important techniques for effective
leaders to employ. If a leader believes and exemplifies the value
system of the organizational culture, then
employing these six techniques to instill the values and norms
in every decision and operating procedure can
be a useful strategy for maintaining and improving the culture.
This effective management style is confirmed
in McClean, Burris, and Detert’s (2013) findings that state if a

leader is responsive to employees’ suggestions
for change and improvement and supports a culture of
cooperation and openness, then employees will
respond. However, if the leader is not open to enhancing the
operations and culture, then many good
employees will leave the company. The tendency is to replace
the employees that buy in to the values of the
company with those who buy in to the values of the new
leadership that may at times be against the original
culture.
To be an effective leader and positively influence
organizational culture, research suggests that leaders
should balance warmth and strength rather than heavy
handedness (Cuddy, Kohut, & Neffinger, 2013). The
researchers found that leaders who are personable and well-
liked have a greater chance of success than
those who are disliked (Cuddy et al., 2013). Leaders who
emphasize their credentials, competence, and
operate using fear tactics are found to be less effective. Hence,
employees are less comfortable swimming in
a sea surrounded by sharks. Cuddy et al. (2013) explain that
“fear can undermine cognitive potential,
creativity, and problem solving, and cause employees to get
stuck and even disengage” (p. 56). That is why it
is important to place the right leader in the right position. If the
culture that needs to be maintained or fostered
is one of cooperation, then a whale-type leader that supports
these values should be put in place. When
coming into a new leadership position, “begin with warmth”
rather than leading with an iron fist (Cuddy et al.,
2013, p. 56). Cuddy et al. (2013) continue that “warmth is the
conduit of influence: It facilitates trust and the
communication and absorption of ideas” (p. 56). This is in stark
contrast to some leaders who attempt to
change a company culture through tyrannical leadership

techniques, or shark antics. Cuddy et al. (2013)
purport that the most effective way to lead and influence
company culture is to balance their competence with
qualities of warmth and strength.
Conclusion
Organizational culture is a real and vibrant component of
organizational operations. As evidenced through
various publications in the field, organizational culture can be
positively or negatively influenced by leaders
and members within an organization. In order to maintain and
even enhance an organization’s culture, it is
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
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imperative to position people that will uphold the same values
and beliefs of the culture. This will ensure that
leaders and members will support the culture and exemplify the
behaviors needed to reinforce the established
culture rather than tear it down. An effective culture will
support the mission and vision of the institute and set
members up for success. As research has shown, leaders can
influence the culture or an organization in
positive or negative ways. It is important for leaders and
members within an organization to be cognizant of
the phenomenon known as organizational culture and work to

support the mission and value system that
he/she is put in place to support. Would you rather swim with
sharks or whales? It depends on whether you
are a shark or a whale.
References
Battley, S. (2013). Leader sustainability. Leadership
Excellence, 30(3), 16.
Cuddy, A. C., Kohut, M., & Neffinger, J. (2013). Connect, then
lead. Harvard Business Review, 91(7), 54-61.
Daniela, P. (2013). The interdependence between management,
communication, organizational behavior,
and performance. Annals Of The University Of Oradea,
Economic Science Series, 22(1), 1554-1562.
Davis, R. (2010). Positive culture. Leadership Excellence,
27(8), 10-11.
Doina, R., Mirela, S., & Constantin, R. (2008). The
organizational culture and the factors of its formation.
Annals of the University of Oradea, Economic Science Series,
17(4), 559-562.
Doyle, R. (2013). Your company culture. LP/Gas, 73(5), 37.
Grant, A. (2013). Givers take all: The hidden dimension of
corporate culture. Mckinsey Quarterly, (2), 52-65.
Jones, G. (2010). Organizational theory, design, and change

(6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Katzenback, J. R., Steffen, I., & Kronley, C. (2012). Cultural
change that sticks: Start with what’s already
working. Harvard Business Review, 90(7/8), 110-117.
McClean, E. J., Burris, E. R., & Detert, J. R. (2013). When does
voice lead to exits? It depends on leadership.
Academy Of Management Journal, 56(2), 525-548.
Meshanko, P. (2013). R-E-S-P-E-C-T. Smart Business
Columbus, 22(1), 8.
Nicol, A. (2014). More mission, less statement. Product Design
& Development, 69(3), 34.
Paul, G. W., & Berry, D. M. (2013). The importance of
executive leadership in creating a post-merged
organizational culture conducive to effective performance
management. South African Journal Of
Human Resource Management, 11(1), 1-15.
Pirjol, F., & Maxim, R. (2012). Organizational culture and its
way of expression within the organization. Annals
of The University Of Oradea, Economic Science Series, 21(2),
371-376.
Rogers, B. (2013). Saving Hartford: Turnaround lessons from
chairman and CEO Liam McGee. Forbes.Com,
23.

Schoemaker, P. H., Krupp, S., & Howland, S. (2013). Strategic
leadership: The essential skills. Harvard
Business Review, 91(1), 131-134.
Shockley-Zalabak, P. S. (2015). Fundamentals of organizational
communication: Knowledge, sensitivity,
skills, values (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Valentine, D. (2012). Maintaining organization culture through
leadership succession planning. Franklin
Business & Law Journal, 2012(3), 130-135.
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Title
Watts, J., Robertson, N., Winter, R., & Leeson, D. (2013).
Evaluation of organizational culture and nurse
burnout. Nursing Management - UK, 26(6), 24-29.
Suggested Reading
In order to access the resources below, you must first log into

the myCSU Student Portal and access the
Business Source Complete database within the CSU Online
Library.
Koopman, M. (2014). The importance of a reading-focused
culture. Leadership Excellence, 31(4), 23-25.
Meshanko, P. (2013). R-E-S-P-E-C-T. Smart Business
Columbus, 22(1), 8.
Nicol, A. (2014). More mission, less statement. Product Design
& Development, 69(3), 34.

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