The Effects Of Fracking On Middle East And Other Countries...

The Effects Of Fracking On Middle East And Other Countries...
In the world today one of the fundamental services that are required for daily living is energy. It
therefore goes without saying that human beings have to engage themselves in whichever means
possible to ensure that there is a sufficient and affordable energy necessary for supporting life most
especially on the side of economic growth and development. Fossils forms a major source of energy,
most especially oil, and this has been literally referred to as the motor of the world. In an effort to
reduce dependence on Middle East and other countries for oil and gas, U.S has heavily invested in
other forms of energy extraction from the core of the earth through a process that has come to be
referred as fracking. Fracking is a short term that is used to refer to hydraulic fracturing. Hydraulic
fracturing is a form of technology that is being used to unlock vast quantities of natural gas from
shale beds. In America, shale gas covers a quarter of all gas production and it is projected that in
coming decades, shale gas is most likely to have a market share of more than a half. The major
advantage of fracking is that it is a cheaper way of mining natural gas and this therefore means a
relatively cheap retail price (In Hester & In Harrison, 2015). Cheap energy has in turn boosted
America's petrochemical industry, provided job opportunities, created other energy intensive
businesses, lowered electricity bills, and has significantly reduced the amount of carbon emission
released to the
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Questions On Environmental Summer Assignment
3) Environmental Summer Assignment Essays
a) E–Waste
In the 21st century, everyone feels the need to be up to speed with all of the new gadgets and
technology. When new technology is released, people drop everything they're doing to run out and
buy it. But what happens to their fairly used devices that have been labeled "out of style"? They are
thrown away and become electronic waste. Types of it, E–Waste as it is better known as, includes
unwanted or broken circuit boards, computers, monitors, mp3 players, keyboards and DVD players.
Approximately 82% of these end up in landfills or incinerators. Most people fail to realize that
electronics are made from valuable materials that can be recycled, such as gold, silver, aluminum,
copper, nickel, and sometimes–even platinum! Some E–Waste products are extremely hazardous to
humans and to our environment. Polyvinylchloride, mercury and lead are all harmful substances
found in electronics. Fortunately many states and countries have created laws and made it very well
known to their citizens on how to deal with E–waste.
The hazardous side effects of E–Waste have the most impact on labor workers in other countries.
Where health regulations are not enforced, most of the labor workers are frail children with no
protection from the harmful chemicals that use their bare hands to take apart the electronics in order
to salvage valuable and reusable electronic parts. In Guiyu, China where child labor is the norm,
approximately 82% of

Shale Gas : An Exploration Depth Analysis
Shale Gas: An In Depth Analysis
TEJERA, STEPHANIE
EVR3010
2077687
Top to bottom: One of the many plants in existence extracting shale oil, and the other of the shale
reserves in the United States presented in a map, and are from www.metallirari.com and
www.fracfocus.org.
Index of Contents
Title page.................................................................................................1
Index of Contents.......................................................................................2
Introduction..............................................................................................3
Synopsis...................................................................................................4
Causes of Environmental Effects................................................................5 – 6
Occurrence................................................................................................7
Social and Economic Impacts.........................................................................8
Personal Suggestions for Preservation and Recovery of the Environment..................9 ... Show more
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It is the same drilling we have done over the course of history and still to this date that has affected
the environment. Petroleum and natural gas have been used for over 5000 years, in all parts of the
world, and currently its use is steadily growing, causing new effects on our planet. Although there is
an abundant amount of oil and gas within the core of our planet beneath major sources of water,
eventually they will become scarce and overused, causing us to search for other means in other
geographical territories, including on land. The more we discover about these sources of energy the
better we understand them and eventually the more efficient we can be at conserving them (Estefani,
2013).

As aforementioned, throughout history there have been many sources of fuel that have propelled
man. Instead of choosing one and eventually letting it run its course after excessive use, we have
exhausted all efforts trying to find other sources for use to help power the busy lives of our race.
One such natural gas is shale oil. Shale gas is actually the refined version of shale oil. Shale oil, or
marlstone, forms from the deposits of macrobiotic matter mixing with the sedimentary materials on
the foundation of lakes at depths of about 3000 feet over a period of millions of years. Along with
the plants and animals that die off and fall to the

petro hw #3 Essay
1. What is the first priority of a petroleum engineer? (5 points)
The first priority of a petroleum engineer is safety.
2. What are the 5 elements of a petroleum system labeled on the illustration above? Green indicates
hydrocarbon fill and E refers to the anticlinal structure. (10 points)
A. Top Seal Rock (impermeable shale)
B. Reservoir Rock (Porous sandstone)
C. Source Rock (Organic–Rich shale)
D. Potential migration route (Non–sealing fault)
E. Anticlinal Trap
3. Name the four major disciplines of Petroleum Engineering. (4 points)
Reservoir Engineering, Production Engineering, Petrophysics (Formation Evaluation), and Drilling.
4. What are the three main purposes of drilling fluid (mud)? (6 points) ... Show more content on
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(10 points)
There are clastics, nonclastics, and evaporites. Clastics include sandstone, which is a reservoir, and
shale, which is a source, trap, and also a reservoir. An example of a nonclastic is carbonate, which is
a reservoir. An example of an evaporite is salt, which is a trap.
10. The seismic reflection coefficient R for the interface between two layers of rock is given
(approximately) by the following equation for normal incidence (sound raypaths hit the interface
between two rock layers at a right angle), where ρ1 is the density of layer 1 (top), ρ2 is the density
of layer 2 (bottom), v1 is the velocity of sound in layer 1 (top) and v2 is the velocity of sound in
layer 2 (bottom):
Calculate the reflection coefficient R if ρ1 = 2.1 gm/cm3, ρ2 = 2.2 gm/cm3, v1 = 1500 m/s, and v2
= 2000 m/s. (5 points)
The reflection coefficient is 0.17
11. Why do Petroleum Engineers care about Plate Tectonics? (4 points)

It tells them about the creation of structures and basins. It also helps them identify places where
there are potential reservoirs or source rocks.
12. Flow from a pressured "zone" (interval of porous rock) encountered while drilling is controlled
when the mud weight in the wellbore provides a pressure that equals or exceeds the pressure of the
zone. There is a pressured zone at 8000psi penetrated while drilling at 15,000ft

Shale Rocks
Shale is the most common sedimentary rock. It was deposited and formed by squeezing excess
formation water and mineralogical transformations at different temperatures and pressures.
Caprocks are essentially defined as low permeability formations, and sometimes, but not
necessarily, with low porosity. More than 60% of effective seals for geologic hydrocarbon bearing
formations as natural hydraulic barriers constitute of shale rocks. Shale rocks are predominantly
composed of clay such as kaolinite, montmorillonite and illite. They might also have other silica and
carbonate based minerals that contribute to their geomechanical strength. In 1965, D. Shaw and C.
Weaver documented the average mineralogical composition of shale from three hundred ... Show
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Caprock integrity failure can cause leakage and containment incidents. Currently, there are more
than 400 underground storage sites in the United States, including natural gas storage, oil and gas
waste disposal, industrial hazardous and non–hazardous waste disposal, and municipal sanitation
waste disposal. So far, there are no documented cases of fully remediating a leak in a caprock in
either a natural gas storage or waste injection project. This makes preventing the leakage becomes
essential, because most of the time, leaks could have been avoided through proper and thorough
geologic characterization of the caprock [Bruno, et al, 2014]. The integrity of shale caprock relies
on the geomechanical properties of the rock, and it has effects on the quality and quantity of the
gas/hydrocarbons beneath and within it. Potential loss of caprock integrity is commonly due to
tensile fracturing, fault activation, and wellbore failure in the caprock. Understanding the
microstructure and mechanical properties of the shale caprocks helps to maintain its integrity,
predict the potential risk and prevent the failures from

Marcellus Shale Research Paper
The Marcellus Shale is a huge source of natural gas that geologists knew about. It's very easy to spot
out because it's black in color. It was suspected that the Marcellus Shale might soon become a major
suppler of the United State's natural gas. The Marcellus Shale is actually located in multiple states,
that's just how huge it is. It's a shale that's located beneath Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, New
York, Maryland, Kentucky, and Tennessee. It is of great importance and value because it's one of the
largest reserves for natural gas in the country and it adds noteworthy amounts of natural gas to the
world's supply. Not only that but it has economic significance because the gas is much cheaper than
oil so it saves us money. Also natural

Colorado : The Mountain National Park
When it comes to beautiful rock formations, geological wonder, and natural beauty, Colorado has all
that to offer. Colorado is the state where The Rocky Mountain National Park was born. The
geological and natural wonders of the park leave many guest visiting the area coming back for more
every year. This state is also gifted with one of the biggest attraction in America: The Grand
Canyon. Colorado is full of geological and natural majesty. The Rocky Mountain National Park was
created in the right time at the right place. Many geologist come here yearly to study the rocks and
the different scenes and to experience all the things that the park has to offer. Sightseers come here
to have a good time and enjoy the park amenities such as hiking, dinning, and lodging. There's even
a rock collection point where guests and geologists can collect and study the rocks. As said before,
The Grand Canyon National Park has many geological happenings and events. One of them being
that way that the mountains look today is because of millions of years of erosion due to ice and
water. Another reason is titanic forces causing repeated uplifting of the mountains. When it comes to
the geologic history of the park about 1.8 to 2 million years ago rocks were deposited in an ancient
sea. These rocks were originally siltstone, some volcanic rocks, sandstone, and shale. Eventually
these rocks, which are sedimentary rocks, were caught in a collision zone between tectonic plates
and some of Earth's

Fracking : The Shale Formation
Fracking The Marcellus Shale formation located in western Pennsylvania, New York, and Ohio is
projected to supply an equivalent of 45 years of the United States current energy consumption.
Worth an estimated five hundred billion, this can translate into cheaper "variety of products such as
plastic, agrochemicals, and pharmaceuticals." It can also related to an "increase [in] the supply of
fertilizer, ensuring the availability of food and reducing...the conversion of forests to agricultural
farms" (Sovacool 252). The fracking industry will only increase in size, so much so that reclamation
of shale gas is called "eminent shale gas revolution. British Petroleum [BP], for instance, expects
global shale gas production to grow six–fold from ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
While improving production rates, safety and methods have improved to lessen environmental
impacts. The contents of fracking solution is the basis for much debate and one of the main concerns
for many. However, fracking fluid is not the only questionable aspect of fracking, included is land
and infrastructure degradation, physiological harm to local citizens, utilization of legislation
loopholes, and the secrecy of fracking fluid formulas within the industry. Due to the many possible
hazards of the fracking process, it has initiated much political discussion at the state and federal
levels of government, while inciting concern of local citizens. Fracking is not the cleanest
alternative to oil reclamation, but has improved drastically with the introduction of hydraulic
fracturing. Hydraulic fracturing is an extremely controversial topic, raising concerns of safety and of
economic feasibility by both affected or non–affected citizens and members of government.
Nonetheless, the negative attributes of fracking, such as fracking fluid dispersal and other
environmental issues are outweighed by the vast economic gains and can be mitigated by a system
of regulations and development of new technologies for the industry.
The term, "fracking" has existed for nearly a half century and has always had the negative
connotation of being unclean and associated with many environmental issues and adverse health
effects. The massive oil

Organic Petrology and Maturation of the Bakken Formation...
This document describes in detail the organic petrology and maturation of the Bakken Formation
located in the Williston Basin. This report is organized into five sections. Section I will introduce
the Bakken Formation in reference with the Williston Basin. It will also address sedimentary and
structural aspects of the Bakken Formation. Section II outlines the processes that formed the Bakken
Formation that occurred during the Devonian/Mississippian age. Section III will summarize organic
components and influence within the Bakken Formation. Furthermore Section IV will address the
nature of inorganic constinuents that influence the Bakken Formation. Section V will discuss
production history and current production of oil and gas found within ... Show more content on
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The middle member of the Bakken Formation is a calcareous sandstone that formed offshore in a
regressional environment that formed with a rapid lowering of sea level.
One of the primary structures in the Bakken Formation is the Nesson Anticline which lies in the
northwestern part of North Dakota (Schieber, 2001). The Nesson Anticline in North Dakota trends
North for 176 km. The Williston Basin as a whole is a sedimentary basin that is located west on the
North American craton that dates Paleozoic in age, making the Bakken Formation an intracratonic
formation. The Williston Basin is located in North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Saskatchewan,
and Manitoba. However, the Bakken Formation is not the only formation within the Williston Basin,
however it will be the only formation discussed in this paper.
II. Formation of the Bakken
The Bakken Formation is a Late Devonian to Early Mississippian formation within the Williston
Basin as seen below in Figure 1. To understand the process that formed the Bakken it is necessary to
understand the formation of the Williston Basin as a whole. Figure 1 represents the stratigraphy of
the Williston Basin. The Bakken Source Rock can be seen between the Devonian and the
Mississippian contacts in this diagram. This figure also shows that the Williston Basin began
subsiding in the Late Cambrian and continued to subside since then (Peterson, 1995). Also seen in
Figure 1 is the Nesson Anicline that

The United States Of The Industrial Revolution
"Earth provides enough to satisfy every man 's needs, but not every man 's greed." – Mahatma
Gandhi Since the start of the Industrial Revolution the United States of America has been dependent
on burning fossil fuels for energy. In 2015 nearly sixty seven percent of energy generated in the
United States was from fossil fuels including coal, natural gas, and petroleum. The United States
had been aware of a large abundance of natural gas in shale rock formations thousands of feet below
the surface; however, when they first found these rocks around 1940 there was no technology or
tools advanced enough to drill into these rocks, until the 1970s and 1980s. Companies worked
endlessly finding a way to allow shale rocks to release the gas that they held. Companies eventually
came up with a practice called hydraulic fracturing, also known as fracking; this process utilizes
water pressure to fracture or break a rock in order to release and collect fuel such as gas or oil. In
recent years, companies have mixed sand, chemicals and other proponents to retrieve the maximum
amount of gas that each drilling site has to offer. A heated debate has begun concerning these
mixtures and the money involved in fracking. While one side asserts that fracking should be banned
because of potential environmental damage produced by the fracking mixtures, others claim that
fracking should continue because of potential gains it could provide for the economy in the United
States.
According to John Pritchard

Extracting Natural Gas From Shale And Other Rock Formation
Resulting of recent technological innovations improving the ability of extracting natural gas from
shale and other rock formation. The popularity of hydraulic fracturing remains leading in the
direction of new venture opportunities and increasing growth for the natural gas and oil production
industry. With the development, comes risk and scrutiny. According to Robert W. Howarth and
Anthony Ingraffea natural gas extracted from shale comes at too great a cost to the environment, and
must be illegal. Natural gas from shale remains vastly proposed as clean, comparable with oil and
coal that can decrease the outpouring while still satisfying rich fossil fuel over coming decades until
a switch to renewable energy sources exists. However shale gas being clean remains false, and it
used as bridge fuel stays a terrible idea. Shale rock formation can hold large quantities of natural
gas, however that gas remains mostly made up of methane. (Natural Gas:Should fracking stop?) For
a long period of time a majority of this gas was not economically reachable. However over the past
decade, two new technological advancements recently combined allowing extracting of the gas.
This process is known as hydraulic fracturing, in which extremely high pressured water with
additional chemicals forced two to three kilometers in the ground is extracting the gas. The
manufacturing sources claim that fracking has produced over one million natural gas wells since the
1940 's. Only 2% of these wells

Reaction Paper On Devils Tower
Amie Hadley
Period: 6
Mrs.Howsden
Geology Research Project Devils tower is a geological formation in our nation's first national park.
The tower is a rock formation known as a laccolithic butte. Laccolithic is a term used for large
masses of rocks which were made of magma, typically under ground between rock strata. Most
laccoliths are round and dome shaped, but devils tower has been eroded to the point of having a flat
top and very steep sides. There is also no evidence of volcanic activity around Devils Tower, but
some researchers just believe that it may have eroded away over time. Devils tower is also known as
a stock, the most basic explanation is that it was once under the ground but is now exposed. Before
devils tower was exposed it was surrounded and buried by sedimentary rocks, because sedimentary
rocks and shale are a lot softer than igneous rock they eroded away and left the tower standing tall.
There used to be water covering the land, this sea once covered most of the western united states
long ago. This water played a huge part in eroding away the sediments and rock that once covered
devils tower. The tower itself is also being slowly eroded, and one day may not even exist. The rock
formation was discovered in 1875 on an expedition led by Colonel Richard Dodge, he spoke to
indigenous peoples in the area and might of got a bad translation. He thought they called it the "bad
god's tower." So he modified that phrase to "Devil's tower. When president

A Brief Note On Shale Gas And Natural Gas
Shale gas is a natural gas that can be extracted from the fabric of shale rocks by means of hydraulic
fracturing, or fracking. There is controversy surrounding this extraction process, as in the process of
building facilities in which gases are extracted, people are made aware of the hazards that are
involved both with building the site of extraction and with extracting the gas itself. This essay aims
to assess the extent to which these hazards can affect those residing in Lancashire.
Throughout the course of human history, conventional natural gas deposits have been the easiest to
extract from formations below the surface. These conventional deposits cannot last forever and are
declining in number, meaning that people are pushed to search for alternative sources whilst
increasing the price of the natural gas that is currently available (Berman, 2016). Fortunately, the
search for alternative sources for natural gas has generally been positive; recent utilisation of
unconventional gas deposits in the US which have led to them becoming the US's primary source of
indigenous gas production (Korn, 2010: 5). As humans advance technologically and steadily
improve their geological knowledge, the percentage of unconventional gas sources that make up
power supplies continue to grow. In 2010, 47% of the UK's electricity was produced by burning
natural gas. In comparison 28% of the electricity the UK had produced in 2010 was from burning
coal, 16% from nuclear reactors and 7% from

Fracking And The Shale Formation
Fracking The Marcellus Shale formation located in western Pennsylvania, New York, and Ohio is
projected to supply an equivalent of 45 years of the United States current energy consumption.
Worth an estimated five hundred billion, this can translate into cheaper and wider "variety of
products such as plastic, agrochemicals, and pharmaceuticals." It can also relate to an "increase [in]
the supply of fertilizer, ensuring the availability of food and reducing...the conversion of forests to
agricultural farms" (Sovacool 252). The fracking industry will only increase in size in future years,
so much so that reclamation of shale gas is called the "eminent shale gas revolution. British
Petroleum [BP], for instance, expects global shale gas ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
While improving production rates, safety, and new methods have lessened environmental impacts.
The contents of fracking solution is the basis for much debate and one of the main concerns for
many. However, fracking fluid is not the only questionable aspect of fracking. Included is land and
infrastructure degradation, physiological harm to local citizens, utilization of legislation loopholes,
and the secrecy of fracking fluid formulas within the industry. Fracking, like all industries, has many
hazards associated, and has initiated much political discussion at the state and federal levels of
government, while inciting concern of local citizens. Fracking is not the cleanest alternative to oil
reclamation, but has improved drastically with the introduction of hydraulic fracturing. Hydraulic
fracturing is an extremely controversial topic, raising concerns of safety and of economic feasibility
by both affected or non–affected citizens and members of government. Nonetheless, the negative
attributes of fracking, such as fracking fluid dispersal and other environmental issues are
outweighed by the vast economic gains and can be mitigated by a system of regulations and
development of new technologies for the industry.
The term, "fracking," has existed for nearly a half century and has always had the negative
connotation of being unclean and associated with many environmental issues and adverse health
effects. The massive oil

Impacts And Effect Of Fracking
Impacts and Affects of Fracking Hydraulic fracturing is one of the main reasons for the rapid
increase in gas and oil production in the recent times. Hydraulic fracturing or fracking is a
technique, which helps in recovering gas and oil from shale rocks. The process of fracking requires
drilling into the Earth before high–pressure liquids directed at the rock help to release the gas
trapped inside it. Water, sand and various other chemicals injected into the rocks, with great
pressure, that allow the gas to flow out of the well. The process can be carried out vertically and
horizontally, however it is common to use the latter as it helps in creating more ways to release gas.
In 2011, the United States produced 8.5 million cubic feet of natural gas, a value of nearly $36
billion, from shale gas alone. As a result, the U.S. is now the world's top manufacturer of natural
gas. Imported gases compose merely 8 percent of total natural gas consumption in the United States.
Since America does not rely on imported gas, the United States has balanced it trade as the U.S.
domestic supply has grown to meet its demand. Business magnate T. Boone Pickens stated, "Natural
gas is the best transportation fuel. It is better than gasoline or diesel. It is cleaner, it is cheaper, and it
is domestic. Natural gas is 97% domestic fuel." Fracking has led a wave of job creation through the
country. As a whole, fracking has directly, and indirectly, employed over

Hydraulic Fracking Effects
Hydraulic fracturing, also known as fracking, has become a large part of the economy in
northeastern Pennsylvania, and has impacted the area's economy, environment, and mindset.
Fracking is the process of extracting natural gas from the earth, and the industry it has brought to
areas like northeastern Pennsylvania shows effects consistent with the ideas of neoliberalism and
hegemony. In order to discuss the effects of fracking, it is helpful to first understand what fracking
is. Hydraulic fracturing is a process by which natural gas is extracted from deep within the ground
by "drilling horizontally to reach the deposit, then forcing through a high–pressure mixture of
millions of gallons of water plus sand and (often unidentified) chemicals ... Show more content on
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This raises the question of whether media influence can change ideologies and sway communities'
opinions on fracking. A study was conducted on how different types of media on both sides of the
fracking debate influenced readers' perceptions and beliefs about the gas industry. This experiment
examined narrative versus informational types of news, meaning whether the information is
presented as more of a story or as a more factual compilation. It also examined how participants'
perceptions were impacted when comparing environmental and economic "frames." Framing refers
to the "the process by which the mass media define and construct issues by emphasizing certain
dimensions to the exclusion of others" (Shen, Ahern & Baker, 2014, p. 99). The study evaluated
how people's attitudes about fracking changed after reading either narrative or informational news
articles on the topic, and framed with either an economic or environmental perspective (Shen et al.,
2014, p. 101). The study found a significant relationship between the type of news presented and a
change in the participants' attitudes (Shen et al., 2014, p.

The Burgess Shale Fauna
B.ED. SCIENCE WITH SPECIALISATION IN BIOLOGY
Table of Contents
The Burgess Shale Fauna 3
Introduction 3
History of Discovery 3
Preservation Bias 4
Major Fossils 4
Concluding remarks: 7
References: 8 The Burgess Shale Fauna
Introduction
The Burgess Shale Fauna is a fauna that was constructed based on a group of fossils that were
initially found, in the Burgess Shale area in the Canadian Rockies (Gould, 1989). They are a very
important group of fossils as "modern multicellular animals make their first unprotected appearance
in the fossil record some 570 million years ago" through this group (Gould, 1989, pp. 24). Moreover
the Burgess Shales are known to have preserved the soft parts of animals enabling us to get a ...
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61–62)
Burgess–type fauna in the Canadian Rockies probably lived in shallow–water, mud–banks that were
well lit and aerated. Such an environment would naturally lead to a fast rate of decomposition
(Gould, 1989). What led to the preservation of the soft–bodied fauna is relatively unknown (Royal
Ontario Museum, 2011). However one dominating theory is that fine–grained sediments were
occasionally deposited in the area burying both live and dead animals. The buried animals were then
probably left in an anoxic environment inhibiting bacteria and scavengers from destroying them.
Another hypothesis is that the presence of clay in the sediments might have inhibited the organisms'
decay by bacteria (Royal Ontario Museum, 2011). Thus probably only the very soft tissues
decomposed resulting in the flattening of the organisms' body and the preservation of the compacted
fossils we find today (Royal Ontario Museum, 2011).
Major Fossils
More than half of the Burgess Shale fauna "burrowed in or lived freely on the sea–floor and most of
these were deposit feeders" (Cowen et al., 2006, pp. 58). The most

A Evolution Of The Late Jurassic
Charophytes are green algae that have been found in fresh water to moderately brackish water
environments. Their gyrogonites are minute oval or round calcareous bodies that represent the
calcified parts of the oogonium i. e. the female reproductive organs. Most of the plant consists of
organic matter that decays shortly after death. Under some circumstances the stems and branches of
the plant become calcified and are also preserved in the geologic record. In the absence of the
planktonic and benthonic foraminifers, ostracodes and charophytes becomes valuable
biostratigraphic tool for geologic analysis and interpretation (Carbonel, 1988; Colin & Lethiers,
1988; Martin–Closas & Schudack, 1996, Schudack, 2000 & 2006). Moreover the charophytes have
been the focus of intensive work since the early 1960, since it was hope to obtain valuable
information on the dating, biostratigraphic and paleoecology of the strata (Schudack, 2002 & 2004).
The present study attempts a comprehensive biostratigraphic evolution of the Late Jurassic – Early
Cretaceous sequence at Messak escarpment based on the stratigraphic distribution of the
charophytes species as this type of microfossils have not been studied before in Libya as well as the
study area has never been studied for charophytes beforehand. On the basis of the stratigraphic
distribution of charophytes it is possible to subdivide the Late Jurassic – Early Cretaceous sequence
into four assemblage zones. These are described in ascending

Oil And Natural Gas : Why Black Shales Can Be Hosts Of A...
6. URANIUM IN MUDROCKS – BLACK SHALES
It has been broadly recognized that black shales can be hosts of a significant amount of Uranium
when compared to other sedimentary rocks (Swanson, 1961). The black shales are very attractive
because these typically contain good quantities of organic matter, and therefore, are potential
stratigraphic intervals for source of hydrocarbons (Peters and Cassa, 1994). The generated
hydrocarbons (oil and natural gas) from these shales are derived directly from the thermal cracking
of the organic matter, and most of the uranium is attached to or precipitated in the presence of
organic matter just before or during the time of deposition of the organic–rich sediment. Peters and
Cassa (1994) mainly suggest the division of organic matter into two major types: (1) the sapropelic
type derived principally from algae, pollen and spores, resins, and the fatty tissues of animals; (2)
the humic type which is derived principally from cellulose and lignin or the woody parts of plants.
The sapropelic type of organic matter generally produces significantly a lot of more oil than the
humic type (Peters and Cassa, 1994), but despite of this, due to its general resistance to decay, is
probably insignificant in the process of concentrating uranium (Swanson, 1961; Leventhal et al.,
1986). The humic type of organic matter creates a reducing and acidic environment during its decay,
is believed responsible for the precipitation or sorption of the uranium in black

Werribee Geological Formations
The Werribee region illustrated to consist of different geological formations ranging from the
Ordovician period to the Holocene epoch period. Werribee Gorge State park had the oldest
formations with slate, shale, sandstone and Siltstone all from the Ordovician period. However, once
in the woodland area; medium to a coarse grain of Devonian and granite was also found. You Yangs
Regional Park had the second oldest formations as it consists of Coarse grained Devonian Granite,
sediments of marine sands from the Pliocene period. However, it also consisted of Non–marine sand
outwash from the most recent Alluvium period. Alkaline Olivine Basalt from the Palaeocene period
is noted to be along the Pentland Hills. The hills at Rowsley are known to be built up with younger
formations these are known to consist of Oligocene tertiary sediments and Pliocene Alluvium plains
which lie in between the Basalt ridges. In addition to the Volcanic sediments, tertiary sediments
from the Oligocene period is also seen in this region. Therefore, the soil formations in this region
have influenced these sites to be mainly used for grazing. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Therefore, it promotes the growth of different plant species. However, due to the characteristics of
this region, it means that pest species such as the Ulex Eroupaeus L flourishes. The land is
considerably flat along river banks and this particular plant species flourishes in areas where there is
a lack of rainfall; this region is known to receive less annual rainfall compared to the major
populated towns it's surrounded

The Burgess Shale By Charles D. Walcott
Ashley Goosic
The Burgess Shale
The Burgess Shale, located in Yoho National Park, British Columbia, was discovered by Charles D.
Walcott in 1909. Walcott spent 18 years collecting and classifying the fossils located at this site. The
Shale was formed about 530 million years ago, in the Cambrian Period. Most Cambrian rocks
contain fossils of trilobite shells, cap–shaped or flattened shells, and brachiopods (Whittington,
1985). When Walcott went looking for North American Cambrian fossils in August of 1909, he
ended up in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. He and his wife found a loose block in the ridge they
were searching near, split it open, and found what they later classified the "lace crab" (Briggs,
1994). Walcott knew right away what they had discovered was something different – the soft parts
of the crab, such as the limbs, were preserved. During the next season, Walcott and his sons came
back to the Shale, searching the slopes along the trail where they had discovered the loose block to
find fossil layers. Luckily for them, the Shale rock layers were almost horizontal, and for thirty days
a team quarried the ridge. The next year, they spent even longer quarrying. The last year spent
quarrying the rocks was in 1917, when Walcott was 67 (Briggs, 1994). The rocks were removed
from the ridge using picks, chisels, long iron bars, and small explosives. All the quarrying done by
Walcott and his crew resulted in over sixty five thousand fossils, now stored in the

Shale And The Shale Gas Boom
Fracturing Shale
Marcellus Shale, also known, as the Marcellus Formation, is black, organically rich, shale that exists
underneath the surface of West Virginia, Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, Kentucky, Maryland,
Tennessee, and Virginia. The shale is located roughly one mile below the surface of these states and
has an estimated 141 trillion cubic feet of attainable natural gas. As of 2015, Marcellus shale gas
wells were reportedly yielding 14.4 billion cubic feet of natural gas per day ("Marcellus Shale –
Appalachian Basin Natural Gas Play"). This shale discovery is known as one of the largest natural
gas reserves in the United States, and this underground gas is now reachable thanks to hydraulic
fracturing and horizontally drilling. These two techniques, when used in combination, have enabled
gas producers to extract shale gas both rapidly and economically" ("The Marcellus Shale Gas
Boom"). Although, there are many myths and disagreements with the way America gets this natural
gas, it has proven to have more advantages than disadvantages.
Marcellus Shale is an excellent resource because "natural gas is a 'clean' energy source. When
natural gas is burned, it emits only half the amount of CO2" ("E–Forum: Pros and Cons"). Natural
gas tends to be much cleaner than crude oil, generally making the environment better. The less
carbon dioxide in the air, the slower Earth will become warmed and certain regions won't become
dryer or even wetter faster than normal. Carbon dioxide's

Geology Development Case Study
The youngest of the formations, Point Lookout Formation, sits directly over the Mancos Shale, and
is composed of tan sandstone and lenses of shale dispersed in it ("Geology of Mesa Verde, n.d.). The
retreating of the sea caused this change in deposition from shale to sandstone; this left it with beach
deposits rather than deep water ones ("Geology of Mesa Verde, n.d.). After the sea withdrew
completely, about 80 million years ago, a flat coastal plain emerged. Here, swamps developed and
as organic and plant material decayed, fine–grained shales formed. These dark brown or black
shales are called the Menefee Formation, although thin beds of sandstones and coal can also be
found here ("Geology of Mesa Verde, n.d.). The oldest formation, Cliff ... Show more content on
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Solution rills are formed when acidic rain dissolves the calcium carbonate that holds sandstone
together, forming depressions. Water flows along the grooves, deepening them until a flower–like
pattern emerges. Concretions, or hard, dense masses of minerals within rock can be seen in the Cliff
House Sandstone and Point Lookout Formation ("Geology of Mesa Verde, n.d.). They are often
spherical in shade and elongate, and are typically harder than the rocks they are within. The
concretions in Mesa Verde consist of either iron oxide or calcium carbonate ("Geology of Mesa
Verde, n.d.). Unprotected Cliff House Sandstone atop mesa tops develop a feature known as turtle
back weathering. As the exposed sandstone is eroded, an immense amount of pressure is released,
and this release causes cracks in the rocks. Further weathering the cracks, water freezes, thaws, and
dissolves the calcium carbonate holding the sandstone together. Eventually, the cracks erode the top
of the rock into a rounded shape, giving it a likeness to that of turtle shells ("Geology of Mesa
Verde, n.d.). Today, the park faces several geological hazards with many forms of movement
through rock falls, debris flows, landslides, and even flash floods (Carrara, 2014). For example, the
Mancos and Menefee Formations contain beds of bentonite, a volcanic ash that swells and shrinks
according to its absorption of water ("Geologic Resource Evaluation Report", 2006). This

Grand Canyon Essay Outline
Grand Canyon
The Grand Canyon is one of the greatest natural creations our planet has to offer. Have you ever
been mesmerized by the giant cliffs, massive ridges, or the wide array of beautiful colors? If you
answered yes, this paper is just for you! After reading this, you will be well educated about the
Grand Canyon.
The Grand Canyon is in the northwest corner of Arizona, bordering Utah and Nevada. Did you
know that more than five million people visit Grand Canyon National Park per year? The Grand
Canyon is roughly 280 miles long, 18 miles wide, and in some places more than 1 mile deep! The
volume of this enormous park is estimated to be over 5.5 trillion cubic yards, now that is
impressive! While the Colorado River carved this ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Next, these rocks undergo erosion, which is the process of moving sediments from one place to
another. Then, these sediments are deposited all at one place and over time they start to converge
and cement as layers which are also known as strata. As time keeps going, new sediments deposit
and cement together over old ones forming new layers. This is a repetitive process that eventually
build up layers to make up a Sedimentary rock. Approximately 40 major sedimentary rock layers
exposed in the Grand Canyon National Park area range in age from about 200 million to nearly 2
billion years old. As you can see, sedimentary rock formation takes an excessive amount of time. So
you now know how sedimentary rocks are formed and how the Colorado River majorly eroded all
the rock creating canyons. But here comes the million dollar question: where did all the rocks come
from? The answer to that question is The Continental Drift. The Earth's continents are not fixed in
place, but rather float on a sea of molten rock, meaning that they move around quite a bit. Over 250
million years, that "quite a bit" can turn into land masses moving thousands of miles. Moreover, the
Earth is made up of 20 Tectonic plates. Seven of these plates are very large and consist of entire
continents or sea floors. The plate that the Grand Canyon is located on is called "The North
American Plate". At one time, this plate was considerably further south and consequently had a very
different climate than

Rate Transient Analysis in Shale Gas Reservoirs with...
RATE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS IN SHALE GAS RESERVOIRS WITH TRANSIENT LINEAR
BEHAVIOR
A Dissertation by RASHEED OLUSEHUN BELLO
Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
May 2009
Major Subject: Petroleum Engineering
RATE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS IN SHALE GAS RESERVOIRS WITH TRANSIENT LINEAR
BEHAVIOR
A Dissertation by RASHEED OLUSEHUN BELLO
Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Approved by: Chair of Committee, Committee Members, Robert A. Wattenbarger Goong Chen
Christine Ehlig–Economides Bryan Maggard Stephen ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
I want to acknowledge my supervisor, Dr. Robert. A. Wattenbarger for being a father, mentor,
supervisor and friend to me. I am honored to have worked with him. I am also eternally grateful to
him. I want to acknowledge the suggestions and contributions of my committee members, Dr.
Christine Ehlig–Economides , Dr. Bryan Maggard – whose classes are among my favorites and
invaluable– and Dr. Goong Chen. I want to acknowledge the eternal support of my parents,
Rahaman and Doja Bello, my siblings– Biodun, Bidemi and Tolu– and my girl, Medinat.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page ABSTRACT ..............................................................................................................
DEDICATION ..........................................................................................................

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... TABLE OF
CONTENTS .......................................................................................... LIST OF TABLES
.................................................................................................... LIST OF
FIGURES................................................................................................... CHAPTER I 1.1 1.2 1.3 II
2.1 2.2 INTRODUCTION................................................................................ Problem

Marcellus Shale
Brady Kirman
Professor Codella
Geography
12/18/15
Assessing Land Use Changes Due to Natural Gas Drilling and Operations in the Marcellus Shale in
Bradford County, PA
Natural gas began to be extracted from the Marcellus shale formation in the mid–2000s', and now
well pads and their associated infrastructures are now well known fixtures in the Appalachian
Mountain regions. Marcellus Shale is an organically rich black shale which is currently being
explored by drilling as a source of natural gas. The region in question encompasses most of the
relatively uninhabited Appalachian basin, which is located within the Appalachian mountain range.
The basin is comprised of sedimentary rocks which stretch from Ontario, Canada all the way down
through New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Maryland, West Virginia, Virginia, and New Jersey. ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Marcellus Shale is considered by many to be the most economically well off gas–bearing which
is located in the United States. Thus making it a well sought after area for drilling companies,
looking to drill out the natural gas. In the state of Pennsylvania the county with the most drilling
permits is Bradford County in the north east. The Problem with the immense amount of drilling
companies in the area, is that land which was once used for agriculture and land which once was
home to fields and forests are now being transformed into drilling sights. As of October 2011 the
researchers estimated that 276.84 hectares (684.09 acres) of previously unaltered land had been
converted to 69 well pads. Agriculture land has taken the biggest hit from the drilling companies,
458.58 acres or 67% of the land had been converted for drilling natural

The Effects Of Fracking On The United States And Its...
Introduction With the proliferation of fracking in the United States and its impact on so many
different aspects of society from environmental to health and economic impact, it is an important
topic that demands more research and along with more community awareness. Another aspect of
fracking that is discussed much less than the environmental and public health aspects is that the
people that benefit most from the fracking industry usually white affluent individuals do not live in
the area that drilling process or waste disposal process happens (Johnston, J. j., Werder, E., &
Sebastian, D. (2016). It is also important to keep in mind how the elites of society are able to mold
and manipulate public opinion to suit their needs (Davis, C., & Fisk, J. M. (2014). It has been shown
how persistent opinions from elites and media messages can sway public opinion in whichever
direction they choose (Davis, C., & Fisk, J. M. (2014). This paper demonstrates how the fracking
industry not only poisons the environment it poisons communities through creating conflict and
negative public health issues.
Methods In their research review Charles Davis and Jonathan Fisk (2014) set out to examine public
attitudes about the fracking industry, they based their findings on analysis of survey data of 2400
American adults. In their paper Shale Gas Wastewater Management Under Uncertainty Xiaodong
Zhang , Alexander Sun

Burgess Shale Essay
Burgess Shale
The Burgess Shale was first discovered in 1909 by a Paleontologist named Charles Walcott and is
believed to be over 500 million years ago in Middle Cambrian. This geological formation was first
found near a mountain by the name of Mount Burgess, for which it was named after, in Canada.
Similar formations have been uncovered in China, Europe, USA and many other places around the
world. The Burgess Shale is one of the most important of fossil type formations due to the fact that
they are one of the most preserved including not only the hard parts of an animal such as the tissue,
muscles and organs, but also gives evidence that soft bodied creatures lived at the time.
Trilobite – Olenoides The scientific name of a Trilobite in

Different Types Of Sedimentary Basins
Different Types of Sedimentary Basins There is upwards of 144 sedimentary basins identified just in
the United States, whether they may be onshore or offshore (Coleman, 2012). The day–to–day
classification used for most basins is quite simple and is based on the scheme: if basins are formed
within or near the margins of a craton, basins that are formed between cratons and extends onto
oceanic crust, and basins which form on oceanic crust for the most part and are independent of
cratons (Coleman, 2012). Following with the same classification scheme, basins can be put into
these four basic groups; however, these groups have more specific subgroups within, twelve (12)
total to be exact. While this is true, for this paper, only three ... Show more content on
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(See graph on next page)
The province, itself covers between 50,000 and 70,000 square miles, and just throughout the
southern region of the basin, contains sedimentary rocks that most likely exceed 40,000 feet deep.
More than half of the strata within, ages from Cambrian to Permian, being a part of the gas fields
that are said to be the largest producers of hydrocarbons in the basin. The Anadarko is one of the
most prolific hydrocarbon producers in the continental United States (Hugman and Vidas, 1987;
Johnson, 1988). There are only minor occurrences of Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata in the northwest
part of the province (Henry). Rocks aging older than Mississippian are predominately carbonates,
while younger rocks consist of mainly shales and some sandstones – why are these important? Well,
while the only make up only a small part of the basin, they account for the large mass of petroleum
production (Henry).
The Fundy Basin It is believed that the Fundy Basin got its name due to being ironically located just
south of the Cobequid–Chedabucto Fault system in Nova Scotia and beneath the infamous Bay of
Fundy (Wade, 1996). This basin, in particular, is considered one of the 'failed–rifts' of the "half–
graben" formed by the mid – late Triassic break up of Pangea. The Fundy Basin is a sediment–filled,
proto–oceanic rift basin located along the margin of the Atlantic coast of

Essay on New Albany Shale
Illinois Basin Structure
The Illinois Basin lies across Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky, and it has a oval like structural
depression in southeastern Illinois. The Illinois Basin is classified as an intracratonic basin (Bois
and Pelet 1982). The Illinois Basin began as a rift complex which eventually failed, the New Madrid
fault is associated with this rifting (Hasenmueller and Comer 1994). The depositional thickness of
the New Albany Shale was strongly affected by the regional down–warping in southeastern Illinois
(Lineback 1980). The Illinois basin is separated from the Michigan basin by the Kankakee arch,
which is located primarily in Indiana (Nelson 1995). To the South East lies the Cincinnati arch
(Nelson 1995). In central and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Genevieve Fault Zone (Hasenmueller and Comer 1994). During the Devonian while the New
Albany Shale was being deposited, the Sangamon Arch was active causing the New Albany Shale to
thin out (Hasenmueller and Comer 1994). The Media Anticline was also active during the time of
deposition, this can be seen by the thinning across the structure while there is no thinning on older
strata (Hasenmueller and Comer 1994). The Mount Carmel Fault is a normal fault that trends
northwest and has seismic data that indicates it reaches the basement (Hasenmueller and Comer
1994).
(Barrows and Cluff 1980)
Stratigraphy
The New Albany Shale is a body of rock in the Illinois Basin that is mostly shale that ranges from
brownish black shale that is organic rich to gray or greenish–gray organic poor shale (Linback
1980). There are thirteen main strata that comprise the New Albany shale and that includes the
Blocher Shale, the Sylamore Sandstone, The Selmier Shale, the Sweetland Creek Shale, the Grassy
Creek Shale, the Morgan Trail member, the Morgan Trail member, the Camp Run member, the
Clegg Creek member, the Saverton Shale, the Louisiana Limestone, The Horton Creek Shale, and
the Hannibal Shale (Lineback 1980). These sub groups that range lithologies of calcareous shale or
dolomitic (Lineback 1980).
The Blocher Shale is characterized by its calcareous and dolomitic black shales texture that grades

The Shale Is A Rock
Locality 1
I have I determined specimen A as a black Shale. I have found out that the shale is a sedimentary
rock. The rock is dark/black coloured from the picture, therefore suggests that it has high organic
matter. From research I have concluded that shale is commonly marine as it is usually found in
rivers, lakes and the sea floor and this will suggest to me that the shale is from a low energy
environment. The rock is hard but it is quite brittle. I have established that all the grain sizes are less
than 0.5mm which tells me they are fine grained when looking at the Wentworth's scale.
I have concluded that the fossil in the shale is called a didymograptus. The picture clearly shows us
that it has two stipes in which I have calculated ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
I have tested the rock against Mohs Hardness scale and as it can be scratched from a fingernail it has
a hardness of 2.5.
I have managed to calculate the density of the galena. I did this by weighing it to find the mass
which was 92.6g then I found out how much water the galena displaces to find out the volume
which was 11cm^3. And when I put it into the fomula by using the mass and the volume I was able
to work out the density: 92.6/11 = 8.4g/cm^3. I have researched and found that the galena was
probably formed inside a hydrothermal vein by precipitation.
Locality 3
In locality 3, the picture clearly shows me that it is red sandstone and also a coarse sandstone
syncline and I have concluded it to being quite open. I have also noticed that the syncline is
symmetrical as I can use the axial plane in order to see this. The picture presents just a trough. The
trough shape therefore tells us that the younger rocks are on the inside. There is a visible
unconformity shown on the image located slightly above the syncline and this unconformity would
have been younger.
I have calculated that the limb lengths are nearly the same in length as I have calculated the average
limb length of the syncline from using the image to be 5.52cm and if I use the scale I found out that
that is 22.08m. The average plane dip plane dip was 19.4 degrees which is a little different to the
other side which tells me that there was a slight difference in tension from each of the

Hydraulic Fracturing
Unconventional drilling has become an increasingly popular method to extract natural gas from
shale gas reserves that were once unfeasible to reach. In the United States, it was a combination of
technological innovation that led shale gas extraction to be both achievable and cost effective.
Hydraulic fracturing, also known as hydrofracking, merges the long used knowledge of hydraulic
fracturing and horizontal drilling to access natural gas or petroleum in deep rock formations. There
have been many negative environmental and social effects that surround hydrofracking, which has
caused controversy over the safety of this process. In particular, nearby real estate is experiencing a
decline in value from these fracking activities due to the public's ... Show more content on
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Apart from local groundwater contamination, another serious health concern is air pollution. Gases
that escape from drilling activities include NOx, volatile organic compounds, methane, and other
greenhouse gases. Air pollution also derives from the emissions of the many diesel trucks,
accompanied with dust (Sackman, 2014). The retention ponds are also a danger since "chemical
oxidation and airborne toxins can potentially affect downwind areas" especially if chemicals are
ready evaporates (Throupe, Simons, and Mao, 2013). Another threat to real estate value is the
possibility of spills and other accidents occurring at the drilling site. Any blowout can lead to
massive releases of gas or polluted water (Muehlenbachs, Spiller, and Timmins, 2012). Other
externalities include noise pollution, more truck traffic, deterioration of roads, minor earthquakes,
clearing of land for drilling, and lights at night. These factors diminish the aesthesis identified with a
property, and take away the premium of a quiet neighborhood (Muehlenbachs, Spiller, and Timmins,
2012). Socially, adverse factors include an increase in crime, reports of violence, and alcohol and
drug use that are connected to hydrofracking picking up in an area. These may also be damaging
associations for the real estate of the local

Shale And The Shale Formation
Introduction
Over the past few years, new technology has led us to the discovery and development of large
supplies of natural gas within shale plays across the United States. A shale play is a defined
geographic area containing an organic–rich fine–grained sedimentary rock. Shale gas in the United
States is rapidly increasing as an available source of natural gas.
The purpose of this report is to discuss estimated ultimate reserves of gas, oil, and NGL. Also, to
discuss the drilling and development costs per well for the Eagle Ford shale, the Bakken shale, the
Marcellus shale, and the Tuscaloosa Marine shale. Next, I will comment on the first exploratory
well and the company responsible for the discovery well. I will then discuss the ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
The shale play had a $60 billion impact on the local South Texas economy in 2012 and supported
116,000 jobs. Record drilling levels were reported, as well as some wells producing over 4,000
barrels a day. The Eagle Ford shale is the most active shale play in the world with over 200 rigs
running and is best known for producing dry gas, wet gas, NGLs, and oil. According to the US
Energy Information Administration, the average estimated ultimate recovery (EUR) of wells during
2008–2013 was 168,000 bbl / well. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, the estimated
amount of technically recoverable oil is 3.35 billion barrels.
Petrohawk Energy received credit for drilling the first modern–day EFS well in 2008. Petrohawk
also completed the discovery of the horizontal well with 10 frac stages along 3,200 ft lateral. Lewis
Energy claims to have drilled the first EFS targeted well in 2002. Wells cost $6.5 to $7.0 million to
fully develop.
Bakken Shale
The Bakken shale ranks as one of the largest oil developments in the U.S. in the past 40 years. The
shale play has driven North Dakota's oil production to levels four times higher than previous peaks
in the 1980s. The Bakken shale play is located in Eastern Montana and Western North Dakota. Oil
was initially discovered in the Bakken play in 1951, but wasn't commercial on a large scale until 10
years ago. The Bakken oil production is economic due to modern horizontal drilling and hydraulic
fracturing. The U.S.

Geological Structure And Lithology Of Platforms Rocks
Geological structure and lithology of platforms rocks are considered as crucial importance in
determining both the process of formation and development of shore platforms (Edwards 1941;
Trenhaile 1987; Sunamura 1992; Kennedy 2010; Dickson et al 2004; Naylor and Stephenson 2010;
Thornton and Stephenson 2006).
Trenhaile (1987) defined three areas that geology will be affectively controlled the process of
formation and development of shore platforms: 1) erosion process; 2) platform profiles; and 3)
degree of inheritance of shore platforms.
Rock lithology, structure and mineralogy could be determined the erosion processed operated upon
the shore platforms. Rocks that is thinly bedded and well jointed will be eroded dominantly be wave
quarrying. Rocks that absorb large quantity of water are probably more susceptible to erode by
chemical solution. Accumulated debris size at the cliff foot is determined geological factors which
in turn determine the amount of erosion rate of cliff.
Rock dip affects the surface morphology shape. Washboard relief develops in steeply dipping, thinly
bedded strata. Smooth surface of platforms occurs when dip is shallow or horizontal.
Rocks strength is controlled either platforms are completely or partially inheritance from previous
sea level rising. If the platforms developed in softer rocks sediments will be probably completely
eroded by rising sea level but if the rocks is harder it may be inherent by past sea level.
Edwards (1941) is the

The Effects Of Hydraulic Fracturing On The American Economy
Hydraulic fracturing can be very beneficial to the American economy. While beneficial, it has
proven to be very harmful. As studies show, fracturing is using an absurd amount of water to
complete these wells. Not only is the amount of water usage detrimental to our water supply, but oil
companies are showing no signs of slowing down. On top of the high water usage, fracturing is
physically crippling our environment with the injected fluids. With over 600 different types of
chemicals added into the water mixture, how sure can we be that it isn't contaminating our food and
agriculture? The only 2 solutions to this energy crisis are to slow down, maybe even end it all
together, or find an alternative. One alternative that has already made its way to our neighbor up
north, Canada, is a process known as Gas Fracking. Gas Fracking proves to be much safer and
quicker, while also not leaving as much of an environmental impact as water fracking. Sustainability
can be defined as a method of harvesting or using of a resource so that the resource is not depleted
or permanently damaged. We must fundamentally excel in our research and studies to assure we are
demonstrating all the correct, yet safe, practices in order to maximize the benefits of food and
agriculture. The oil & gas sector can be labeled as very controversial. While one can insist it helps
strengthen our economy and also keeps us from exporting from other countries, another could argue
it is very harmful to our

The Mining Of Marcellus Shale Industry
The Marcellus Shale Industry in Pennsylvania Despite it's long history of coal, oil, and gas
development, Pennsylvania has seemingly been overcome by the rapidity and scale of production
demonstrated with the recent boom of Marcellus Shale industry, which has companies, workers,
environmentalists, etc. flocking to its northern tier. However, controversy seems to have followed as
"the economic criticism of the drilling industry is that it booms and then busts, generating few local
jobs and leaving little lasting economic benefit" (Schwartz). Thus making it critically important not
only the economic impact, but also those of social, institutional and environmental now and in the
years to come" ("Marcellus Shale").
Marcellus Shale is geologically defined as a sedimentary rock that is located at least a mile below
the surface and developed approximately 380 million years ago, during Devonian times, in a region
referred to as the Appalachian Basin, which explains its prominence in the northeastern region of the
United States ("What"). But, more importantly, Marcellus is a specific example of natural gas that
contains a substantial concentration of methane, "trapped in low–permeability shale, which requires
the hydraulic fracturing or fracking" ("Marcellus Formation"). The natural gas occurs within the
Marcellus Shale in several ways, including: "the pore spaces of the shale, the vertical fractures that
break through the shale, and adsorbed on mineral grains and organic

Shale Oil
Shale Oil
A new player –at least in the United States– is entering in the game with a lot of enthusiasm among
some of the audience, and a lot of skepticism by some others, that this unconventional player will
overtake the conventional ones any time soon. Although, Big hops are held on the new player in the
future. This new player is oil shale. The number estimated of oil shale in place in the US is around
4.28 trillion Barrel. An immense amount that's even hard to imagine. Unfortunately, this amount is
not 100% recoverable and the actual recoverable amount is unknown due to the lack of economic
methods of recovery. The extraction of economic quantities of oil shale will be true in the near
future due to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Electricity generators or simply heaters can be placed on surface or in the well bore. Surface heaters
are better for maintenance issues. The heated shale oil is then extracted by separate dedicated
production wells.
After pyrolysis and electrofracking, comes rubbulization the third approach to the economic
recovery of shale oil. This approach was taken by Chevron Oil Company. Rubbulization is breaking
a zone of reservoir into separate chunks of rock .In other words, generating fractures in the three
dimensions. while heated carbon dioxide is used for the decomposition Kerogen in oil shale. The
process involves drilling vertical wells into the oil shale formation and applying horizontal fractures
induced by injecting carbon dioxide through drilled wells and then pressured through the formation
for circulation through the fractured intervals to rubbulize the production zone. Rubbulization
propellants and explosives may be used. The used carbon dioxide then is routed to the gas generator
to be reheated and recycled. The remaining organic matter in previously heated and depleted zones
is combusted in–situ to generate the heated gases required to process successive intervals of treated
wells. These gases would then be pressured from the depleted zone into the newly fractured portion
of the formation and the process would be repeated. After that, the hydrocarbon fluids are brought
up in conventional vertical oil wells as any other conventional

Why is Burgess Shale Important? Essay
Before we get started, I guess we should actually distinguish, 'What IS the Burgess Shale?' Well, it
is said to be a "shrouded legend" deep in the Canadian Rockies discovered in the early 1900s by
Charles D. Walcott, notorious Smithsonian Secretary (Adler 2013). According to Haug, Caron, and
Haug in their research article 'Demecology in the Cambrian: Synchronized Molting in Arthropods
from the Burgess Shale' the Burgess is "arguably the best–known Konservat–Lagerstätte". While the
Burgess Shale is primarily known for the intricate preservation of soft–bodied creatures dating from
the early Cambrian Period (Haug, Caron, Haug 2013); furthermore, what seems to make this
specific site so special is the fact that not only the soft parts of ... Show more content on
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Even though anoxia is in general reflected on as an essential pre–requisite, "anoxia alone is not
sufficient enough to account for Burgess shale–type preservation," (Garson 2012). Furthermore, the
necessity of anoxia is not universally agreed upon (Garson 2012). Yet, while rare and commonly
absent from today's fossil record, this type of preservation is very common throughout most Burgess
shale–type deposits of these ancient fossils (Gaines 2012). Localities of these types are somewhat
confined to Series 2 and 3 of the Cambrian (Garson 2012). The type of preservation, as stated
above, that are a shared style within these various deposits, referred to by Garson in the Academic
Journal 'Dynamic palaeoredox and exceptional preservation in the Cambrian Spence Shale of Utah',
the "BST (Burgess Shale–type) preservation". She, along with the other authors of the journal,
claim, "Insight into the preservation of BST assemblages may be just as important as the exceptional
fossils themselves as it speaks directly to the unique environmental conditions that were widespread
in the marine realm at the time" (Palaeoredox 2012). I was almost positive this type of preservation
was pretty basic until Gaines and his associates told me differently; here we jump back to
'Mechanisms for Burgess Shale–type Preservation', get into the nitty gritty and further discuss the
different ways BST preservation actually goes down. In the article is provided

Oil Shale
United States, China and Russia are the top 3 producers of Oil shale in the world. Oil shale is
important because of its usage and economical factor , It can be transformed or treated into diesel
and jet fuels or petrol. Oil shale was deposited in the Songlio Basin(NE china) during the upper
cretaceous period, representing an excellent hydrocarbon source of rocks. By definition Oil shale
also knows as kerogen shale is a fine grained sedimentary rock containing organic matter that yields
substantial amounts of oil and combustible gas upon destructive distillation. Oil shale deposit range
from small presently economically recoverable reserves to large presently uneconomically
recoverable resources. Cretaceous is known as the last period where dinosaurs were the ... Show
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Oil shale will stabilize the gasoline price. The largest oil– and gas–prone non–marine basin in China
is located in the north–east of China, The Songliao Basin. The Songliao Basin in north–eastern
China, with an area of approximately 269 104 km2, contains over 10 km of Cretaceous sediments.
The molecular composition of OM is very important, it gives us data on everything(thermal history
of sedimentary basins, environmental condition like water salinity and climate and finally the type
and origin of OM(Organic matter). Geochemical evidence for marine transgressional occurrence
during the deposition of oil shale sequences in the Qingshankou Formation of the Songliao Basin
had been provided by the study of biomarker. The predominance of type I kerogen and a low
maturity of OM are evident, the oil Shales are indicated by bulk geochemical parameters and
biomarker data . The n–alakane is one if not the major contribution of aquatic organisms and minor
input from terrigenous land plants. In the K2qn1Songlio Basin(NE china) the Oil shale development
is controlled by the warm humid climate and tectonic

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