3. INTRODUCTION
Definition: Compartment Syndrome is defined as a clinical
condition in which increased pressure within a limited space
(osseofascial compartment) compromises the circulation and
function of the tissues within that space.
Types
depending on the cause of increased intra compartmental
pressure and the duration of symptoms
Classified as :
Acute compartment syndrome (ACS)
Chronic compartment syndrome (CCS)
4. Acute compartment syndrome (ACS)
A surgical emergency which if not recognized and treated
early can lead to devastating disabilities, amputation and even
death in some situations.
Acute compartment syndrome can develop anywhere a
skeletal muscle is surrounded by a substantial fascia.
ACS may occur in foot, leg, thigh, buttocks, lumbar
paraspinous muscles, hand, forearm, arm and shoulder.
Commonest sites are the leg and forearm
5. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Richard Von Volkmann, 1881
“For many years I have noted on occasion, following the use of
bandages too tightly applied, the occurrence of paralysis and
contraction of the limb, NOT … due to the paralysis of the nerve by
pressure, but as a quick and massive disintegration of the contractile
substance and the effect of the ensuing reaction and degeneration.”
6. 1881: Richard von Volkmann documented nerve injury &
subsequent contracture severe limb injuries
Peterson in 1888 recognized that ischaemic contracture
could occur in the absence of bandaging
50yrs later, Jepson described ischaemic contractures in
dog hind leg following experimentally induced venous
obstruction.
• 1941: Bywaters & Beall reported on the significance of
crush injury while working with victims of the London
Blitz.
7. • By 2nd world war ,ARTERIAL INJURY THEORY was proposed
(ischaemia is due to injury and spasm)
• Seddon in 1966 challenged it after finding palpable pulses in
up to 50% of cases
• McQuillan & Nolan described a vicious circle of increasing
tension in an enclosed compartment causing venous
obstruction and subsequent arterial
• They concluded that delay fasciotomy is the single most
important cause of treatment failure
• In the 1970s Matson as well as Owen et al, established the
importance of measuring intra compartmental pressure with
the aid of the Wick catheter.
8. EPIDEMIOLOGY
Commoner in younger patients (M:F ratio is 10:1) under 35
years of age
Sites: Leg>Forearm>Thigh>Arm>Abd>Buttocks>Feet in DM
patients
• Incidence of ACS in the West =3.1/100,00/yr
• In the US, 2-12% anterior distal LL injuries result in CS
• 30% of Limbs develop CS following vascular injury
• More in closed injuries
9. • Tibial diaphyseal fracture is the most common cause- 36%
• Soft tissue injury-23.2%
• Distal radial fracture=9.8%
• CRUSH syndrome & diaphyseal forearm fractures=7.9% each
• Diaphyseal femoral fractures & tibial plateau fractures = 3.0%
• Hand & tibial pilon fractures 2.5% each
• Foot fracture is 1.8%
• Ankle, pelvis, elbow & humeral diaph. Fractures = 0.6%
18. AETIOLOGY
Matson suggested following mechanisms as etiological
Factors:
(a) Factors that cause decrease in compartment
(b) Factors that cause increase in compartmental contents
19.
20. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
• Trauma (with / without arterial injury) → muscle ischaemia
→ muscle oedema due to histamine release.
This causes:
- increase intra compartmental pressure (impedes venous
returns)
- increase intraluminal venous pressure
- decrease arteriovenous pressure gradient
- Subsequent diminished or absent local perfusion.
• Auto regulatory mechanisms may compensate:
Decrease in peripheral vascular resistance
Increased extraction of oxygen
21. • As system becomes overwhelmed:
Critical closing pressure is reached
Oxygen perfusion of muscles and nerves decreases
25. MANAGEMENT
ATLS protocol :
Primary survey and Resuscitation
Secondary survey; Definitive Care
Tertiary survey
i. History and examination
ii. Investigations
iii. Treatment
26. Diagnosis
ACS is a surgical emergency
Clinical diagnosis
High index of suspicion
Syndrome
History
Physical Exam
27. Difficult Diagnosis
Classic signs of the 6 P’s - ARE NOT RELIABLE:
pain
pallor
paralysis
pulselessness
paresthesias
Pressure (tension)
These are signs of an ESTABLISHED compartment syndrome
where ischemic injury has already taken place
These signs may be present in the absence of compartment
syndrome.
Palpable pulses are usually present in acute compartment
syndromes unless an arterial injury occurs
28. Diagnosis (contd)
Clinical Features
The most important symptom of an impending
compartment syndrome is PAIN DISPROPORTIONATE
TO THAT EXPECTED FOR THE INJURY/STIMULUS
Compartment pressure
29. CLINICAL FEATURES
Pain
Passive muscle stretching
Out of proportion
Progressive
Not relieved by immobilization
May be worse with elevation
Patient will not initiate motion on own
Be careful with coexisting nerve injury
30. Parasthesia / Hypoesthesia
Secondary to nerve ischemia
Must be differentiated from nerve injury
Paralysis / Paresis
Ischemic muscles lose function
Tense compartment on palpation
31. INVESTIGATIONS
LAB STUDIES
Often normal - not helpful in diagnosing or excluding CS
FBC, Creatine phosphokinase , Urine myoglobin, Serum myoglobin, Urinalysis, PT
& APTT, Urine toxicology screen, Complete metabolic Profile, X-RAY of affected
extremity
- Definitive diagnosis is compartment pressure measurement
using a tonometer if available.
32. Compartment pressure measurement
Objective method of diagnosing ACS
Involves dynamic measurement of ICP which was introduced in 1970
following Matson unified concept of identifying increase ICP irrespective of
aetiology.
Normal tissue pressure
0-4 mm Hg
8-10 with exertion
Absolute pressure theory
30 mm Hg - Mubarak
45 mm Hg – Matsen
Pressure gradient theory (∆P)
< 20 mm Hg of diastolic pressure – Whitesides (1975)
< 30 mm Hg of diastolic pressure McQueen, et al
33. Tissue-Pressure: Principles
Heckman et al demonstrated
that pressure within a given
compartment is not uniform
They found tissue pressures
to be highest at the site or
within 5cm of the injury
3 of their 5 patients requiring
fasciotomies had sub-critical
pressure values 5cm from the
site of highest pressure
34. High risk patients
High energy fractures
Severe communition
Joint extension
Segmental #
Bilateral #s
Floating knee
Open fractures
Impaired Sensorium
Alcohol
Drug
Decreased GCS
Unconscious
Chemically unconscious
Neurologic deficit
Cognitively challenged
37. Most Common Locations
Leg: deep posterior and the anterior
compartments
Forearm: volar compartment, especially in the
deep flexor area
38. TREATMENT
Remove restricting bandages if any
Stabilize the patient
Additional O2 should be given - Ischemic injury is basis for CS
IV hydration is essential - Hypovolemia worsens ischemia.
Do not elevate the affected limb-decreases arterial pressure
Sympathetic blockage – stellate ganglion, paravertebral plexus
Fasciotomy
Arterial exploration
39.
40. Sheridam and Matsen, Rorabeck and Macinat and other
authors concluded that catastrophic clinical results were
inevitable if fasciotomy were delayed for over 12hrs but
full recovery was achieved if decompression was
performed within six hours of making diagnosis.
41. INDICATIONS FOR FASCIOTOMY
1. Clinical features highly suggestive of ACS
2. Absolute compartment pressure >30-40 mmHg
3. Mean arterial pressure – ICP >40mmHg
4. Diastolic BP – ICP (delta p) <30mmHg
42. Fasciotomy of the Leg
One incision - with or without Fibulectomy
Two incisions
43. Perifibular Fasciotomy
One incision
Head of fibula to proximal tip of lateral malleolus
Incise fascia between soleus and FHL distally and extended proximally to origin
of soleus from fibula
Deep posterior compartment released off the interosseous membrane,
approached from the interval between the lateral and superficial posterior
compartments
46. Fasciotomy of the thigh
Rare
Crush injury with femur fracture
Over distraction
Treatment based upon
compartment involvement
Usually Quadriceps and Hamstrings
Usually, a single lateral incision will
suffice
47. Fasciotomy of the Forearm
Henry Approach
Incision begins proximal to antecubital
fossa and extends across carpal tunnel
Begins lateral to biceps tendon, crosses
elbow crease and extends radially, then it
is extended distally along medial aspect
of brachioradialis and extends across the
palm along the thenar crease
Alternatively, a straight incision from
lateral biceps to radial styloid can be
used.
50. POST FASCIOTOMY
Must get bone stability
Intramedullary level
External fixation
~48hrs after procedure, patient should be brought
back to OR for further debridement
Delayed skin closure, vacuum dressings or skin-grafting
3-7 days after.
51. Skin graft was necessary to close the fasciotomy wound which is seen 8
months post op with near-normal recovery due to the early recognition and
prompt tx of the condition
56. DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS of ACS
Cellulitis
DVT and Thrombophlebitis
Gas Gangrene
Necrotizing Fasciitis
Peripheral Vascular injuries
Rhabdomyolysis
57.
58. PREVENTION
High index of suspicion on complaint of extremity
pain especially post high velocity injury and patient
on cast
Health education of patient on cast on recognition
of symptoms and early re-presentation in the
hospital
Waiting for swellings to resolve b4 application of
cast
Timely splitting of cast
Routine measurement of ICP
Prompt treatment on diagnosis
59. FUTURE TREND
• Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)- measure skin
temperature difference
• Scintigraphy
• Laser doppler flowmetry
• Ultra sound – measure sub-micrometer displacement of
fascia
• MRI
60. PROGNOSIS
• Excellent to poor - depending on how quickly ACS is
diagnosed and treated, and whether or not
complications develop
• Nerve dysfunction maybe reversible with time but
infarcted muscle is damaged permanently.
• Early surgery gives good functional outcome but delay
results in muscle ischaemia & necrosis
61. CONCLUSION
Very important to make diagnosis
There is still no conclusive answer to the critical
threshold of intra compartmental pressure at which
fasciotomy should be performed.
Prevention and early decompression are emphasized
in the management of ACS as treatment of
complicated cases is unrewarding.
Missed compartment syndrome is devastating
Re-examine patient!
62. REFERENCES
Apley’s System of Orthopaedics and Fractures, 9th ed.
Campbell’s Operative Orthopaedics 12th ed.
Schwartz principles of surgery, 10th ed.
www.emedicine.medscape.com
April 2007 By Kumar V Saeed, A Panagopoulos, PJ Parker
Wheeless’ Textbook of Orthopaedics- Compartment syndrome of the Foot.
Acute Compartment Syndrome Update on Diagnosis and treatment by TE
Whitesides and MM Heckman Academy of Orthopaedic Surgery July 1996