class 7

1. EWRT
2 Class
7

2. AGENDA
• Vocabulary Test #3
• Review: Essay #1
• Counterarguments
• Conclusions
• Rhetorical Strategies: Aphorism and
Chiasmus
• In-Class Writing: Counterarguments,
Conclusions, Aphorism, Chiasmus

3. Vocab Test: Take 10 minutes
Use a piece of notebook paper for your answers

4. Review
• Characterization
• At least six different methods
• The prompt
• One of five or your own
• Directed Summary
• Working Thesis
• Outline with quotations
• Paragraph practice: Quotations with
explanations
• An analogy or two

5. The Counterargument

6. What is a Counterargument?
A counterargument is an
argument, with factual
evidence or other kinds of
support, that challenges
either your thesis or a
major argument for it.

7. What is the purpose of
identifying counterarguments?
By identifying counterarguments to your ideas, and seeing
whether you can respond to them adequately, you test
the persuasiveness of the ideas. Some writers avoid
thinking about counterarguments because they fear that
mentioning them will weaken their own arguments.
They're wrong. Even if you don't mention arguments that
might plausibly be used against your own argument, you
can be certain that your readers will think of them and
discount your argument accordingly. A good response to
a counterargument is often the most persuasive part of
your own argument.

8. How do I think through arguments
and counterarguments?
• 1. You come up with a thesis that expresses your view of the
evidence and of the conclusions that should be drawn from it.
• 2. You clearly identify your evidence and arguments in your
own mind.
• 3. You seek evidence or logic on the other side, evidence or
logic that might undermine your thesis; you anticipate what
critics might say to attack your case.
• 4. You state the opposing argument or arguments, and you
show that they don't succeed in refuting your own
arguments.

9. Thesis: There is only one character who is the true villain of A Game of Thrones, as
showcased by the quintessential characteristics of a sociopath: Petyr “Littlefinger” Baelish.
When considering all the characters in George R.R. Martin’s A Game of Thrones, many appear to have
questionable motives and an unbridled lust for power. This is especially true of the main characters
residing King’s Landing. Cersei and Jaime Lannister, and Lord Varys come to mind instantly—
manipulative betrayers who would seemingly do anything to achieve their goals. But they are not truly
villainous, as their propensity for betrayal and cruelty is most often motivated not by selfish ambition,
but instead by love. Cersei loves her children fiercely, and it is that love by which she justifies her actions
and betrayals. Jaime adores Cersei and will do anything to protect her—even throw a young boy from a
tower. And Lord Varys is clear on his motivations for gathering information and manipulating those in his
web: He “serves the realm.” There is only one character who is devoid of empathy, is steeped in glibness
and charm, and exhibits the quintessential characteristics of a sociopath, and it is he who is the true
villain in the Game of Thrones: Petyr “Littlefinger” Baelish.

10. Do you need a counterargument?
6. Is there an alternative explanation or
proposal that some might more readily
believe?
1. Is there an obvious argument against your thesis?
2. Is there a different conclusion could be drawn from the same
facts?
3. Do you make a key assumption with which others might
disagree?
4. Do you use a term that someone else might define a
different way?
5. Do you ignore certain evidence that others might believe you
need to address?

11. A Counterargument
• Address alternative opinions your readers might have regarding
your character.
• Think about instances when your character appears to act in a way that could
be perceived as contrary to your thesis. Explain why you don’t see the
behavior as contrary.
• Explain behaviors that are out of the ordinary or out of line with your thesis
by analyzing text to show extenuating circumstances.
Consider the arguing exercises we have
done in class. How might you address
your peers’ questions and comments
without the obvious question/answer
format?

12. 4. as a section or paragraph just before the conclusion of your essay, in
which you imagine what someone might object to what you have
argued.
But watch that you do not overdo it. A turn into counterargument here and
there will sharpen and energize your essay, but too many such turns will
have the reverse effect by obscuring your main idea or suggesting that you
are ambivalent.
Where to Put a Counterargument
Counterargument can appear anywhere in the essay. Try it in several places and see where it fits
best:
1. as part of your introduction—before you propose your thesis—where the existence of a
different view is the motive for your essay, the reason it needs writing.
2. as a section or paragraph just after your introduction, in which you lay out the expected reaction
or standard position before turning away to develop your own.
3. as a quick move within a paragraph, where you imagine a counterargument not to your main
idea but to the sub-idea that the paragraph is arguing or is about to argue.

13. Conclusion
Gotta have it!

14. Strategies for Writing a
Conclusion
Conclusions are often the most difficult part of an
essay to write, and many writers feel that they have
nothing left to say after having written the paper. A
writer needs to keep in mind that the conclusion is
often what a reader remembers best. Your conclusion
should be the best part of your paper.
A conclusion should
• stress the importance of the thesis statement,
• give the essay a sense of completeness, and
• leave a final impression on the reader.

15. Strategies to Avoid
1. Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as “in
conclusion,” “in summary,” or “in closing.” Although these
phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden
and trite in writing.
2. Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
3. Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
4. Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any
substantive changes.
5. Making sentimental, emotional appeals that are out of
character with the rest of an analytical paper.
6. Including evidence (quotations, statistics, or data.) that
should be in the body of the paper.

16. The Conclusion
You can discuss how this character fits
into the work as a whole.
You might address how the work
would be changed if your character
were gone.
You can apply insights about this
character to a real-world situation. Do
we grow as readers from interacting
with your character?
You might SUBTLY remind the reader
of your central idea and thesis.

17. Conclusion
• Petyr Baelish is a jagged rock that has been
thrown into the still pond of King’s
Landing. He is the catalyst for most of the
main conflicts and is the silent impetus for
the vast majority of the characters’
dissatisfaction or death. Without him,
things in Westeros would likely have run
rather smoothly. Instead, Littlefinger uses
chaos and confusion as a sociopathic
mechanism to further his own goals and
fuel his boundless need for power.

18. Rhetorical
Strategies:
Aphorism and
Chiasmus
Learning to recognize them
Learning to write them

19. Aphorism
• An aphorism is a
saying—a concise
statement of a
principle—that has
been accepted (or we
want to be accepted)
as true.
• Familiar example
• “A penny saved is a
penny earned”
• There is no fool like an
old fool”

20. Aphorisms
•Such statements have important
qualities:
• They are pithy: they say a great deal
in a few words.
• They appear to contain wisdom:
they are delivered as truth, and they
have the ring of other aphorisms we
accept as true.

22. Writing Aphorisms:
Method One
• There is the ‘spontaneous combustion’ method,
in which the aphorism flares out fully formed at
unexpected moments, sending the writer
scrabbling for napkins, envelopes or any other
scrap of paper on which to write it down.
• No snowflake in an avalanche
ever feels responsible.
Thanks to author and journalist James Geary for the
information and examples of aphorisms:
http://www.jamesgeary.com/blog/how-to-write-an-
aphorism/

23. Method Two
• Then there is the “deliberate
composition” method, where a
writer discusses all manner of
subjects, such as love and friendship,
then retires for hours to produce
several sheets of prose, all of which
are eventually distilled down to one
or two sharp, shining sentences:
 In the adversity of even our best
friends we always find something
not wholly displeasing.

24. Method Three
• And then there are the “accidental
aphorists,” those writers who never
intend to compose aphorisms but
just can’t help themselves—
aphorisms occur naturally within
longer stretches of text, such as
essays, novels, or poems. Ralph
Waldo Emerson was a classic
accidental aphorist:
 What is a weed? A plant whose
virtues have yet to be discovered.

25. Rules to Consider
•Keep it short (after all,
only a fool gives a speech
in a burning house),
•Definitive (no ifs, ands, or
buts),
•Philosophical (it should
make you think), and give
it a twist.

26. Not fancy, just thoughtful
• What is a bastard? A man whose
birth right overshadows his human
rights.
• Bravery conquers fear; otherwise,
it is stupidity.
• If Arya cannot save herself, she
cannot hope to be saved.

27. Give it a try: Choose a word and write a
short, pointed statement expressing a
truth, doctrine, or principle.
• Power
• Execution
• Death
• Betrayal
• Prostitution
• Hostage
• Bastard
• Winter
• Bravery
• Fear
• Throne
• Honor
Example: Marriage
A lottery in which men
stake their liberty and
women their happiness.
-- Madame DiRieux
One long conversation,
checkered by disputes.
-- Robert Louis Stevenson

28. Chiasmus
"to mark with an
X.”
The Oxford English Dictionary (OED)
defines chiasmus as, "A grammatical
figure by which the order of words in one
of two of parallel clauses is inverted in the
other.” This may involve a repetition of
the same words ("Pleasure's a sin, and
sometimes sin's a pleasure" —Byron) or
just a reversed parallel between two
corresponding pairs of ideas.

29. A reversed order of the grammar in two or more clauses in a
sentence will yield a chiasmus.
Consider the example of a parallel sentence:
“He knowingly led and we blindly followed”
Inverting into chiasmus:
“He knowingly led and we followed blindly”
Simple Grammatical Chiasmus

30. From Writing with Clarity and style: Chapter 1 by Robert A. Harris
Parallelism: The code breakers worked constantly but succeeded rarely.
Chiasmus: The code breakers worked constantly but rarely succeeded.
Chiasmus is effective for bringing two elements close together for
contrast or emphasis, as you can see with the adverbs constantly and
rarely in the example above. The chiastic structure places them
almost next to each other for greater contrast than would be
provided by a strictly parallel structure.

31. Try converting these two from parallelism
to chiasmus
• Parallelism: Arya trains Nymeria daily and
plays with her happily
• Parallelism: When Jon Snow arrives at the
wall, he seems happy enough, but when
the arms master treats him badly, he
becomes frustrated and angry.

32. Here are two possibilities
• Parallelism: Arya trains Nymeria daily and plays with her
happily
• Chiasmus: Arya trains Nymeria daily and happily plays with
her
• Parallelism: When Jon Snow arrives at the wall, he seems
happy enough, but when the arms master treats him badly,
he gets frustrated and angry.
• Chiasmus: When Jon Snow arrives at the wall, he seems
happy enough, but he gets frustrated and angry when the
arms master treats him badly.

33. A Little Trickier
Kind of Chiasmus

34. • One of the most fascinating features of chiasmus is this
"marking with an X" notion (word reversal). Take Mae
West's signature line, "It's not the men in my life, it's the
life in my men." By laying out the two clauses parallel to
each other, it's possible to draw two lines connecting the
key words:
It's not the men in my life
X
it's the life in my men.
Thanks to author and psychologist Dr. Mardy Grothe for the information and
examples of chiasmus http://www.drmardy.com/chiasmus/definition.shtml

35. Word Reversal Chiasmus
Home is where the great are small
X
and the small are great
One should eat to live
X
not live to eat

36. Chiasmus can also be achieved by reversing more than two key
words
• "Lust is what makes you keep wanting to
do it,
even when you have no desire to be with
each other.
Love is what makes you keep wanting to
be with each other,
even when you have no desire to do it."
• — Judith Viorst

37. More Examples
• "We do not stop playing because we grow
old; we grow old because we stop
playing." -- Benjamin Franklin
• "The absence of evidence is not the
evidence of absence." -- Carl Sagan
• “All for one and one for all” --Alexandre
Dumas
• "I am stuck on Band-Aid, and Band-Aid's
stuck on me."
(advertising jingle for Band-Aid bandages)

38. Review and Practice: Try to use words and phrases
that link to your character
• Word Reversal:
• One should eat to live not live to eat
• Home is where the great are small and the small are great
• Phrase Reversal:
• "The absence of evidence is not the evidence of absence." --
Carl Sagan
• “All for one and one for all” --Alexandre Dumas
• "I am stuck on Band-Aid, and Band-Aid's stuck on me."

39. Even Trickier
Chiasmus!
Just so you know

40. Letter Reversal
• "A magician is a person who pulls rabbits out of hats.
An experimental psychologist is a person who pulls
habits out of rats.”
• "a doe and fawn" hide from "their foe at dawn."

41. Sound Reversal
•"I'd rather have a bottle in front of me
Than a frontal lobotomy."
— Randy Hanzlick, title of song

42. Reversal of Homonyms
• "Why do we drive on a parkway
and park on a driveway?”
— Richard Lederer
• "Here's champagne for our real friends
and real pain for our sham friends.”
— Edwardian Toast

43. Number Reversal
• "A lawyer starts life giving $500 worth of law for $5 and ends
giving $5 worth for $500.”
— Benjamin H. Brewster
• "Errol Flynn died on a 70-foot boat with a 17-year-old girl.
Walter has always wanted to go that way,
but he's going to settle for a 17-footer with a 70-year-old.
— Betsy Maxwell Cronkite, wife of Walter Cronkite.

44. Meet in the library lobby
7:30 class meets 7:55 to 9:45
10am class meets 9:55 to 12:00
Class 8

45. •Read A Game of Thrones through page 700
•Post # 12: Counterargument
•Post #13: Conclusion
•Post #14: Examples of aphorism and chiasmus