Mohandas Gandhi was born in 1869 in Porbandar, India to a Hindu Modh Baniya family. He grew up in a religiously eclectic family and was influenced by his deeply pious mother. He faced discrimination and racism when he traveled to London to study law and later in South Africa, where he lived for 21 years and developed his philosophy and approach of nonviolent civil disobedience. He fought against unfair treatment of Indians in South Africa and helped unite Indians through organizations like the Natal Indian Congress.

1. Biography
Early life andbackground
Mohandas KaramchandGandhi[14] wasborn on 2 October1869[1] intoa Gujarati HinduModh Baniya
family[15] inPorbandar(alsoknownasSudamapuri),acoastal townonthe KathiawarPeninsulaand
thenpart of the small princelystate of Porbandarinthe KathiawarAgencyof the IndianEmpire.His
father,KaramchandUttamchandGandhi (1822–1885), servedasthe diwan(chief minister) of Porbandar
state.[16]
Althoughhe onlyhadan elementaryeducationandhadpreviouslybeenaclerkinthe state
administration,Karamchandprovedacapable chief minister.[17] Duringhistenure,Karamchand
marriedfourtimes.Hisfirsttwowivesdiedyoung,aftereachhadgivenbirthtoa daughter,andhisthird
marriage waschildless.In1857, Karamchand soughthisthirdwife'spermissiontoremarry;thatyear,he
marriedPutlibai (1844–1891), whoalsocame fromJunagadh,[18] andwas froma Pranami Vaishnava
family.[19][20][21][22] KaramchandandPutlibai hadthree childrenoverthe ensuingdecade:ason,
Laxmidas(c.1860–1914); a daughter,Raliatbehn(1862–1960); andanotherson,Karsandas (c.1866–
1913).[23][24]
On 2 October 1869, Putlibai gave birthtoherlast child,Mohandas,ina dark,windowlessground-floor
room of the Gandhi family residenceinPorbandarcity.Asa child,Gandhi wasdescribedbyhissister
Raliatas "restlessasmercury,eitherplayingorroamingabout.One of hisfavourite pastimeswas
twistingdogs'ears."[25] The Indianclassics,especiallythe storiesof Shravana andkingHarishchandra,
had a great impacton Gandhi inhischildhood.Inhisautobiography,he admitsthattheyleftanindelible
impressiononhismind.He writes:"Ithauntedme andI musthave actedHarishchandrato myself times
withoutnumber."Gandhi'searlyself-identificationwithtruthandlove assupreme valuesistraceableto
these epiccharacters.[26][27]
The family'sreligiousbackgroundwaseclectic.Gandhi'sfatherKaramchandwasHinduandhismother
Putlibai wasfroma Pranami VaishnavaHindufamily.[28][29] Gandhi'sfatherwasof Modh Baniyacaste
inthe varnaof Vaishya.[30] Hismothercame fromthe medieval Krishnabhakti-basedPranami tradition,
whose religioustextsincludethe BhagavadGita,the BhagavataPurana, anda collectionof 14 textswith
teachingsthatthe traditionbelievestoinclude the essence of the Vedas,the Quranandthe
Bible.[29][31] Gandhi wasdeeplyinfluencedbyhismother,anextremelypiousladywho"wouldnot
thinkof takingher mealswithoutherdailyprayers...she wouldtake the hardestvowsandkeepthem
withoutflinching.Tokeeptwoorthree consecutive fastswasnothingtoher."[32]
In 1874, Gandhi's fatherKaramchandleftPorbandarforthe smallerstate of Rajkot,where he became a
counsellortoitsruler,the ThakurSahib;thoughRajkotwas a lessprestigiousstate thanPorbandar,the
Britishregional political agencywaslocatedthere,whichgave the state'sdiwanameasure of

2. security.[33] In1876, Karamchand became diwanof Rajkotandwas succeededas diwanof Porbandar
by hisbrotherTulsidas.HisfamilythenrejoinedhiminRajkot.[34]
Gandhi (right) withhiseldestbrotherLaxmidasin1886.[35]
At age 9, Gandhi enteredthe local school inRajkot,nearhishome.There he studiedthe rudimentsof
arithmetic,history,the Gujarati language andgeography.[34] Atage 11, he joinedthe HighSchool in
Rajkot.[36] He was an average student,wonsome prizes,butwasashy and tongue tiedstudent,withno
interestingames;hisonlycompanionswerebooksand school lessons.[37]
While athighschool,Gandhi'selderbrotherintroducedhimtoaMuslimfriendnamedSheikhMehtab.
Mehtab wasolderinage,tallerandencouragedthe strictlyvegetarianboytoeatmeatto gainheight.
He alsotookMohandas to a brothel one day,thoughMohandas"was struckblindanddumb inthisden
of vice,"rebuffedthe prostitutes'advancesandwaspromptlysentoutof the brothel.The experience
causedMohandas mental anguish,andhe abandonedthe companyof Mehtab.[38]
In May 1883, the 13-year-oldMohandaswasmarriedto 14-year-oldKasturbai Makhanji Kapadia(her
firstname was usuallyshortenedto"Kasturba",andaffectionatelyto"Ba") inan arrangedmarriage,
accordingto the customof the regionatthat time.[39] Inthe process,he losta yearat school,butwas
laterallowedtomake upby acceleratinghisstudies.[40] Hisweddingwasajointevent,where his
brotherand cousinwere alsomarried.Recallingthe dayof theirmarriage,he once said,"Aswe didn't
knowmuch about marriage,forus it meantonlywearingnew clothes,eatingsweetsandplayingwith
relatives."However,aswasprevailingtradition,the adolescentbride wastospendmuchtime ather
parents'house,andaway fromherhusband.[41] Writingmanyyearslater,Mohandasdescribedwith
regretthe lustful feelingshe feltforhisyoungbride,"evenatschool Iusedto thinkof her,and the
thoughtof nightfall andoursubsequentmeetingwaseverhauntingme."He laterrecalledfeeling
jealousandpossessive of her,suchaswhenshe wouldvisitatemple withhergirlfriends,andbeing
sexuallylustfulinhisfeelingsforher.[42]
In late 1885, Gandhi'sfatherKaramchand died.[43] Gandhi,then16years old,andhiswife of age 17 had
theirfirstbaby,whosurvived onlyafewdays.The twodeathsanguishedGandhi.[43] The Gandhi couple
had fourmore children,all sons:Harilal,bornin1888; Manilal,bornin 1892; Ramdas,born in1897; and
Devdas,bornin1900.[39]
In November1887, the 18-year-oldGandhi graduated fromhighschool inAhmedabad.[44] InJanuary
1888, he enrolledatSamaldasCollege inBhavnagarState,thenthe sole degree-grantinginstitutionof
highereducationinthe region.Buthe droppedoutandreturnedtohis familyinPorbandar.[45]

3. Englishbarrister
Gandhi came froma poor family,andhe haddroppedoutof the cheapestcollege he couldafford.[46]
Mavji Dave Joshiji,aBrahminpriestandfamilyfriend,advisedGandhi andhisfamilythathe should
considerlawstudiesinLondon.[47] InJuly1888, his wife Kasturbagave birthtotheirfirstsurvivingson,
Harilal.[48] Hismotherwasnot comfortable aboutGandhi leavinghiswife andfamily,andgoingsofar
fromhome.Gandhi'suncle Tulsidasalsotriedtodissuade hisnephew.Gandhi wantedtogo. To
persuade hiswife andmother,Gandhi made avow infront of hismotherthat he wouldabstainfrom
meat,alcohol andwomen.Gandhi'sbrotherLaxmidas,whowasalreadyalawyer,cheeredGandhi's
Londonstudiesplanandofferedtosupporthim.Putlibaigave Gandhi herpermissionand
blessing.[45][49]
On 10 August1888, Gandhi aged18, leftPorbandarforMumbai,thenknownasBombay.Upon arrival,
he stayedwiththe local Modh Bania communitywhile waitingforthe shiptravel arrangements.The
headof the communityknewGandhi'sfather.AfterlearningGandhi'splans,he andotherelderswarned
Gandhi that Englandwouldtempthimtocompromise hisreligion,andeatanddrinkinWesternways.
Gandhi informedthemof hispromise tohismotherandherblessings. The local chief disregardedit,and
excommunicatedhimanoutcast.But Gandhi ignoredthis,andon4 September,he sailedfromBombay
to London.Hisbrothersaw himoff.[48][50]
Gandhi inLondon as a lawstudent
In London,Gandhi studiedlawand jurisprudence andenrolledatthe InnerTemple withthe intentionof
becomingabarrister.Hischildhoodshynessandself withdrawalhadcontinuedthroughhisteens,and
he remainedsowhenhe arrivedinLondon,buthe joinedapublicspeakingpractice groupand
overcame thishandicaptopractise law.[51]
His time inLondonwasinfluencedbythe vow he had made to hismother.He triedto adopt"English"
customs,includingtakingdancinglessons.However,he couldnotappreciate the blandvegetarianfood
offeredbyhislandladyandwasfrequentlyhungryuntil he foundone of London'sfew vegetarian
restaurants.InfluencedbyHenrySalt'swriting,he joinedthe VegetarianSociety,waselectedtoits
executivecommittee,[52] andstarteda local Bayswaterchapter.[21] Some of the vegetarianshe met
were membersof the Theosophical Society,whichhadbeenfoundedin1875 to furtheruniversal
brotherhood,andwhichwasdevotedtothe studyof BuddhistandHinduliterature.Theyencouraged
Gandhi to jointheminreadingthe BhagavadGita bothin translationaswell asinthe original.[52]
Gandhi,at age 22, was calledtothe bar inJune 1891 and thenleftLondonforIndia,where he learned
that hismotherhad diedwhile he wasinLondonandthat hisfamilyhadkept the newsfromhim.[52]

4. His attemptsatestablishingalawpractice in Bombayfailedbecause he waspsychologicallyunable to
cross-examinewitnesses.He returnedtoRajkotto make a modestlivingdraftingpetitionsforlitigants,
but he was forcedtostop whenhe ran afoul of a Britishofficer.[21][52] In1893, a Muslimmerchantin
KathiawarnamedDada AbdullahcontactedGandhi.Abdullahownedalarge successful shippingbusiness
inSouth Africa.HisdistantcousininJohannesburgneededalawyer,andthey preferredsomeonewith
Kathiawari heritage.Gandhi inquiredabouthispayforthe work.Theyofferedatotal salary of £105 plus
travel expenses.He acceptedit,knowingthatitwouldbe at leastone-yearcommitmentinthe Colonyof
Natal,SouthAfrica,alsoa part of the BritishEmpire.[21][53]
Civil rightsactivistinSouthAfrica(1893–1914)
In April 1893, Gandhi aged23, setsail for SouthAfricato be the lawyerforAbdullah'scousin.[53][54] He
spent21 yearsinSouth Africa,where he developedhis political views,ethicsandpolitics.[55]
ImmediatelyuponarrivinginSouthAfrica,Gandhi faceddiscriminationbecause of hisskincolourand
heritage,like all peopleof colour.[56] He wasnotallowedtositwithEuropeanpassengersinthe
stagecoachand toldto siton the floornearthe driver,thenbeatenwhenhe refused;elsewhere he was
kickedintoa gutterfordaring to walkneara house,inanotherinstance thrownoff atrain at
Pietermaritzburgafterrefusingtoleave the first-class.[57][58] He satinthe trainstation,shiveringall
nightand ponderingif he shouldreturntoIndiaorprotestfor hisrights.[58] He chose to protestand
was allowedtoboardthe trainthe nextday.[59] In anotherincident,the magistrate of aDurbancourt
orderedGandhi toremove histurban,whichhe refusedtodo.[60] Indianswere notallowedtowalkon
publicfootpathsinSouthAfrica.Gandhi waskickedbya police officeroutof the footpathontothe
streetwithoutwarning.[61]
WhenGandhi arrivedinSouthAfrica,accordingto Herman,he thoughtof himself as"aBritonfirst,and
an Indiansecond".[62] However,the prejudice againsthimandhisfellow IndiansfromBritishpeople
that Gandhi experiencedandobserveddeeplybotheredhim.He foundithumiliating,strugglingto
understandhowsome peoplecanfeel honourorsuperiorityorpleasure insuchinhumanepractices.[58]
Gandhi beganto questionhispeople'sstandinginthe BritishEmpire.[63]
The Abdullahcase thathad broughthimto SouthAfricaconcludedin May 1894, and the Indian
communityorganisedafarewell partyforGandhi as he preparedtoreturnto India.[64] However,anew
Natal governmentdiscriminatoryproposal ledtoGandhi extendinghisoriginalperiodof stayinSouth
Africa.He plannedtoassistIndiansinopposingabill todenythemthe rightto vote,a right then
proposedtobe an exclusive Europeanright.He askedJosephChamberlain,the BritishColonial
Secretary,toreconsiderhispositiononthisbill.[55] Thoughunable tohaltthe bill'spassage,his
campaignwas successful indrawingattentiontothe grievancesof IndiansinSouthAfrica.He helped
foundthe Natal IndianCongressin1894,[21][59] and throughthisorganisation,he mouldedthe Indian
communityof SouthAfricaintoa unifiedpoliticalforce.InJanuary1897, whenGandhi landedinDurban,

5. a mob of white settlersattackedhim[65] andhe escapedonlythroughthe effortsof the wife of the
police superintendent.However,he refusedtopresschargesagainstanymemberof the mob.[21]
Gandhi withthe stretcher-bearersof the IndianAmbulanceCorps
Duringthe Boer War, Gandhi volunteeredin1900 to forma group of stretcher-bearersasthe Natal
IndianAmbulance Corps.AccordingtoArthurHerman,Gandhi wantedtodisprove the imperial British
stereotype thatHinduswere notfitfor"manly"activitiesinvolvingdangerandexertion,unlike the
Muslim"martial races".[66] Gandhi raisedelevenhundredIndianvolunteers,tosupportBritishcombat
troopsagainstthe Boers.Theywere trainedandmedicallycertifiedtoserve onthe frontlines.They
were auxiliariesatthe Battle of Colensotoa White volunteerambulancecorps;thenatSpionKop
Gandhi and hisbearersmovedtothe front line andhadto carry woundedsoldiersformilestoa field
hospital because the terrainwastooroughfor the ambulances.Gandhi andthirty-sevenotherIndians
receivedthe Queen'sSouthAfricaMedal.[67]
Gandhi and hiswife Kasturba(1902)
In 1906, the Transvaal governmentpromulgatedanew Actcompelling registrationof the colony'sIndian
and Chinese populations.AtamassprotestmeetingheldinJohannesburgon11 Septemberthatyear,
Gandhi adoptedhisstill evolvingmethodologyof Satyagraha(devotiontothe truth),or nonviolent
protest,forthe firsttime.[68] AccordingtoAnthonyParel,Gandhi wasalsoinfluencedbythe Tamil text
Tirukkuṛaḷ because LeoTolstoymentioneditintheircorrespondence thatbeganwith"A Lettertoa
Hindu".[69][70] Gandhi urgedIndianstodefythe new law andto sufferthe punishmentsfordoingso.
Gandhi'sideasof protests,persuasionskillsandpublicrelationshademerged.He tookthese backto
Indiain1915.[71][72]
Europeans,IndiansandAfricans
Gandhi focusedhisattentiononIndianswhile inSouthAfrica.He was notinterestedinpolitics.This
changedafterhe was discriminatedagainstandbullied,suchasbybeingthrownoutof a train coach
because of hisskincolourby a white trainofficial.Afterseveral suchincidentswithWhitesinSouth
Africa,Gandhi's thinkingandfocuschanged,andhe felthe mustresistthisandfightfor rights.He
enteredpoliticsbyformingthe Natal IndianCongress.[73] AccordingtoAshwinDesai andGoolam
Vahed,Gandhi'sviewsonracismare contentious,andinsome cases,distressingtothose whoadmire
him.Gandhi sufferedpersecutionfromthe beginninginSouthAfrica.Like withothercolouredpeople,
white officialsdeniedhimhisrights,andthe pressandthose inthe streetsbulliedandcalledhima
"parasite","semi-barbarous","canker","squalidcoolie","yellowman",andotherepithets.People
wouldspitonhimas an expressionof racial hate.[74]

6. While inSouthAfrica,Gandhi focusedonracial persecutionof Indians,butignoredthose of Africans.In
some cases,state Desai and Vahed,hisbehaviourwasone of beingawillingpartof racial stereotyping
and Africanexploitation.[74] DuringaspeechinSeptember1896, Gandhi complainedthatthe whitesin
the Britishcolonyof SouthAfricawere degradingIndianHindusandMuslimsto"alevel of Kaffir".
Scholarscite it as an example of evidence thatGandhi at thattime thoughtof Indiansand blackSouth
Africansdifferently.[74] AsanotherexamplegivenbyHerman,Gandhi,atage 24, preparedalegal brief
for the Natal Assemblyin1895, seekingvotingrightsforIndians.Gandhi citedrace historyandEuropean
Orientalists'opinionsthat"Anglo-SaxonsandIndiansare sprungfromthe same Aryanstock or rather
the Indo-Europeanpeoples",andarguedthatIndiansshouldnotbe groupedwiththe Africans.[64]
Years later,Gandhi andhiscolleaguesservedandhelpedAfricansasnursesandbyopposingracism,
accordingto the Nobel Peace Prize winnerNelsonMandela.The general imageof Gandhi,state Desai
and Vahed,hasbeen reinventedsince hisassassinationasif he wasalwaysa saint,wheninrealityhis
life wasmore complex,containedinconvenienttruthsandwasone that evolvedovertime.[74] In
contrast,otherAfricascholarsstate the evidence pointstoa richhistory of co-operationandeffortsby
Gandhi and Indianpeople withnonwhite SouthAfricansagainstpersecutionof Africansandthe
Apartheid.[75]
In 1906, whenthe Britishdeclaredwaragainstthe ZuluKingdominNatal,Gandhi at age 36,
sympathisedwiththe Zulus,andencouragedthe Indianvolunteerstohelpasanambulance unit.[76] He
arguedthat Indiansshouldparticipate inthe wareffortstochange attitudesandperceptionsof the
Britishpeople againstthe colouredpeople.[77] Gandhi,agroupof 20 Indiansandblackpeople of South
Africavolunteeredasa stretcher-bearercorpstotreat woundedBritishsoldiersandthe opposite sideof
the war: Zuluvictims.[76]
Gandhi photographedinSouthAfrica(1909)
White soldiersstoppedGandhi andteamfromtreatingthe injuredZulu,andsome Africanstretcher-
bearerswithGandhi were shotdeadbythe British.The medical teamcommandedbyGandhi operated
for lessthantwomonths.[76] Gandhi volunteeringtohelpasa "staunchloyalist"duringthe Zuluand
otherwars made no difference inthe Britishattitude,statesHerman,andthe Africanexperience wasa
part of hisgreatdisillusionmentwiththe West,transforminghimintoan"uncompromisingnon-
cooperator".[77]
In 1910, Gandhi establishedanidealisticcommunitycalled'TolstoyFarm'nearJohannesburg,where he
nurturedhispolicyof peaceful resistance.[78][79]

7. In the yearsafterblack SouthAfricansgainedthe righttovote inSouthAfrica(1994), Gandhi was
proclaimedanational herowithnumerousmonuments.[80]
Struggle forIndianindependence (1915–1947)
See also:Indianindependence movement
At the requestof Gopal KrishnaGokhale,conveyedtohimbyC. F. Andrews,Gandhi returnedtoIndiain
1915. He broughtan internationalreputationasa leadingIndiannationalist,theoristandcommunity
organiser.
Gandhi joinedthe IndianNationalCongressandwasintroducedtoIndianissues,politicsandthe Indian
people primarilybyGokhale.Gokhalewasakeyleaderof the CongressPartybestknownforhis
restraintandmoderation,andhisinsistence onworkinginside the system.Gandhi tookGokhale'sliberal
approach basedonBritishWhiggishtraditionsandtransformedittomake it lookIndian.[81]
Gandhi tookleadershipof the Congressin1920 and beganescalatingdemandsuntil on26 January1930
the IndianNational Congressdeclaredthe independence of India.The Britishdidnotrecognisethe
declarationbutnegotiationsensued,withthe Congresstakingarole inprovincial governmentinthe late
1930s. Gandhi andthe Congresswithdrewtheirsupportof the Raj whenthe Viceroydeclaredwaron
GermanyinSeptember1939 withoutconsultation.Tensionsescalateduntil Gandhi demanded
immediate independence in1942 andthe Britishrespondedbyimprisoninghimandtensof thousands
of Congressleaders.Meanwhile,the MuslimLeague didco-operate withBritainandmoved,against
Gandhi'sstrong opposition,todemandsforatotallyseparate Muslimstate of Pakistan.InAugust1947
the Britishpartitionedthe landwithIndiaandPakistaneachachievingindependence ontermsthat
Gandhi disapproved.[82]
Role inWorldWar I
See also:The role of IndiainWorldWar I
In April 1918, duringthe latterpart of World War I, the ViceroyinvitedGandhi toaWar Conference in
Delhi.[83] Gandhi agreedtoactivelyrecruitIndiansforthe wareffort.[84][85] Incontrast to the Zulu
War of 1906 and the outbreakof WorldWar I in1914, whenhe recruitedvolunteersforthe Ambulance
Corps,thistime Gandhi attemptedtorecruitcombatants. Ina June 1918 leafletentitled"Appeal for
Enlistment",Gandhi wrote "Tobringaboutsucha state of thingswe shouldhave the abilitytodefend
ourselves,thatis,the abilitytobeararmsand to use them...If we wanttolearnthe use of arms withthe
greatestpossible despatch,itisourdutyto enlistourselvesinthe army."[86] He did,however,stipulate
ina lettertothe Viceroy'sprivate secretarythathe "personallywillnotkill orinjure anybody,friendor
foe."[87]

8. Gandhi'swar recruitmentcampaignbroughtintoquestionhisconsistencyonnonviolence.Gandhi's
private secretarynotedthat"The questionof the consistencybetweenhiscreedof 'Ahimsa'
(nonviolence) andhisrecruitingcampaignwasraisednotonlythenbuthasbeendiscussedever
since."[84]
Champaranand Kheda
Champaranagitations
Main article:ChamparanSatyagraha
Gandhi in1918, at the time of the Khedaand ChamparanSatyagrahas
Gandhi'sfirstmajorachievementcame in1917 withthe ChamparanagitationinBihar.The Champaran
agitationpittedthe local peasantryagainsttheirlargelyBritishlandlordswhowere backedbythe local
administration.The peasantrywasforcedtogrow Indigo,a cash crop whose demandhadbeendeclining
overtwo decades,andwere forcedtosell theircropstothe plantersata fixedprice.Unhappywiththis,
the peasantryappealedtoGandhi at hisashramin Ahmedabad.Pursuingastrategyof nonviolent
protest,Gandhi tookthe administrationbysurprise andwonconcessionsfromthe authorities.[88]
Khedaagitations
Main article:KhedaSatyagraha
In 1918, Khedawas hitby floodsandfamine andthe peasantrywasdemandingrelief fromtaxes.Gandhi
movedhisheadquarterstoNadiad,[89] organisingscoresof supportersandfreshvolunteersfromthe
region,the mostnotable beingVallabhbhai Patel.[90] Usingnon-co-operationasa technique,Gandhi
initiatedasignature campaignwhere peasantspledgednon-paymentof revenueevenunderthe threat
of confiscationof land.A social boycottof mamlatdarsandtalatdars(revenue officialswithinthe
district) accompaniedthe agitation.Gandhi workedhardtowinpublicsupportforthe agitationacross
the country.For five months,the administrationrefusedbutfinallyinend-May1918, the Government
gave way onimportantprovisionsandrelaxedthe conditionsof paymentof revenue tax until the famine
ended.InKheda,VallabhbhaiPatel representedthe farmersinnegotiationswiththe British,who
suspendedrevenuecollectionandreleasedall the prisoners.[91]
Khilafatmovement
In 1919 afterthe WorldWar I was over,Gandhi (aged49) soughtpolitical co-operationfromMuslimsin
hisfightagainstBritishimperialismbysupportingthe OttomanEmpire thathadbeendefeatedinthe
WorldWar. Before thisinitiative of Gandhi,communal disputesandreligiousriotsbetweenHindusand
Muslimswere commoninBritishIndia,suchasthe riotsof 1917–18. Gandhi had alreadysupportedthe
Britishcrownwithresourcesandby recruitingIndiansoldierstofightthe warin Europe on the British
side.Thiseffortof Gandhi wasinpart motivatedbythe Britishpromise toreciprocate the helpwith

9. swaraj (self-government) toIndiansafterthe endof WorldWar I.[92] The Britishgovernment,insteadof
self government,hadofferedminorreformsinstead,disappointingGandhi.[93] Gandhi announcedhis
satyagraha(civil disobedience) intentions.The Britishcolonialofficialsmade theircountermove by
passingthe RowlattAct,to blockGandhi'smovement.The Actallowedthe Britishgovernmentto treat
civil disobedience participantsascriminalsandgave itthe legal basistoarrestanyone for"preventive
indefinite detention,incarcerationwithoutjudicial review oranyneedfora trial".[94]
Gandhi feltthatHindu-Muslimco-operationwasnecessaryforpolitical progressagainstthe British.He
leveragedthe Khilafatmovement,whereinSunni MuslimsinIndia,theirleaderssuchasthe sultansof
princelystatesinIndiaandAli brotherschampionedthe TurkishCaliphasasolidaritysymbol of Sunni
Islamiccommunity(ummah).Theysawthe CaliphastheirmeanstosupportIslamand the Islamiclaw
afterthe defeatof OttomanEmpire inWorldWar I.[95][96][97] Gandhi'ssupportto the Khilafat
movementledtomixedresults.Itinitiallyledtoastrong MuslimsupportforGandhi.However,the
HinduleadersincludingRabindranathTagore questionedGandhi'sleadershipbecause theywere largely
againstrecognisingorsupportingthe Sunni IslamicCaliphinTurkey.[94][98][99]
The increasingMuslimsupportforGandhi,afterhe championedthe Caliph'scause,temporarilystopped
the Hindu-Muslimcommunal violence.Itofferedevidence of inter-communalharmonyinjointRowlatt
satyagrahademonstrationrallies,raisingGandhi'sstature asthe political leadertothe British.[100][101]
His supportforthe Khilafatmovementalsohelpedhimsideline MuhammadAli Jinnah,whohad
announcedhisoppositiontothe satyagrahanon-cooperationmovementapproachof Gandhi.Jinnah
begancreatinghisindependentsupport,andlaterwentonto leadthe demandforWestand East
Pakistan.[102][103]
By the endof 1922 the Khilafatmovementhadcollapsed.[104] Turkey'sAtaturkhadendedthe
Caliphate,Khilafatmovementended,andMuslimsupportforGandhi largelyevaporated.[96][97]
MuslimleadersanddelegatesabandonedGandhi andhisCongress.[105] Hindu-Muslimcommunal
conflictsreignited.Deadlyreligiousriotsre-appearedinnumerouscities,with91inUnitedProvincesof
Agra and Oudhalone.[106][107]
Non-co-operation
Main article:Non-co-operationmovement
Withhisbook HindSwaraj (1909) Gandhi,aged40, declaredthatBritishrule wasestablishedinIndia
withthe co-operationof Indiansandhadsurvivedonlybecauseof thisco-operation.If Indiansrefused
to co-operate,Britishrule wouldcollapse andswaraj wouldcome.[108]

10. Sabarmati Ashram,Gandhi'shome inGujarat isnow a museum(photographedin2006).
In February1919, Gandhi cautionedthe Viceroyof Indiawithacable communicationthatif the British
were topass the RowlattAct, he will appeal Indianstostartcivil disobedience.[109] The British
governmentignoredhim,passedthe law statingitwill notyieldtothreats.The satyagrahacivil
disobediencefollowed,withpeople assemblingtoprotestthe RowlattAct.On 30 March 1919, British
lawofficersopenedfireonanassemblyof unarmedpeople,peacefullygathered,participatingin
satyagrahain Delhi.[109] Peopleriotedinretaliation.On6 April 1919, a Hindufestival day,he askeda
crowd to remembernottoinjure orkill Britishpeople,butexpresstheirfrustrationwithpeace,to
boycottBritishgoodsand burnany Britishclothingtheyown.He emphasisedthe use of non-violence to
the Britishand towardseachother,evenif the otherside usesviolence.CommunitiesacrossIndia
announcedplanstogatherin greaternumberstoprotest.GovernmentwarnedhimtonotenterDelhi.
Gandhi defiedthe order.On9 April,Gandhi wasarrested.[109] People rioted.On13 April 1919, people
includingwomenwithchildrengatheredinanAmritsarpark,anda BritishofficernamedReginaldDyer
surroundedthemandorderedhistroopstofire on them.The resultingJallianwalaBaghmassacre (or
Amritsarmassacre) of hundredsof SikhandHinduciviliansenragedthe subcontinent,butwascheered
by some Britonsandparts of the Britishmediaasan appropriate response.Gandhi inAhmedabad,on
the day afterthe massacre inAmritsar,didnotcriticise the Britishandinsteadcriticisedhisfellow
countrymenfornotexclusivelyusinglove todeal withthe hate of the Britishgovernment.[109] Gandhi
demandedthatpeople stopall violence,stopall propertydestruction,andwentonfast-to-deathto
pressure Indianstostoptheirrioting.[110]
The massacre andGandhi's non-violentresponseto itmovedmany,butalsomade some Sikhsand
HindusupsetthatDyer wasgettingawaywithmurder.Investigationcommitteeswere formedbythe
British,whichGandhi askedIndianstoboycott.[109] The unfoldingevents,the massacre andthe British
response, ledGandhi tothe belief thatIndianswillnevergetafair equal treatmentunderBritishrulers,
and he shiftedhisattentiontoSwaraj orself rule andpolitical independence forIndia.[111] In1921,
Gandhi was the leaderof the IndianNational Congress.[97] He reorganisedthe Congress.WithCongress
nowbehindhim,andMuslimsupporttriggeredbyhisbackingthe Khilafatmovementtorestore the
CaliphinTurkey,[97] Gandhi hadthe political supportandthe attentionof the BritishRaj.[99][94][96]
Gandhi spinningyarn,inthe late 1920s
Gandhi expandedhisnonviolentnon-co-operationplatformtoinclude the swadeshi policy –the boycott
of foreign-made goods,especiallyBritishgoods.Linkedtothiswashisadvocacy that khadi (homespun
cloth) be wornby all Indiansinsteadof British-made textiles.Gandhi exhortedIndianmenandwomen,
rich or poor,to spendtime eachday spinningkhadi insupportof the independence movement.[112] In
additiontoboycottingBritishproducts,Gandhi urgedthe people toboycottBritishinstitutionsandlaw
courts,to resignfromgovernmentemployment,andtoforsake Britishtitlesandhonours.Gandhi thus
beganhisjourneyaimedatcripplingthe BritishIndiagovernmenteconomically,politicallyand
administratively.[113]

11. The appeal of "Non-cooperation"grew,itssocial popularitydrew participationfromall strataof Indian
society.Gandhi wasarrestedon10 March 1922, triedforsedition,andsentencedtosix years'
imprisonment.He beganhissentence on18March 1922. With Gandhi isolatedinprison,the Indian
National Congresssplitintotwofactions,one ledbyChittaRanjanDasand Motilal Nehrufavouring
party participationinthe legislatures,andthe otherledbyChakravarti Rajagopalachari andSardar
Vallabhbhai Patel,opposingthismove.[114] Furthermore,co-operationamongHindusandMuslims
endedasKhilafatmovementcollapsedwiththe rise of AtaturkinTurkey.Muslimleadersleftthe
CongressandbeganformingMuslimorganisations.The political base behindGandhi hadbrokeninto
factions.Gandhi wasreleasedinFebruary1924 for an appendicitisoperation,havingservedonlytwo
years.[115]
SaltSatyagraha (SaltMarch)
Main article:SaltSatyagraha
File:SaltMarch.ogv
Original footage of Gandhi andhisfollowersmarchingtoDandi inthe Salt Satyagraha
Afterhisearlyrelease fromprisonforpolitical crimesin1924, overthe secondhalf of the 1920s, Gandhi
continuedtopursue swaraj.He pushedthrougha resolutionatthe CalcuttaCongressinDecember1928
callingonthe BritishgovernmenttograntIndiadominionstatusorface a new campaignof non-co-
operationwithcompleteindependence forthe countryasitsgoal.[116] Afterhissupportforthe World
War I withIndiancombattroops,andthe failure of Khilafatmovementinpreservingthe rule of Caliphin
Turkey,followedbyacollapse inMuslimsupportforhisleadership,some suchasSubhasChandraBose
and Bhagat Singhquestionedhisvaluesandnon-violentapproach.[96][117] While manyHinduleaders
championedademandforimmediate independence,Gandhi revisedhisowncall toa one-yearwait,
insteadof two.[116]
The Britishdidnot respondfavourablytoGandhi'sproposal.Britishpolitical leaderssuchasLord
BirkenheadandWinstonChurchillannouncedoppositionto"the appeasersof Gandhi",intheir
discussionswithEuropeandiplomatswhosympathisedwithIndiandemands.[118] On31 December
1929, the flagof IndiawasunfurledinLahore.Gandhi ledCongresscelebrated26 January1930 as
India'sIndependenceDayinLahore.Thisday was commemoratedbyalmosteveryotherIndian
organisation.Gandhi thenlaunchedanew Satyagrahaagainstthe tax on saltin March 1930. This was
highlightedbythe famousSaltMarch to Dandi from 12 March to 6 April,where he marched388
kilometres(241 mi) fromAhmedabadtoDandi,Gujaratto make salt himself.Thousandsof Indians
joinedhimonthismarch to the sea.Thiscampaignwas one of his mostsuccessful atupsettingBritish
holdon India;Britainrespondedbyimprisoningover60,000 people.[119]

12. Accordingto Sarma,Gandhi recruitedwomentoparticipate inthe salttax campaignsand the boycottof
foreignproducts,whichgave manywomenanew self-confidence anddignityinthe mainstreamof
Indianpubliclife.[120] However,otherscholarssuchasMarilynFrenchstate that Gandhi barredwomen
fromjoininghiscivil disobedience movementbecause he fearedhe wouldbe accusedof usingwomen
as political shield.[121] Whenwomeninsistedthattheyjointhe movementandpublicdemonstrations,
accordingto Thapar-Bjorkert,Gandhi askedthe volunteerstogetpermissionsof theirguardiansand
onlythose womenwhocanarrange child-care shouldjoinhim.[122] Regardlessof Gandhi's
apprehensionsandviews,Indianwomenjoinedthe SaltMarchby the thousandsto defythe Britishsalt
taxesandmonopolyonsaltmining.AfterGandhi'sarrest,the womenmarchedandpicketedshopson
theirown,acceptingviolence andverbal abuse fromBritishauthoritiesforthe cause ina mannerGandhi
inspired.[121]
Gandhi as folkhero
Indianworkersonstrike insupportof Gandhi in 1930.
Accordingto AtluryMurali,IndianCongressinthe 1920s appealedtoAndhraPradeshpeasantsby
creatingTelugulanguage playsthatcombinedIndianmythologyand legends,linkedthemtoGandhi's
ideas,andportrayedGandhi as a messiah,areincarnationof ancientandmedieval Indiannationalist
leadersandsaints.The playsbuiltsupportamongpeasantssteepedintraditional Hinduculture,
accordingto Murali,and thiseffortmade Gandhi a folkheroinTeluguspeakingvillages,asacred
messiah-likefigure.[123]
Accordingto DennisDalton,itwasthe ideasthatwere responsible forhiswide following.Gandhi
criticisedWesterncivilisationasone drivenby"brute force andimmorality",contrastingitwithhis
categorisationof Indiancivilisationasone drivenby"soul force andmorality".[124] Gandhi capturedthe
imaginationof the peopleof hisheritage withhisideasaboutwinning"hate withlove".These ideasare
evidencedinhispamphletsfromthe 1890s, inSouthAfrica,where toohe was popularamongthe Indian
indenturedworkers.Afterhe returnedtoIndia,people flockedtohimbecause he reflectedtheir
values.[124]
Gandhi alsocampaignedhardgoingfromone rural corner of the Indiansubcontinenttoanother.He
usedterminologyandphrasessuchasRama-rajyafromRamayana,Prahladaas a paradigmaticicon,and
such cultural symbolsasanotherfacetof swaraj and satyagraha.[125] These ideassoundedstrange
outside India,duringhislifetime,buttheyreadilyanddeeplyresonatedwiththe culture andhistoric
valuesof hispeople.[124][126]
Negotiations

13. The government,representedbyLordIrwin,decidedtonegotiatewithGandhi.The Gandhi–IrwinPact
was signedinMarch 1931. The BritishGovernmentagreedtofree all political prisoners,inreturnforthe
suspensionof the civil disobedience movement.Accordingtothe pact,Gandhi was invitedtoattendthe
RoundTable Conference inLondonfordiscussionsandasthe sole representative of the IndianNational
Congress.The conference wasadisappointmenttoGandhi andthe nationalists.Gandhi expectedto
discussIndia'sindependence,while the Britishside focusedonthe IndianprincesandIndianminorities
rather thanon a transferof power.LordIrwin'ssuccessor,LordWillingdon,tookahard line againstIndia
as an independentnation,begananewcampaignof controllingandsubduingthe nationalistmovement.
Gandhi was againarrested,andthe governmenttried andfailedtonegate hisinfluence bycompletely
isolatinghimfromhisfollowers.[127]
In Britain,WinstonChurchill,aprominentConservative politicianwhowasthenoutof office butlater
became itsprime minister,becameavigorousandarticulate criticof Gandhi and opponentof hislong-
termplans.Churchill oftenridiculedGandhi,sayinginawidelyreported1931 speech:
It isalarmingand alsonauseatingtosee Mr Gandhi,a seditiousMiddle Templelawyer,now posingasa
fakirof a type well known inthe East,stridinghalf-nakedupthe stepsof the Vice-regal palace....to
parleyonequal termswiththe representative of the King-Emperor.[128]
Churchill'sbitternessagainstGandhi grew inthe 1930s. He calledGandhi asthe one whowas "seditious
inaim" whose evil geniusandmultiformmenace wasattackingthe Britishempire.Churchillcalledhima
dictator,a "HinduMussolini",fomentingarace war,tryingto replace the Raj withBrahmincronies,
playingonthe ignorance of Indianmasses,all forselfishgain.[129] Churchill attemptedtoisolate
Gandhi,and hiscriticismof Gandhi waswidelycoveredbyEuropeanandAmericanpress.Itgained
Churchill sympatheticsupport,butitalsoincreasedsupportforGandhi amongEuropeans.The
developmentsheightenedChurchill'sanxietythatthe "Britishthemselveswouldgiveupoutof pacifism
and misplacedconscience".[129]
RoundTable Conferences
MahadevDesai (left) wasGandhi'spersonal assistant,bothatBirlaHouse,Bombay,7 April 1939
Duringthe discussionsbetweenGandhi andthe Britishgovernmentover1931–32 at the Round Table
Conferences,Gandhi,nowagedabout62, soughtconstitutional reformsasa preparationtothe endof
colonial Britishrule,andbeginthe self-rulebyIndians.[130] The British side soughtreformsthatwould
keepIndiansubcontinentasacolony.The Britishnegotiatorsproposedconstitutionalreformsona
BritishDominionmodelthatestablishedseparate electoratesbasedonreligiousandsocial divisions.The
Britishquestioned the CongresspartyandGandhi'sauthoritytospeakforall of India.[131] Theyinvited
Indianreligiousleaders,suchasMuslimsandSikhs,topresstheirdemandsalongreligiouslines,aswell
as B. R. Ambedkarasthe representativeleaderof the untouchables.[130] Gandhi vehementlyopposeda
constitutionthatenshrinedrightsorrepresentationsbasedoncommunal divisions,becausehe feared

14. that itwouldnotbring people togetherbutdividethem, perpetuatetheirstatusanddivertthe attention
fromIndia'sstruggle toendthe colonial rule.[132][133]
AfterGandhi returnedfromthe SecondRoundTable conference,he startedanew satyagraha.He was
arrestedandimprisonedatthe YerwadaJail,Pune.While he wasinprison,the Britishgovernment
enacteda newlawthat granteduntouchablesaseparate electorate.Itcame tobe knownasthe
Communal Award.[134] Inprotest,Gandhi starteda fast-unto-death,whilehe washeldinprison.[135]
The resultingpublicoutcryforcedthe government,inconsultationswith Ambedkar,toreplace the
Communal Awardwithacompromise PoonaPact.[136][137]
Congresspolitics
In 1934 Gandhi resignedfromCongresspartymembership.He didnotdisagree withthe party'sposition
but feltthatif he resigned,hispopularitywithIndianswouldcease tostifle the party'smembership,
whichactuallyvaried,includingcommunists,socialists,trade unionists,students,religiousconservatives,
and those withpro-businessconvictions,andthatthese variousvoiceswouldgetachance to make
themselvesheard.Gandhi alsowantedtoavoidbeingatargetforRaj propagandaby leadingaparty that
had temporarilyacceptedpolitical accommodationwiththe Raj.[138]
Gandhi returnedtoactive politicsagainin1936, withthe Nehrupresidencyandthe Lucknow sessionof
the Congress.AlthoughGandhi wantedatotal focusonthe taskof winningindependence andnot
speculationaboutIndia'sfuture,he didnotrestrainthe Congressfromadoptingsocialismasitsgoal.
Gandhi had a clash withSubhasChandraBose,whohad beenelectedpresidentin1938, andwho had
previouslyexpressedalackof faithinnonviolence asameansof protest.[139] Despite Gandhi's
opposition,Bose wonasecondtermas CongressPresident,againstGandhi'snominee,Dr.Pattabhi
Sitaramayya;butleftthe Congresswhenthe All-Indialeadersresignedenmasse inprotestof his
abandonmentof the principlesintroducedbyGandhi.[140][141] Gandhi declaredthatSitaramayya's
defeatwashisdefeat.[142]
WorldWar II andQuitIndiamovement
Main article:QuitIndiaMovement
NehruandGandhi in 1946
Gandhi opposedprovidinganyhelptothe Britishwareffortand he campaignedagainstanyIndian
participationinthe WorldWar II.[143] Gandhi'scampaigndidnot enjoythe supportof Indianmasses
and manyIndianleaderssuchasSardar Patel and RajendraPrasad.Hiscampaignwas a failure.[143]
Over2.5 millionIndiansignoredGandhi,volunteeredandjoinedthe Britishmilitarytofightonvarious
frontsof the alliedforces.[143]

15. Gandhi oppositiontothe Indianparticipationinthe WorldWar II wasmotivatedbyhisbeliefthatIndia
couldnot be party to a war ostensiblybeingfoughtfordemocraticfreedomwhilethatfreedomwas
deniedtoIndiaitself.[144] He alsocondemnedNazismandFascism, aview whichwonendorsementof
otherIndianleaders.Asthe warprogressed,Gandhi intensifiedhisdemandforindependence,callingfor
the Britishto QuitIndiaina 1942 speechinMumbai.[145] ThiswasGandhi's andthe CongressParty's
mostdefinitive revoltaimedatsecuringthe BritishexitfromIndia.[146] The Britishgovernment
respondedquicklytothe QuitIndiaspeech,andwithinhoursafterGandhi'sspeecharrestedGandhi and
all the membersof the CongressWorkingCommittee.[147] Hiscountrymenretaliatedthe arrestsby
damagingor burningdownhundredsof governmentownedrailwaystations,police stations,andcutting
downtelegraphwires.[148]
In 1942, Gandhi nownearingage 73, urgedhispeople tocompletelystopco-operatingwiththe imperial
government.Inthiseffort,he urgedthattheyneitherkill norinjure Britishpeople,butbe willingto
sufferanddie if violence isinitiatedbythe Britishofficials.[145] He clarifiedthatthe movementwould
not be stoppedbecause of anyindividual actsof violence,sayingthatthe "orderedanarchy"of "the
presentsystemof administration"was"worse thanreal anarchy."[149][150] He urgedIndiansto Karoya
maro ("Door die") inthe cause of theirrightsand freedoms.[145][151]
Gandhi in1942, the year he launchedQuitIndiamovement
Gandhi'sarrest lastedtwoyears,ashe washeldinthe Aga KhanPalace in Pune.Duringthisperiod,his
longtime secretaryMahadevDesai diedof a heartattack, hiswife Kasturbadiedafter18 months'
imprisonmenton22 February1944; and Gandhi sufferedasevere malariaattack.[148] While inJail,he
agreedto an interviewwithStuartGelder,aBritishjournalist.Gelderthencomposedandreleasedan
interview summary,cabledittothe mainstreampress,thatannouncedsuddenconcessionsGandhi was
willingtomake,commentsthatshockedhiscountrymen,the CongressworkersandevenGandhi.The
lattertwoclaimedthatit distortedwhatGandhi actuallysaidona range of topicsand falselyrepudiated
the QuitIndiamovement.[148]
Gandhi was releasedbefore the endof the waron 6 May 1944 because of hisfailinghealthand
necessarysurgery;the Raj didnot wanthimto die inprisonand enrage the nation.He came outof
detentiontoanalteredpoliticalscene –the MuslimLeague forexample,whichafew yearsearlierhad
appearedmarginal,"nowoccupiedthe centre of the political stage"[152] andthe topicof Muhammad
Ali Jinnah'scampaignforPakistanwasa majortalkingpoint.Gandhi andJinnahhadextensive
correspondence andthe twomenmetseveral timesoveraperiodof twoweeksinSeptember1944,
where Gandhi insistedona unitedreligiouslyplural andindependentIndiawhichincludedMuslimsand
non-Muslimsof the Indiansubcontinentcoexisting.Jinnahrejectedthisproposal andinsistedinsteadfor

16. partitioningthe subcontinentonreligiouslinestocreate aseparate MuslimIndia(later
Pakistan).[10][153] These discussionscontinuedthrough1947.[154]
While the leadersof Congresslanguishedinjail,the otherpartiessupportedthe warandgained
organizational strength.Undergroundpublicationsflailedatthe ruthlesssuppressionof Congress,butit
had little control overevents.[155] Atthe endof the war, the Britishgave clearindicationsthatpower
wouldbe transferred toIndianhands.AtthispointGandhi calledoff the struggle,andaround100,000
political prisonerswere released,includingthe Congress'sleadership.[156]
Partitionandindependence
See also:Partitionof India
Gandhi withMuhammadAli Jinnahin1944
Gandhi opposedpartitionof the Indiansubcontinentalongreligiouslines.[157] The IndianNational
CongressandGandhi calledforthe Britishto QuitIndia.However,the MuslimLeague demanded"Divide
and QuitIndia".[158][159] Gandhi suggestedanagreementwhichrequiredthe Congressandthe Muslim
League to co-operate andattainindependence underaprovisional government,thereafter,the
questionof partitioncouldbe resolvedbyaplebisciteinthe districtswithaMuslimmajority.[160]
JinnahrejectedGandhi'sproposal andcalledforDirectActionDay,on16 August1946, to pressMuslims
to publiclygatherincitiesandsupporthisproposal forpartitionof IndiansubcontinentintoaMuslim
state and non-Muslimstate.HuseynShaheedSuhrawardy,the MuslimLeague Chief Ministerof Bengal –
nowBangladeshandWestBengal,gave Calcutta'spolice special holidaytocelebratethe DirectAction
Day.[161] The DirectActionDay triggeredamassmurderof CalcuttaHindusand the torchingof their
property,and holidayingpolice weremissingtocontainorstop the conflict.[162] The British
governmentdidnotorderitsarmy to move into containthe violence.[161] The violence onDirect
ActionDay ledtoretaliatoryviolence againstMuslimsacrossIndia.Thousandsof HindusandMuslims
were murdered,andtensof thousandswere injuredinthe cycle of violence inthe daysthat
followed.[163] Gandhi visitedthe mostriot-proneareastoappeal astop to the massacres.[162]
Gandhi in1947, withLord LouisMountbatten,Britain'slastViceroyof India,andhiswife Edwina
Mountbatten
ArchibaldWavell,the ViceroyandGovernor-General of BritishIndiaforthree yearsthroughFebruary
1947, hadworkedwithGandhi andJinnahto finda commonground,before andafteracceptingIndian
independenceinprinciple.Wavell condemnedGandhi'scharacterandmotivesaswell ashisideas.
Wavell accusedGandhi of harbouringthe single mindedideato"overthrow Britishrule andinfluence

17. and to establishaHinduraj",and calledGandhi a"malignant,malevolent,exceedinglyshrewd"
politician.[164] Wavell fearedacivil waron the Indiansubcontinent,anddoubtedGandhi wouldbe able
to stopit.[164]
The Britishreluctantlyagreedtograntindependence tothe peopleof the Indiansubcontinent,but
acceptedJinnah'sproposal of partitioningthe landintoPakistanandIndia.Gandhi wasinvolvedinthe
final negotiations,butStanleyWolpertstatesthe "plantocarve upBritishIndiawasneverapprovedof
or acceptedby Gandhi".[165]
The partitionwascontroversial andviolentlydisputed.More thanhalf a millionwerekilledinreligious
riotsas 10 millionto12 millionnon-Muslims(Hindus,Sikhsmostly) migratedfromPakistanintoIndia,
and MuslimsmigratedfromIndiaintoPakistan,acrossthe newlycreatedbordersof India,WestPakistan
and East Pakistan.[166]
Gandhi spentthe day of independence notcelebratingthe endof the Britishrule butappealingfor
peace amonghiscountrymenbyfastingandspinninginCalcuttaon15 August1947. The partitionhad
grippedthe Indiansubcontinentwithreligiousviolence andthe streetswere filledwithcorpses.[167]
Some writerscreditGandhi'sfastingandprotestsforstoppingthe religiousriotsandcommunal
violence.Othersdonot.Archibald Wavell,forexample,uponlearningof Gandhi'sassassination,
commented,"Ialwaysthoughthe [Gandhi] hadmore of malevolence thanbenevolence inhim, butwho
am I to judge,andhowcan an Englishmanestimate aHindu?"[164]
Assassination
Main article:Assassinationof MahatmaGandhi
At 5:17 pm on 30 January1948, Gandhi was withhisgrandniecesinthe gardenof the formerBirlaHouse
(nowGandhi Smriti),onhiswayto addressa prayermeeting,whenNathuramGodse firedthree bullets
froma BerettaM1934 9mm Corto pistol intohischestat point-blankrange.Accordingtosome
accounts,Gandhi diedonthe spot.[168][169] In otheraccounts, suchas one preparedbyan eyewitness
journalist,Gandhi wascarriedintothe BirlaHouse,intoabedroom.There he died about30 minutes
lateras one of Gandhi'sfamilymembersreadversesfromHinduscriptures.[170]
Prime MinisterJawaharlal Nehruaddressedhiscountrymenoverthe All-IndiaRadiosaying:[171]
Friendsandcomrades,the lighthasgone out of our lives,andthere isdarknesseverywhere,andIdo
not quite knowwhattotell youor howto say it.Our belovedleader,Bapuaswe calledhim, the father
of the nation,isnomore.PerhapsI am wrongto say that; nevertheless,we will notsee himagain,aswe

18. have seenhimforthese manyyears,we will notrunto himfor advice or seeksolace fromhim, andthat
isa terrible blow,notonlyforme,butformillionsandmillionsinthiscountry.[172]
Memorial where Gandhi wasassassinatedin1948. His stylised footstepsleadtothe memorial.
Gandhi'sassassinGodse made noattemptto escape and wasseizedbythe witnesses.He wasarrested.
In the weeksthatfollowed,hiscollaboratorswere arrestedaswell.[173][174] Godse wasa Hindu
nationalistwithlinkstothe extremistHinduMahasabha.[175] Theywere triedincourtat Delhi'sRed
Fort. Athistrial,Godse didnot denythe chargesnor expressanyremorse.AccordingtoClaude
Markovits,a Frenchhistoriannotedforhisstudiesof colonial India,Godse statedthathe killedGandhi
because of hiscomplacence towardsMuslims,holdingGandhi responsible forthe frenzyof violence and
sufferingsduringthe subcontinent'spartitionintoPakistanandIndia.Godse accusedGandhi of
subjectivismandof actingas if only he had a monopolyof the truth.Godse was foundguiltyand
executedin1949.[176][177]
Gandhi'sfuneral wasmarkedbymillionsof Indians.[178]
Gandhi'sdeathwas mournednationwide.Overtwomillionpeoplejoinedthe five-milelongfuneral
processionthattookoverfive hourstoreach Raj Ghat from Birlahouse,where he wasassassinated.
Gandhi'sbodywas transportedona weaponscarrier,whose chassiswasdismantledovernighttoallowa
high-floortobe installedsothatpeople couldcatcha glimpse of hisbody.The engine of the vehicle was
not used;insteadfourdrag-ropesmannedby50 people eachpulledthe vehicle.[179] All Indian-owned
establishmentsinLondonremainedclosedinmourningasthousandsof people fromall faithsand
denominationsand Indiansfromall overBritainconvergedatIndiaHouse inLondon.[180]
Gandhi'sassassinationdramaticallychangedthe political landscape.Nehrubecame hispolitical heir.
Accordingto Markovits,while Gandhi wasalive,Pakistan'sdeclarationthatitwas a "Muslimstate"had
ledIndiangroupstodemandthat itbe declareda"Hindustate".[176] NehruusedGandhi'smartyrdom
as a political weapontosilenceall advocatesof Hindunationalismaswell ashispolitical challengers.He
linkedGandhi'sassassinationtopoliticsof hatredandill-will.[176]
Accordingto Guha,Nehruand hisCongresscolleaguescalledonIndianstohonourGandhi'smemory
and evenmore hisideals.[181][182] Nehruusedthe assassinationtoconsolidatethe authorityof the
newIndian state.Gandhi'sdeathhelpedmarshal supportforthe new governmentandlegitimisethe
CongressParty'scontrol,leveragedbythe massiveoutpouringof Hinduexpressionsof grief foraman
whohad inspiredthemfordecades.The governmentsuppressedthe RSS,the MuslimNational Guards,
and the Khaksars,withsome 200,000 arrests.[183]

19. For yearsafterthe assassination,statesMarkovits,"Gandhi'sshadow loomedlarge overthe political life
of the newIndianRepublic".The governmentquelledanyopposition toitseconomicandsocial policies,
despite theybeingcontrarytoGandhi'sideas,byreconstructingGandhi'simage andideals.[184]
Funeral andmemorials
Gandhi was crematedinaccordance withHindutradition.Gandhi'sasheswere pouredintournswhich
were sentacrossIndiafor memorial services.[185] Most of the asheswere immersedatthe Sangamat
Allahabadon12 February1948, but some were secretlytakenaway.In1997, TusharGandhi immersed
the contentsof one urn, foundina bank vaultandreclaimedthroughthe courts,at the Sangam at
Allahabad.[186][187] Some of Gandhi'sasheswere scatteredatthe source of the Nile RivernearJinja,
Uganda, and a memorial plaque marksthe event.On30 January 2008, the contentsof anotherurnwere
immersedatGirgaumChowpatty.Anotherurnisat the palace of the Aga KhaninPune (where Gandhi
was heldasa political prisonerfrom1942 to 1944) and anotherinthe Self-RealizationFellowshipLake
Shrine inLos Angeles.[186][188]
The Birla House site where Gandhi wasassassinatedisnow a memorial calledGandhi Smriti.The place
nearYamuna riverwhere he wascrematedisthe Rāj Ghāt memorial inNew Delhi.[189] A blackmarble
platform,itbearsthe epigraph"Hē Rāma" (Devanagari: हे! राम or, HeyRaam).These are widelybelieved
to be Gandhi'slast wordsafterhe was shot,thoughthe veracityof thisstatementhasbeen
disputed.[190]
Principles,practicesandbeliefs
Gandhi'sstatements,lettersandlife have attractedmuchpolitical and scholarlyanalysisof his
principles,practicesandbeliefs,includingwhatinfluencedhim.Some writerspresenthimasa paragon
of ethical livingandpacifism, whileotherspresenthimasa more complex,contradictoryandevolving
character influencedby hisculture andcircumstances.[191][192]
Influences
Gandhi withpoetRabindranathTagore,1940
Gandhi grewup ina HinduandJain religiousatmosphere inhisnative Gujarat,whichwere hisprimary
influences,buthe wasalsoinfluencedbyhispersonal reflectionsandliteratureof HinduBhakti saints,
AdvaitaVedanta,Islam,Buddhism, Christianity,andthinkerssuchasTolstoy,Ruskinand
Thoreau.[193][194] At age 57 he declaredhimself tobe AdvaitistHinduinhisreligiouspersuasion,but
addedthat he supportedDvaitistviewpointsandreligiouspluralism.[195][196][197]

20. Gandhi was influencedbyhisdevoutVaishnavaHindumother,the regionalHindutemplesandsaint
traditionwhichco-existedwithJaintraditioninGujarat.[193][198] HistorianR.B.Cribbstatesthat
Gandhi'sthoughtevolvedovertime,withhisearlyideasbecomingthe core or scaffoldingforhismature
philosophy.He committedhimself earlytotruthfulness,temperance,chastity,andvegetarianism.[199]
Gandhi'sLondonlifestyle incorporatedthe valueshe hadgrownupwith.Whenhe returnedtoIndiain
1891, hisoutlookwasparochial andhe couldnot make a livingasa lawyer.Thischallengedhisbelief
that practicalityandmoralitynecessarilycoincided.Bymovingin1893 to SouthAfricahe founda
solutiontothisproblemanddevelopedthe central conceptsof hismature philosophy.[200]
Accordingto BhikhuParekh,three booksthatinfluencedGandhi mostinSouthAfricawere William
Salter'sEthical Religion(1889);HenryDavid Thoreau'sOn the Duty of Civil Disobedience (1849);and Leo
Tolstoy'sThe Kingdomof God IsWithinYou (1894). Ruskininspiredhisdecisiontolive anaustere lifeon
a commune,at firstonthe Phoenix FarminNatal andthenon the TolstoyFarmjust outside
Johannesburg,SouthAfrica.[56] The mostprofoundinfluenceonGandhi were those fromHinduism,
ChristianityandJainism,statesParekh,withhisthoughts"inharmonywiththe classical Indian
traditions,speciallythe Advaitaormonistictradition".[201]
Accordingto IndiraCarr and others,Gandhi wasinfluencedbyVaishnavism,JainismandAdvaita
Vedanta.[202][203] BalkrishnaGokhale statesthatGandhi wasinfluencedbyHinduismandJainism, and
hisstudiesof Sermononthe Mount of Christianity,RuskinandTolstoy.[204]
Additional theoriesof possible influencesonGandhi have beenproposed.Forexample,in1935, N.A.
Toothi statedthat Gandhi wasinfluencedbythe reformsandteachingsof the Swaminarayantraditionof
Hinduism.AccordingtoRaymond Williams,Toothi mayhave overlookedthe influence of the Jain
community,andaddsclose parallelsdoexistinprogramsof social reforminthe Swaminarayantradition
and those of Gandhi,basedon"nonviolence,truth-telling,cleanliness,temperance andupliftmentof
the masses."[205][206] HistorianHowardstatesthe culture of Gujarat influencedGandhi andhis
methods.[207]
Tolstoy
Mohandas K.Gandhi and otherresidentsof TolstoyFarm, SouthAfrica,1910
Alongwiththe bookmentionedabove,in1908 Leo Tolstoywrote A Letterto a Hindu,whichsaidthat
onlybyusinglove as a weaponthroughpassive resistance couldthe Indianpeopleoverthrow colonial
rule.In1909, Gandhi wrote to TolstoyseekingadviceandpermissiontorepublishA Lettertoa Hinduin

21. Gujarati.Tolstoyrespondedandthe twocontinuedacorrespondenceuntil Tolstoy'sdeathin1910
(Tolstoy'slastletterwastoGandhi).[208] The lettersconcernpractical and theologicalapplicationsof
nonviolence.[209] Gandhi sawhimself adiscipleof Tolstoy,fortheyagreedregardingoppositiontostate
authorityandcolonialism;bothhatedviolence andpreachednon-resistance.However,theydiffered
sharplyonpolitical strategy.Gandhi calledforpolitical involvement;he wasa nationalistandwas
preparedtouse nonviolentforce.He wasalsowillingtocompromise.[210] Itwasat TolstoyFarmwhere
Gandhi and HermannKallenbachsystematicallytrainedtheirdisciplesinthe philosophyof
nonviolence.[211]
ShrimadRajchandra
Gandhi creditedShrimadRajchandra,apoetand Jainphilosopher,ashisinfluential counsellor.In
ModernReview,June 1930, Gandhi wrote abouttheirfirstencounterin1891 at Dr. P.J.Mehta's
residence inBombay.Gandhi exchangedletterswithRajchandrawhenhe wasinSouthAfrica,referring
to himas Kavi (literally,"poet").In1930, Gandhi wrote,"Such wasthe man whocaptivatedmyheart in
religiousmattersasnootherman everhastill now."[212] 'I have saidelsewhere thatinmouldingmy
innerlife TolstoyandRuskinviedwithKavi.ButKavi'sinfluencewasundoubtedlydeeperif onlybecause
I had come inclosestpersonal touchwithhim.'[213]
Gandhi,inhisautobiography,calledRajchandrahis"guide andhelper"andhis"refuge…inmomentsof
spiritual crisis".He hadadvisedGandhi tobe patientandto studyHinduismdeeply.[214][215][216]
Religioustexts
Duringhisstay inSouthAfrica,alongwithscripturesandphilosophical textsof Hinduismandother
Indianreligions,Gandhi readtranslatedtextsof Christianitysuchas the Bible,andIslamsuchas the
Quran.[217] A QuakermissioninSouthAfricaattemptedtoconverthimtoChristianity.Gandhi joined
themintheirprayersand debatedChristiantheologywiththem, butrefusedconversionstatinghe did
not acceptthe theologythereinorthatChristwas the onlysonof God.[217][218][219]
His comparative studiesof religionsandinteractionwithscholars,ledhimtorespectall religionsaswell
as become concernedaboutimperfectionsinall of themandfrequentmisinterpretations.[217] Gandhi
grewfondof Hinduism,andreferredtothe BhagavadGitaas hisspiritual dictionaryandgreatestsingle
influenceonhislife.[217][220][221]
On warsand nonviolence
Supportfor Wars
Gandhi participatedinSouthAfricanwaragainst the Boers,on the Britishside in1899.[222] Boththe
Dutch settlerscalledBoersandthe imperialBritishatthattime discriminatedagainstthe colouredraces

22. theyconsideredasinferior,andGandhi laterwrote abouthisconflictedbeliefsduringthe Boerwar.He
statedthat "whenthe warwas declared,mypersonal sympathieswere all withthe Boers,butmyloyalty
to the Britishrule drove me to participationwiththe Britishinthatwar".AccordingtoGandhi,he felt
that since he wasdemandinghisrightsasa Britishcitizen,itwasalsohisdutytoserve the Britishforces
inthe defence of the BritishEmpire.[223][224]
DuringWorldWar I (1914–1918), nearingthe age of 50, Gandhi supportedthe Britishanditsallied
forcesby recruitingIndianstojointhe Britisharmy,expandingthe Indiancontingentfromabout
100,000 to over1.1 million.[93][222] He encouragedhispeople tofightonone side of the warin Europe
and Africaat the cost of theirlives.[222] PacifistscriticisedandquestionedGandhi, whodefendedthese
practicesby stating,accordingtoSankar Ghose,"itwouldbe madnessforme to severmyconnection
withthe societytowhichI belong".[222] AccordingtoKeithRobbins,the recruitmenteffortwasinpart
motivatedbythe Britishpromise toreciprocate the helpwithswaraj (self-government) toIndiansafter
the endof WorldWar I.[92] Afterthe war, the Britishgovernmentofferedminorreformsinstead,which
disappointedGandhi.[93] He launchedhissatyagrahamovementin1919. In parallel,Gandhi's
fellowmenbecamesceptical of hispacifistideasandwere inspiredbythe ideasof nationalismandanti-
imperialism.[225]
In a 1920 essay,afterthe WorldWar I,Gandhi wrote,"where there isonlyachoice betweencowardice
and violence,Iwouldadvise violence."Rahul SagarinterpretsGandhi'seffortstorecruitforthe British
militaryduringthe War,as Gandhi'sbelief that,atthat time,itwoulddemonstrate thatIndianswere
willingtofight.Further,itwouldalsoshow the Britishthathisfellow Indianswere "theirsubjectsby
choice ratherthan out of cowardice."In1922, Gandhi wrote that abstinence fromviolence iseffective
and true forgivenessonlywhenone hasthe powerto punish,notwhenone decidesnottodo anything
because one ishelpless.[226]
AfterWorldWar II engulfedBritain,Gandhi activelycampaignedtooppose anyhelptothe Britishwar
effortandany Indianparticipationinthe war.AccordingtoArthurHerman,Gandhi believedthathis
campaignwouldstrike ablowto imperialism.[143] Gandhi'spositionwasnotsupportedbymanyIndian
leaders,andhiscampaignagainstthe Britishwareffortwasa failure.The Hinduleader,Tej Bahadur
Sapru declaredin1941, statesHerman,"A good manyCongressleadersare fedupwiththe barren
program of the Mahatma".[143] Over2.5 millionIndiansignoredGandhi,volunteeredandjoinedonthe
Britishside.Theyfoughtanddiedasa part of the alliedforcesinEurope,NorthAfricaandvariousfronts
of the WorldWar II.[143]
Truth and Satyagraha
Plaque displayingone of Gandhi'squotesonrumour

23. Gandhi dedicatedhislife todiscoveringandpursuingtruth,orSatya, andcalledhismovementas
satyagraha,whichmeans"appeal to,insistenceon,orreliance onthe Truth".[227] The firstformulation
of the satyagrahaas a political movementandprincipleoccurredin1920, whichhe tabledas
"ResolutiononNon-cooperation"inSeptemberthatyearbefore asessionof the IndianCongress.Itwas
the satyagraha formulationandstep,statesDennisDalton,thatdeeplyresonatedwithbeliefsand
culture of hispeople,embeddedhimintothe popularconsciousness,transforminghimquicklyinto
Mahatma.[228]
"God istruth. The way to truthliesthroughahimsa(nonviolence)" — Sabarmati,13 March 1927
Gandhi basedSatyagrahaon the Vedanticideal of self-realization,ahimsa(nonviolence),vegetarianism,
and universal love.WilliamBormanstatesthatthe keytohissatyagraha isrootedin the Hindu
Upanishadictexts.[229] AccordingtoIndiraCarr, Gandhi'sideasonahimsaand satyagrahawere
foundedonthe philosophical foundationsof AdvaitaVedanta.[230] I.Bruce Watsonstatesthat some of
these ideasare foundnotonlyintraditionswithinHinduism,butalsoinJainismorBuddhism,
particularlythose aboutnon-violence,vegetarianismanduniversal love,butGandhi'ssynthesiswasto
politicisethese ideas.[231] Gandhi'sconceptof satya as a civil movement,statesGlynRichards,are best
understoodinthe contextof the Hinduterminologyof Dharmaand Ṛta.[232]
Gandhi statedthat the most importantbattle tofightwasovercominghisowndemons,fears,and
insecurities.Gandhi summarisedhisbeliefsfirstwhenhe said"GodisTruth".He wouldlaterchange this
statementto"Truth isGod". Thus,satya (truth) inGandhi'sphilosophyis"God".[233] Gandhi,states
Richards,describedthe term"God"notas a separate power,butasthe Being(Brahman,Atman) of the
AdvaitaVedantatradition,anondual universal thatpervadesinall things,ineachpersonandall
life.[232] AccordingtoNicholasGier,thistoGandhi meantthe unityof God and humans,thatall beings
have the same one soul and therefore equality,thatatmanexistsandissame as everythinginthe
universe,ahimsa(non-violence) isthe verynature of thisatman.[234]
Gandhi pickingsaltduringSaltSatyagrahato defycolonial law givingsaltcollectionmonopolytothe
British.[235] Hissatyagraha attractedvast numbersof Indianmenand women.[236]
The essence of Satyagrahais "soul force"asa political means,refusingtouse brute force againstthe
oppressor,seekingtoeliminate antagonismsbetweenthe oppressorandthe oppressed,aimingto
transformor "purify"the oppressor.Itisnotinactionbutdeterminedpassive resistanceandnon-co-
operationwhere,statesArthurHerman,"loveconquershate".[237] A euphemismsometimesusedfor
Satyagrahais that itis a "silentforce"ora "soul force"(a termalsousedby Martin LutherKingJr. during
hisfamous"I Have a Dream"speech).Itarmsthe individual withmoral powerratherthanphysical
power.Satyagrahaisalsotermeda "universal force",asitessentially"makesnodistinctionbetween
kinsmenandstrangers,youngandold,manand woman,friendandfoe."[238]

24. Gandhi wrote:"There mustbe no impatience,nobarbarity,noinsolence,noundue pressure.If we want
to cultivate atrue spiritof democracy,we cannot affordto be intolerant.Intolerance betrayswantof
faithinone'scause."[239] Civil disobedience andnon-co-operationaspractisedunderSatyagrahaare
basedon the "lawof suffering",[240] a doctrine thatthe endurance of sufferingisameansto an end.
Thisendusuallyimpliesamoral upliftmentorprogressof an individual orsociety.Therefore,non-co-
operationinSatyagrahaisin fact a meansto secure the co-operationof the opponentconsistentlywith
truth andjustice.[241]
While Gandhi'sideaof satyagrahaas a political meansattractedawidespreadfollowingamongIndians,
the supportwas notuniversal.Forexample,MuslimleaderssuchasJinnahopposedthe satyagrahaidea,
accusedGandhi to be revivingHinduismthroughpolitical activism, andbeganefforttocounterGandhi
withMuslimnationalismandademandforMuslimhomeland.[242][243][244] The untouchabilityleader
Ambedkar,inJune 1945, afterhisdecisiontoconverttoBuddhismanda keyarchitectof the
Constitutionof modernIndia,dismissedGandhi'sideasaslovedby"blindHindudevotees",primitive,
influencedbyspuriousbrewof TolstoyandRuskin,and"there isalwayssome simpletontopreach
them".[245][246] WinstonChurchill caricaturedGandhi asa "cunninghuckster"seekingselfishgain,an
"aspiringdictator",andan "atavisticspokesmanof apaganHinduism".Churchill statedthatthe civil
disobediencemovementspectacle of Gandhi onlyincreased"the dangertowhichwhite people there
[BritishIndia] are exposed".[247]
Nonviolence
Gandhi withtextile workersatDarwen,Lancashire,26 September1931
AlthoughGandhi wasnotthe originatorof the principle of nonviolence,he wasthe firsttoapplyitin the
political fieldonalarge scale.[248] The conceptof nonviolence (ahimsa) hasalonghistoryinIndian
religiousthought,withitbeingconsideredthe highestdharma(ethical valuevirtue),aprecepttobe
observedtowardsall livingbeings(sarvbhuta),atall times(sarvada),inall respects(sarvatha),inaction,
wordsand thought.[249] Gandhi explainshisphilosophyandideasaboutahimsaasa political meansin
hisautobiographyThe Storyof My ExperimentswithTruth.[250][251][252]
Gandhi was criticisedforrefusingtoprotestthe hangingof Bhagat Singh,Sukhdev,UdhamSinghand
Rajguru.[253][254] He was accusedof acceptinga deal withthe King'srepresentativeIrwinthatreleased
civil disobedience leadersfromprisonandacceptedthe deathsentence againstthe highlypopular
revolutionaryBhagatSingh,whoathistrial had replied,"Revolutionisthe inalienablerightof
mankind".[117]

25. Gandhi'sviewscame underheavycriticisminBritainwhenitwasunderattackfrom Nazi Germany,and
laterwhenthe Holocaustwasrevealed.He toldthe Britishpeople in1940, "I wouldlike youtolaydown
the arms you have as beinguselessforsavingyouor humanity.Youwill inviteHerrHitlerandSignor
Mussolini totake whattheywant of the countriesyoucall your possessions...If these gentlemenchoose
to occupyyour homes,youwill vacate them.If theydonotgive youfree passage out,youwill allow
yourselves,man,woman,andchild,tobe slaughtered,butyouwill refusetoowe allegiance to
them."[255] George Orwell remarkedthatGandhi'smethodsconfronted'anold-fashionedandrather
shakydespotismwhichtreatedhiminafairlychivalrousway',notatotalitarianPower,'where political
opponentssimplydisappear.'[256]
In a post-warinterviewin1946, he said,"Hitlerkilledfive millionJews.Itisthe greatestcrime of our
time.Butthe Jewsshouldhave offeredthemselvestothe butcher'sknife.Theyshouldhave thrown
themselvesintothe seafromcliffs...Itwouldhave arousedthe worldandthe peopleof Germany...Asit
istheysuccumbedanywayintheirmillions."[257] Gandhi believedthisactof "collective suicide",in
response tothe Holocaust,"wouldhave beenheroism".[258]
On inter-religiousrelations
Buddhists,JainsandSikhs
Gandhi believedthatBuddhism, JainismandSikhismweretraditionsof Hinduism,withsharedhistory,
ritesand ideas.Atothertimes,he acknowledgedthathe knew little aboutBuddhismotherthanhis
readingof EdwinArnold'sbookonit.Basedon that book,he consideredBuddhismtobe a reform
movementandthe Buddhatobe a Hindu.[259] He statedhe knew Jainismmuchmore,andhe credited
Jainsto have profoundlyinfluencedhim.Sikhism,toGandhi,wasan integral partof Hinduism, inthe
formof anotherreformmovement.SikhandBuddhistleadersdisagreedwithGandhi,adisagreement
Gandhi respectedasa differenceof opinion.[259][260]
Jews
Accordingto Kumaraswamy,Gandhi initiallysupportedArabdemandswithrespecttoPalestine.He
justifiedthissupportbyinvokingIslam,statingthat"non-Muslimscannotacquire sovereignjurisdiction"
inJazirat al-Arab(ArabianPeninsula).[261] These arguments,statesKumaraswamy,were apartof his
political strategytowinMuslimsupportduringthe Khilafatmovement.Inpost-Khilafatperiod,Gandhi
neithernegatedJewishdemandsnordidhe use IslamictextsorhistorytosupportMuslimclaimsagainst
Israel.Gandhi'ssilence afterthe Khilafatperiodmayrepresentanevolutioninhisunderstandingof the
conflictingreligiousclaimsoverPalestine,accordingtoKumaraswamy.[261] In1938, Gandhi spoke in
favourof Jewishclaims.InMarch1946, he saidto the Memberof BritishParliamentSidneySilverman,
"if the Arabs have a claimto Palestine,the Jewshave apriorclaim",a positionverydifferentfromhis
earlierstance.[261][262]

26. Gandhi discussedthe persecutionof the JewsinGermanyandthe emigrationof JewsfromEurope to
Palestine throughhislensof Satyagraha.[167][263] In1937, Gandhi discussedZionismwithhisclose
JewishfriendHermannKallenbach.[264] He saidthat Zionismwasnotthe right answertothe problems
facedby Jews[265] andinsteadrecommendedSatyagraha.Gandhi thoughtthe ZionistsinPalestine
representedEuropeanimperialismandusedviolence toachieve theirgoals;he arguedthat"the Jews
shoulddisclaimanyintentionof realizingtheiraspirationunderthe protectionof armsandshouldrely
whollyonthe goodwill of Arabs.Noexceptioncanpossiblybe takentothe natural desire of the Jewsto
finda home inPalestine.Buttheymustwaitforits fulfillmenttillArabopinionisripe forit."[167]
In 1938, Gandhi statedthathis"sympathiesare all withthe Jews.Ihave knownthemintimatelyinSouth
Africa.Some of thembecame life-longcompanions."PhilosopherMartinBuberwashighlycritical of
Gandhi'sapproach andin 1939 wrote an openlettertohimon the subject.Gandhi reiteratedhisstance
that "the Jewsseektoconvertthe Arab heart",anduse "satyagraha inconfrontingthe Arabs"in
1947.[266] Accordingto Simone Panter-Brick,Gandhi'spolitical positiononJewish-Arabconflictevolved
overthe 1917-1947 period,shiftingfromasupportforthe Arabpositionfirst,andforthe Jewish
positioninthe 1940s.[267]
Christians
Gandhi criticisedaswell aspraisedChristianity.He wascritical of ChristianmissionaryeffortsinBritish
India,because theymixedmedicaloreducationassistance withdemandsthatthe beneficiaryconvertto
Christianity.[268] AccordingtoGandhi,thiswasnot true "service"butone drivenbyulteriormotiveof
luringpeople intoreligiousconversionandexploitingthe economicallyormedicallydesperate.Itdidnot
leadto innertransformationormoral advance orto the Christianteachingof "love",butwasbasedon
false one-sidedcriticismsof otherreligions,whenChristiansocietiesfacedsimilarproblemsinSouth
Africaand Europe.Itledto the convertedpersonhatinghisneighboursandothersreligions,itdivided
people ratherthanbringingthemcloserincompassion.AccordingtoGandhi,"noreligioustradition
couldclaima monopolyovertruthor salvation".[268][269] Gandhi didnotsupportlawsto prohibit
missionaryactivity,butdemandedthatChristiansshouldfirstunderstandthe message of Jesus,and
thenstrive tolive withoutstereotypingandmisrepresentingotherreligions.AccordingtoGandhi,the
message of Jesuswasn'ttohumiliate andimperialisticallyrule overotherpeople consideringthem
inferiororsecondclassor slaves,butthat"whenthe hungryare fedandpeace comesto our individual
and collectivelife,thenChristisborn".[270]
Gandhi believedthathislongacquaintance withChristianityhadmade himlike itaswell asfindit
imperfect.He askedChristianstostophumiliatinghiscountryandhispeople asheathens,idolatorsand
otherabusive language,andtochange theirnegative viewsof India.He believedthatChristiansshould
introspectonthe "true meaningof religion"andgeta desire tostudyandlearnfromIndianreligionsin
the spiritof universal brotherhood.[270] AccordingtoEric Sharpe – a professorof ReligiousStudies,
thoughGandhi was bornin a Hindufamilyandlaterbecame Hindubyconviction,manyChristiansin
time thoughtof himas an "exemplaryChristianandevenasa saint".[271]

27. Some colonial eraChristianpreachersandfaithfulsconsideredGandhi asa saint.[272][273][274]
BiographersfromFrance and Britainhave drawnparallelsbetweenGandhi andChristiansaints.Recent
scholarsquestionthese romanticbiographiesandstate thatGandhi wasneithera Christianfigure nor
mirroreda Christiansaint.[275] Gandhi'slife isbetterviewedasexemplifyinghisbelief inthe
"convergence of variousspiritualities"of aChristiananda Hindu,statesMichael de Saint-Cheron.[275]
Muslims
Gandhi believedthere werematerialcontradictionsbetweenHinduismandIslam, andhe sharedhis
thoughtsonthe Quranand Muslims manytimes.[276] He statedin 1925, for example,thathe hadnot
criticisedthe teachingsof the Quran,buthe didcriticise the interpretersof Quran.Gandhi believedthat
numerousinterpretershave interpretedittofittheirpreconceivednotions.[277] He believedMuslims
shouldwelcome criticismof Quran,because "everytrue scripture onlygainsfromcriticism".Gandhi
criticisedMuslimswho"betrayintoleranceof criticismbyanon-Muslimof anythingrelatedtoIslam",
such as the penaltyof stoningto deathunderIslamiclaw.ToGandhi,Islamhas "nothingtofearfrom
criticismevenif itbe unreasonable".[278][276] Accordingtohim, Islamlike communismwastooquick
inresortingto violence.[279]
One of the strategiesGandhi adoptedwastoworkwith Muslimleadersof pre-partitionIndia,tooppose
the Britishimperialisminandoutside the Indiansubcontinent.[96][97] Afterthe WorldWar I,in 1919–
22, he wonMuslimleadershipsupportof Ali Brothersbybackingthe KhilafatMovementinfavourthe
IslamicCaliphandhishistoricOttomanCaliphate,andopposingthe secularIslamsupportingMustafa
Kemal Atatürk.By1924, Ataturkhad endedthe Caliphate,the KhilafatMovementwasover,andMuslim
supportfor Gandhi hadlargelyevaporated.[96][280][97]
In 1925, Gandhi gave anotherreasontowhy he got involvedinthe Khilafatmovementandthe Middle
East affairsbetweenBritainandthe OttomanEmpire.Gandhi explainedtohisco-religionists(Hindu)
that he sympathisedandcampaignedforthe Islamiccause, notbecause he caredforthe Sultan,but
because "Iwantedto enlistthe Mussalman'ssympathyinthe matterof cow protection".[281] According
to the historianM. NaeemQureshi,like the thenIndianMuslimleaderswhohadcombinedreligionand
politics,Gandhi tooimportedhisreligionintohispolitical strategyduringthe Khilafatmovement.[282]
In the 1940s, Gandhi pooledideaswithsomeMuslimleaderswhosoughtreligiousharmonylikehim,
and opposedthe proposedpartitionof BritishIndiaintoIndia andPakistan.Forexample,hisclose friend
BadshahKhan suggestedthattheyshouldworktowardsopeningHindutemplesforMuslimprayers,and
IslamicmosquesforHinduprayers,tobringthe tworeligiousgroupscloser.[283] Gandhi acceptedthis
and began havingMuslimprayersreadinHindutemplestoplayhispart,but wasunable to getHindu
prayersreadin mosques.The HindunationalistgroupsobjectedandbeganconfrontingGandhi forthis

28. one-sidedpractice,byshoutinganddemonstratinginsidethe Hindutemples,inthe lastyearsof his
life.[284][177][285]
Sufism
Gandhi was acquaintedwiththe Sufi Islam'sChishti Order,whichhe discoveredduringhisstayinSouth
Africa.He attendedKhanqahgatheringsthere atRiverside.AccordingtoMargaret Chatterjee,Gandhi as
a VaishnavaHindusharedvaluessuchashumility,devotionandbrotherhoodforthe poorthatis also
foundinSufism.[286][287]
Buddhists,JainsandSikhs
Gandhi believedthatBuddhism, JainismandSikhismweretraditionsof Hinduism,with sharedhistory,
ritesand ideas.Atothertimes,he acknowledgedthathe knew little aboutBuddhismotherthanhis
readingof EdwinArnold'sbookonit.Basedon that book,he consideredBuddhismtobe a reform
movementandthe Buddhatobe a Hindu.[259] He statedhe knew Jainismmuchmore,andhe credited
Jainsto have profoundlyinfluencedhim.Sikhism,toGandhi,wasan integral partof Hinduism, inthe
formof anotherreformmovement.SikhandBuddhistleadersdisagreedwithGandhi,adisagreement
Gandhi respectedasa differenceof opinion.[259][288]
On life,societyandotherapplicationof hisideas
Vegetarianism, food,andanimals
Gandhi was broughtup as a vegetarianbyhisdevoutHindumother.[289][290] The ideaof
vegetarianismisdeeplyingrainedinHinduVaishnavismandJaintraditionsinIndia,suchasin hisnative
Gujarat, where meatisconsideredasaform of foodobtainedbyviolencetoanimals.[291][292]
Gandhi'srationale forvegetarianismwaslargelyalongthosefoundinHinduandJain texts.Gandhi
believedthatanyformof foodinescapablyharmssome formof livingorganism, butone shouldseekto
understandandreduce the violence inwhatone consumesbecause "there isessential unityof all
life".[290][293]
Gandhi believedthatsome life formsare more capable of suffering,andnon-violence tohimmeantnot
havingthe intentaswell asactive effortstominimise hurt,injuryorsufferingtoall life forms.[293]
Gandhi exploredfoodsourcesthatreducedviolence tovariouslifeforms inthe foodchain.He believed
that slaughteringanimalsisunnecessary,asothersourcesof foodsare available.[291] He alsoconsulted
withvegetarianismcampaignersduringhislifetime,suchaswithHenryStephensSalt.FoodtoGandhi
was notonlya source of sustainingone'sbody,butasource of hisimpacton otherlivingbeings,andone
that affectedhismind,characterandspiritual wellbeing.[294][295][296] He avoidednotonlymeat,but
alsoeggsand milk.Gandhi wrote the bookThe Moral Basisof Vegetarianismandwrote forthe London
VegetarianSociety'spublication.[297]

29. Beyondhisreligiousbeliefs,Gandhi statedanothermotivationforhisexperimentswithdiet.He
attemptedtofindthe mostnon-violentvegetarianmealthatthe pooresthumancouldafford,taking
meticulousnotesonvegetablesandfruits,andhisobservationswithhisownbodyandhisashramin
Gujarat.[298][299] He triedfreshanddry fruits(Fruitarianism),thenjustsundriedfruits,before
resuminghispriorvegetariandieton advice of hisdoctorand concernsof hisfriends.Hisexperiments
withfoodbeganin1890s and continuedforseveral decades.[298][299] Forsome of these experiments,
Gandhi combinedhisownideaswiththose foundondietinIndianyogatexts.He believed thateach
vegetarianshouldexperimentwithhisorherdietbecause,inhisstudiesathisashram he saw "one
man's foodmaybe poisonforanother".[300][301]
Gandhi championedanimal rightsingeneral.Otherthanmakingvegetarianchoices,he actively
campaignedagainstdissectionstudiesandexperimentationonliveanimals(vivisection) inthe name of
science andmedical studies.[291] He considereditaviolence againstanimals,somethingthatinflicted
painand suffering.He wrote,"Vivisectioninmyopinionisthe blackestof all the blackestcrimesthat
man isat presentcommittingagainstgodandhisfaircreation."[302]
Fasting
See also:Listof fastsundertakenbyMahatmaGandhi
Gandhi'slastpolitical protestusingfasting,inJanuary1948
Gandhi usedfastingasa political device,oftenthreateningsuicide unlessdemandswere met.Congress
publicisedthe fastsasa political actionthatgeneratedwidespreadsympathy.Inresponse the
governmenttriedtomanipulatenewscoveragetominimise hischallengetothe Raj.He fastedin1932
to protestthe votingscheme forseparate political representationforDalits;Gandhi didnotwantthem
segregated.The Britishgovernmentstoppedthe Londonpressfromshowingphotographsof his
emaciatedbody,because itwouldelicitsympathy.Gandhi's1943 hungerstrike tookplace duringa two-
yearprisontermfor the anticolonial QuitIndiamovement.The governmentcalledonnutritionalexperts
to demystifyhisaction,andagainnophotoswere allowed.However,his finalfastin1948, afterthe end
of Britishrule inIndia,hishungerstrike waslaudedbythe Britishpressandthistime didincludefull-
lengthphotos.[303]
AlterstatesthatGandhi'sfasting,vegetarianismanddietwasmore thana political leverage, itwasa
part of hisexperimentswithself restraintandhealthyliving.He was"profoundlyskeptical of traditional
Ayurveda",encouragingittostudythe scientificmethodandadoptitsprogressivelearningapproach.
Gandhi believedyogaofferedhealth benefits.He believedthatahealthynutritionaldietbasedon
regional foodsandhygiene were essential togoodhealth.[304]

30. Women
Gandhi stronglyfavouredthe emancipationof women,andurged"the womentofightfortheirown
self-development."He opposedpurdah,childmarriage,dowryandsati.[305] A wife isnota slave of the
husband,statedGandhi,buthiscomrade,betterhalf,colleague andfriend,accordingtoLyn
Norvell.[305] Inhisownlife however,accordingtoSuruchi Thapar-Bjorkert,Gandhi'srelationshipwith
hiswife were atoddswithsome of these values.[122]
At variousoccasions,Gandhi creditedhisorthodoxHindumother,andhiswife,forfirstlessonsin
satyagraha.[306] He usedthe legendsof HindugoddessSitatoexpoundwomen's innate strength,
autonomyand"lionessinspirit"whose moral compasscanmake anydemon"as helplessasa
goat".[306] To Gandhi,the womenof Indiawere animportantpart of the "swadeshi movement"(Buy
Indian),andhisgoal of decolonisingthe Indianeconomy.[306]
Some historianssuchasAngelaWoollacottandKumari Jayawardenastate thateventhoughGandhi
oftenandpubliclyexpressedhisbelief inthe equalityof sexes,yethisvisionwasone of gender
difference andcomplementaritybetweenthem.Women,toGandhi,shouldbe educatedtobe betterin
the domesticrealmandeducate the nextgeneration.Hisviewsonwomen'srightwere lessliberal and
more similartopuritan-Victorianexpectationsof women,statesJayawardena,thanotherHinduleaders
withhimwhosupportedeconomicindependence andequal genderrightsinall aspects.[307][308]
Brahmacharya: abstinence fromsex andfood
Alongwithmanyothertexts,Gandhi studiedBhagavadGitawhile inSouthAfrica.[309] ThisHindu
scripture discussesjnanayoga,bhakti yogaandkarma yogaalongwithvirtuessuchas non-violence,
patience,integrity,lackof hypocrisy,self restraintandabstinence.[310] Gandhi beganexperimentswith
these,andin1906 at age 37, althoughmarriedanda father,he vowedtoabstainfromsexual
relations.[309]
Gandhi'sexperimentwithabstinence wentbeyondsex,andextendedtofood.He consultedthe Jain
scholarRajchandra,whomhe fondlycalledRaychandbhai.[311] Rajchandraadvisedhimthatmilk
stimulatedsexual passion.Gandhi beganabstainingfromcow'smilkin1912, anddidso evenwhen
doctorsadvisedhimtoconsume milk.[215][312] AccordingtoSankar Ghose,Tagore describedGandhi as
someone whodidnotabhorsex or women,butconsideredsexual life asinconsistentwith hismoral
goals.[313]
Gandhi triedto testand prove to himself hisbrahmacharya.The experimentsbegansome timeafterthe
deathof hiswife inFebruary1944. At the start of hisexperimenthe hadwomensleepinthe same room
but indifferentbeds.He latersleptwithwomeninthe same bedbutclothed,andfinallyhe sleptnaked
withwomen.InApril 1945, Gandhi referencedbeingnakedwithseveral "womenorgirls"ina letterto

31. Birlaas part of the experiments.[314] Accordingtothe 1960s memoirof hisgrandniece Manu,Gandhi
fearedinearly1947 that he andshe maybe killedbyMuslimsinthe runupto India'sindependence in
August1947, andaskedherwhenshe was 18-year-oldif she wantedtohelphimwithhisexperimentsto
testtheir"purity",forwhichshe readilyaccepted.[315] Gandhi sleptnakedinthe same bedwithManu
withthe bedroomdoorsopenall night.Manu statedthatthe experimenthadno"ill effect"onher.
Gandhi alsosharedhisbedwith18-year-oldAbha,wife of hisgrandnephew Kanu.Gandhi wouldsleep
withbothManu and Abha at the same time.[315][316] None of the womenwhoparticipatedinthe
brahmachari experimentsof Gandhi indicatedthattheyhadsex or thatGandhi behavedinanysexual
way.Those whowentpublicsaidtheyfeltasthoughtheywere sleepingwiththeirageing
mother.[313][314][317]
Accordingto SeanScalmer,Gandhi inhisfinal yearof life wasan ascetic,lookeduglyandasicklyskeletal
figure,alreadycaricaturedinthe Westernmedia.[318] InFebruary1947, he askedhisconfidantssuchas
Birlaand Ramakrishnaif itwas wrongfor himto experimenthisbrahmacharyaoath.[313] Gandhi's
publicexperiments,astheyprogressed,were widelydiscussedandcriticisedbyhisfamilymembersand
leadingpoliticians.However, Gandhi saidthatif he wouldnotletManu sleepwithhim, itwouldbe a
signof weakness.Someof hisstaff resigned,includingtwoof hisnewspaper'seditorswhohadrefused
to printsome of Gandhi's sermonsdealingwithhisexperiments.[315] Nirmalkumar Bose,Gandhi's
Bengali interpreter,forexample criticisedGandhi,notbecause Gandhi didanythingwrong,butbecause
Bose was concernedaboutthe psychological effectonthe womenwhoparticipatedinhis
experiments.[316] VeenaHowardstatesGandhi'sviewsonbrahmacharyaandreligiousrenunciation
experimentswereamethodtoconfrontwomenissuesinhistimes.[319]
Untouchabilityandcastes
Gandhi spoke outagainstuntouchabilityearlyinhislife.[320] Before 1932, he and hiscolleaguesused
the term Antyajaforuntouchables.One of the majorspeecheshe made onuntouchabilitywasat
Nagpurin 1920, where he calleduntouchabilityasagreat evil inHindusociety.Inhisremarks,he stated
that the phenomenaof untouchabilityisnotunique tothe Hindusociety,buthasdeeperrootsbecause
EuropeansinSouthAfricatreat "all of us, HindusandMuslims,asuntouchables;we maynotreside in
theirmidst,norenjoythe rightswhichtheydo".[321] He calleditintolerable.He statedthispractice can
be eradicated,Hinduismisflexible toallow this,andaconcertedeffortisneededtopersuade itiswrong
and byall toeradicate it.[321]
Accordingto Christophe Jaffrelot,while Gandhi considereduntouchabilitytobe wrongandevil,he
believedthatcaste or classare basedneitheroninequalitynoroninferiority.[320] Gandhi believedthat
individualsshouldfreelyintermarrywhoevertheywantto,butno one shouldexpecteveryone to
befriendthem.Everyindividual regardlessof hisorherbackground,stated Gandhi,hasa right to choose
whotheywelcome intotheirhome,whotheybefriendandwhotheyspendtime with.[320][321]

32. In 1932, Gandhi begana newcampaignto improve the livesof the untouchables,whomhe started
referringtoas Harijansor "the childrenof god".[322] On 8 May 1933, Gandhi begana 21-day fast of self-
purificationandlaunchedaone-yearcampaigntohelpthe Harijanmovement.[323] Thisnew campaign
was notuniversallyembracedwithinthe Dalitcommunity.AmbedkarandhisalliesfeltGandhi was
beingpaternalisticandwasunderminingDalitpolitical rights.Ambedkardescribedhimas"deviousand
untrustworthy".[324] He accusedGandhi as someone whowishedtoretainthe caste system.[135]
AmbedkarandGandhi debatedtheirideasandconcerns,where bothtriedtopersuade each
other.[325][326]
In 1935, AmbedkarannouncedhisintentionstoleaveHinduismandjoinBuddhism.[135] Accordingto
Sankar Ghose,the announcementshookGandhi,whoreappraisedhisviewsandwrote manyessayswith
hisviewsoncastes,inter-marriageandwhatHinduismsaysonthe subject.These viewscontrastedwith
those of Ambedkar.[327] Inactual electionsof 1937, exceptforsome seatsinMumbai where Ambekar's
party won,India'suntouchablesvotedheavilyinfavourof Gandhi'scampaignandhisparty,the
Congress.[328]
Gandhi and hiscolleaguescontinuedtoconsultAmbedkar,keepinghiminfluential.Ambedkarworked
withotherCongressleadersthroughthe 1940s, wrote large parts of India'sconstitutioninlate 1940s,
and convertedtoBuddhismin1956.[135] Accordingto Jaffrelot,Gandhi'sviewsevolvedbetween1920s
and 1940s, whenin1946 he activelyencouragedinter-marriageacrosscastes.However,Gandhi's
approach to untouchabilitywasdifferentthanAmbedkarbecause Gandhi championedfusion,choice
and free intermixing.Ambedkar,incontraststatesJeffrelot,envisionedeachsegmentof societyto
maintaintheiridentitygroup,andeachgroupthenseparatelyadvancedthe "politicsof equality".[320]
The criticismof Gandhi by Ambedkarcontinuedtoinfluence the DalitmovementpastGandhi'sdeath.
Accordingto ArthurHerman,Ambedkar'shate forGandhi and Gandhi'sideaswasso strongthat afterhe
heardthe newsof Gandhi'sassassination,remarkedafteramomentary silence asense of regretand
then"my real enemyisgone;thankgoodnessthe eclipse isovernow".[245][329] Accordingto
Ramachandra Guha,"ideologueshave carriedthese oldrivalriesintothe present,withthe demonization
of Gandhi nowcommonamongpoliticianswhopresumetospeakinAmbedkar'sname."[330]
Nai Talim,basiceducation
Main article:Nai Talim
Gandhi rejectedthe colonial Westernformatof educationsystem.He statedthatitledto disdainfor
manual work,generallycreatedaneliteadministrative bureaucracy.Gandhi favouredaneducation
systemwithfargreateremphasisonlearningskillsinpractical anduseful work,one thatincluded
physical,mental andspiritual studies.Hismethodologysoughttotreatall professionsequal andpay
everyone the same.[331][332]

33. Gandhi calledhisideasNai Talim(literally,'new education').He believedthatthe Westernstyle
educationviolatedanddestroyedthe indigenouscultures.A differentbasiceducationmodel,he
believed,wouldleadtobetterselfawareness,preparepeople totreatall workequallyrespectableand
valued,andleadtoa societywithlesssocial diseases.[333][334]
Nai Talimevolvedoutof hisexperiencesatthe TolstoyFarmin SouthAfrica,andGandhi attemptedto
formulate the newsystematthe Sevagramashramafter1937.[332] Nehrugovernment'svisionof an
industrialised,centrallyplannedeconomyafter1947 hadscant place for Gandhi'svillage-oriented
approach.[335]
In hisautobiography,Gandhi wrote thathe believedeveryHinduboyandgirl mustlearnSanskrit
because itshistoricandspiritual textsare inthatlanguage.[40]
Swaraj,self-rule
Main article:Swaraj
Gandhi believedthatswaraj notonlycan be attainedwithnon-violence,itcanbe run withnon-violence.
A militaryisunnecessary,because anyaggressorcanbe thrownoutusingthe methodof non-violent
non-co-operation.While militaryisunnecessaryinanationorganisedunderswaraj principle,Gandhi
addedthat a police force isnecessarygivenhumannature.However,the state wouldlimitthe use of
weaponsbythe police tothe minimum,aimingfortheiruse asa restrainingforce.[336]
Accordingto Gandhi,a non-violentstate islike an"orderedanarchy".[336] Ina societyof mostlynon-
violentindividuals, those whoare violentwill soonerorlateraccept discipline orleave the community,
statedGandhi.[336] He emphasisedasocietywhere individualsbelievedmore inlearningabouttheir
dutiesandresponsibilities,notdemandedrightsandprivileges.OnreturningfromSouthAfrica,when
Gandhi receivedaletteraskingforhisparticipationinwritingaworldcharterfor humanrights,he
respondedsaying,"inmyexperience,itisfarmore importantto have a charter for humanduties."[337]
Swaraj to Gandhi didnot meantransferringcolonial eraBritishpowerbrokeringsystem, favours-driven,
bureaucratic,classexploitative structure andmindsetintoIndianhands.He warnedsucha transfer
wouldstill be Englishrule,justwithoutthe Englishman."Thisisnotthe Swaraj Iwant",said
Gandhi.[338][339] Tewari statesthat Gandhi saw democracyas more than a systemof government;it
meantpromotingbothindividualityandthe self-disciplineof the community.Democracymeantsettling
disputesinanonviolentmanner;itrequiredfreedomof thoughtandexpression.ForGandhi,democracy
was a wayof life.[340]

34. Hindunationalismandrevivalism
Some scholarsstate Gandhi supportedareligiouslydiverse India,[341] whileothersstate thatthe
Muslimleaderswhochampionedthe partitionandcreationof aseparate MuslimPakistanconsidered
Gandhi to be Hindunationalistorrevivalist.[342][343] For example,inhisletterstoMohammadIqbal,
JinnahaccusedGandhi to be favouringaHindurule and revivalism,thatGandhi ledIndianNational
Congresswasa fascistparty.[344]
In an interviewwithC.F.Andrews,Gandhi statedthatif we believeall religionsteachthe same message
of love andpeace betweenall humanbeings,thenthere isneitheranyrationale norneedfor
proselytisationorattemptstoconvertpeople fromone religiontoanother.[345] Gandhi opposed
missionaryorganisationswhocriticisedIndianreligionsthenattemptedtoconvertfollowersof Indian
religionstoIslamorChristianity.InGandhi'sview,those whoattempttoconvertaHindu,"theymust
harbourin theirbreaststhe belief thatHinduismisanerror"and that theirownreligionis"the onlytrue
religion".[345][346] Gandhi believedthatpeople whodemandreligiousrespectandrightsmustalso
showthe same respectand grant the same rightsto followersof otherreligions.He statedthatspiritual
studiesmustencourage "aHinduto become abetterHindu,a Mussalmanto become abetter
Mussalman,anda ChristianabetterChristian."[345]
Accordingto Gandhi,religionisnotaboutwhata man believes,itisabouthow a manlives,how he
relatestootherpeople,hisconducttowardsothers,andone'srelationshiptoone'sconceptionof
god.[347] It isnot importanttoconvertor to joinany religion,but itisimportantto improve one'sway
of life andconductbyabsorbingideasfromanysource and any religion,believedGandhi.[347]
Gandhianeconomics
Main article:Gandhianeconomics
Gandhi believedinsarvodayaeconomicmodel,whichliterallymeans"welfare,upliftmentof all".[348]
This,statesBhatt,was verydifferenteconomicmodel thanthe socialismmodel championedand
followedbyfree IndiabyNehru –India'sfirstprime minister.Toboth,accordingto Bhatt,removing
povertyandunemploymentwere the objective,butGandhianeconomicanddevelopmentapproach
preferredadaptingtechnologyandinfrastructure tosuitlocal situation,incontrasttoNehru'slarge
scale,socialisedstate ownedenterprises.[349]
To Gandhi,the economicphilosophythataimsat "greatestgoodforthe greatestnumber"was
fundamentallyflawed,andhisalternativeproposal sarvodayasetitsaimat "greatestgoodforall".He
believedthatthe besteconomicsystemnotonlycaredtoliftthe "poor,lessskilled,of impoverished
background"butalso empoweredtoliftthe "rich,highlyskilled,of capital meansandlandlords".
Violence againstanyhumanbeing,bornpooror rich,is wrongbelievedGandhi.[348][350] He stated
that mandate theoryof majoritariandemocracyshouldn't be pushedtoabsurdextremes,individual

35. freedomsshouldneverbe denied,andnopersonshouldeverbe made asocial or economicslave tothe
"resolutionsof majorities".[351]
Gandhi challengedNehruandthe modernizersinthe late 1930s whocalledfor rapidindustrialisationon
the Sovietmodel;Gandhi denouncedthatasdehumanisingandcontraryto the needsof the villages
where the greatmajorityof the people lived.[352] AfterGandhi'sassassination,NehruledIndiain
accordance withhispersonal socialistconvictions.[353][354] HistorianKuruvillaPandikattusays"itwas
Nehru'svision,notGandhi's,thatwaseventuallypreferredbythe IndianState."[355]
Gandhi calledforendingpovertythroughimprovedagriculture andsmall-scale cottage rural
industries.[356] Gandhi'seconomicthinkingdisagreedwithMarx,accordingto the political theory
scholarand economistBhikhuParekh.Gandhi refusedtoendorse the view thateconomicforcesare
bestunderstoodas"antagonisticclassinterests".[357] He arguedthat no man can degrade orbrutalise
the otherwithoutdegradingandbrutalisinghimself,thatsustainable economicgrowthcomesfrom
service,notfromexploitation.Further,believedGandhi,thatinafree nation,victimsexistonlywhen
theyco-operate withtheiroppressor,andaneconomicandpolitical systemthatofferedincreasing
alternativesgave powerof choice tothe poorestman.[357]
While disagreeingwithNehruaboutsocialisteconomicmodel,Gandhi alsocritiquedcapitalismthatwas
drivenbyendlesswantsandamaterialisticview of man.This,he believed,createdaviciousvested
systemof materialismatthe costof otherhumanneedssuchas spiritualityandsocial
relationships.[357] ToGandhi,statesParekh,bothcommunismandcapitalismwere wrong,inpart
because bothfocussedexclusivelyonmaterialisticview of man,andbecause the formerdeifiedthe
state withunlimitedpowerof violence,while the latterdeifiedcapital.A bettereconomicsystemisone
whichdoesnotimpoverishone'sculture andspiritual pursuits.[358]
Gandhism
Main article:Gandhism
Gandhismdesignatesthe ideasandprinciplesGandhi promoted.Of central importance isnonviolent
resistance.A Gandhiancanmeaneitheran individual whofollows,oraspecificphilosophywhichis
attributedto,Gandhism.[88] M.M. SankhdherarguesthatGandhismisnot a systematicpositionin
metaphysicsorinpolitical philosophy.Rather,itisapolitical creed,aneconomicdoctrine,areligious
outlook,amoral precept,andespecially,ahumanitarianworldview.Itisan effortnotto systematise
wisdombutto transformsocietyandisbasedon an undyingfaithinthe goodnessof human
nature.[359] HoweverGandhi himself didnotapprove of the notionof "Gandhism",ashe explainedi n
1936:

36. There isno such thingas "Gandhism",andI donot wantto leave anysect afterme.I do notclaimto
have originatedanynewprincipleordoctrine.Ihave simplytriedinmyownwayto applythe eternal
truthsto our dailylife andproblems...TheopinionsIhave formedandthe conclusionsIhave arrivedat
are notfinal.Imay change themtomorrow.I have nothingnew toteach the world.Truthand
nonviolence are asoldas the hills.[360]
Literaryworks
Young India,aweeklyjournal publishedby Gandhi from1919 to 1932
Gandhi was a prolificwriter.One of Gandhi'searliestpublications,HindSwaraj,publishedinGujarati in
1909, became "the intellectualblueprint"forIndia'sindependence movement.The bookwastranslated
intoEnglishthe nextyear,withacopyrightlegendthatread"NoRightsReserved".[361] For decadeshe
editedseveralnewspapersincludingHarijaninGujarati,inHindi andinthe Englishlanguage;Indian
OpinionwhileinSouthAfricaand,YoungIndia,inEnglish,andNavajivan,aGujarati monthly,onhis
returnto India.Later,NavajivanwasalsopublishedinHindi.Inaddition,he wrote lettersalmostevery
day to individualsandnewspapers.[362]
Gandhi alsowrote several booksincludinghisautobiography,The Storyof My ExperimentswithTruth
(Gujarātī "સત્યના પ્રયોગોઅથવા આત્મકથા"),of whichhe boughtthe entire firsteditiontomake sure it
was reprinted.[324] Hisotherautobiographiesincluded:SatyagrahainSouthAfricaabouthisstruggle
there,HindSwaraj or IndianHome Rule,apolitical pamphlet,andaparaphrase in Gujarati of John
Ruskin'sUnto ThisLast.[363] Thislast essaycan be consideredhisprogramme oneconomics.He also
wrote extensivelyonvegetarianism, dietandhealth,religion,social reforms,etc.Gandhi usuallywrote
inGujarati,thoughhe alsorevisedthe Hindi andEnglishtranslationsof hisbooks.[364]
Gandhi'scomplete workswere publishedbythe Indiangovernmentunderthe name The Collected
Works of Mahatma Gandhi inthe 1960s. The writingscomprise about50,000 pagespublishedinabouta
hundredvolumes.In2000, a revisededitionof the complete workssparkedacontroversy,asit
containedalarge numberof errorsand omissions.[365] The Indiangovernmentlaterwithdrew the
revisededition.[366]
Legacy anddepictionsinpopularculture
See also:Listof artisticdepictionsof MahatmaGandhi and Listof roadsnamedafterMahatma Gandhi
The word Mahatma, while oftenmistakenforGandhi'sgivenname inthe West,istakenfromthe
Sanskritwordsmaha (meaningGreat) andatma(meaningSoul).RabindranathTagore issaidtohave
accordedthe title toGandhi.[367] In hisautobiography,Gandhi neverthelessexplainsthathe never
valuedthe title,andwasoftenpainedbyit.[368][369][370]

37. Innumerable streets,roadsandlocalitiesinIndiaare namedafterM.K.Gandhi.These includeM.G.Road
(the mainstreetof a numberof IndiancitiesincludingMumbai andBangalore),Gandhi Market(near
Sion,Mumbai) andGandhinagar(the capital of the state of Gujarat, Gandhi'sbirthplace).[371]
Followersandinternationalinfluence
Statue of Mahatma Gandhi at York University
Mahatma Gandhi on a 1969 postage stampof the SovietUnion
Mahatma Gandhi at Praça TúlioFontoura,SãoPaulo,Brazil.Statue byGautam Pal
Gandhi influencedimportantleadersandpolitical movements.Leadersof the civil rightsmovementin
the UnitedStates,includingMartinLutherKingJr.,JamesLawson,andJamesBevel,drew fromthe
writingsof Gandhi inthe developmentof theirowntheoriesaboutnonviolence.[372][373][374] King
said"Christgave us the goalsand Mahatma Gandhi the tactics."[375] Kingsometimesreferredto
Gandhi as "the little brownsaint."[376] Anti-apartheidactivistandformerPresidentof SouthAfrica,
NelsonMandela,wasinspiredbyGandhi.[377] Othersinclude KhanAbdulGhaffarKhan,[378] Steve
Biko,and AungSanSuu Kyi.[379]
In hisearlyyears,the formerPresidentof SouthAfricaNelsonMandelawasa followerof the nonviolent
resistance philosophyof Gandhi.[377] Bhana and Vahedcommentedonthese eventsas"Gandhi
inspiredsucceedinggenerationsof SouthAfricanactivistsseekingtoendWhite rule.Thislegacy
connectshimto NelsonMandela...inasense MandelacompletedwhatGandhi started."[380]
Gandhi'slife andteachingsinspiredmanywhospecificallyreferredtoGandhi astheirmentoror who
dedicatedtheirlivestospreadingGandhi'sideas.InEurope,RomainRollandwasthe firsttodiscuss
Gandhi inhis 1924 bookMahatma Gandhi,and BraziliananarchistandfeministMariaLacerda de Moura
wrote aboutGandhi in herwork onpacifism.In1931, notable EuropeanphysicistAlbertEinstein
exchangedwrittenletterswithGandhi,andcalledhim"arole model forthe generationstocome"ina
letterwritingabouthim.[381] Einsteinsaidof Gandhi:
Mahatma Gandhi'slife achievementstandsunique inpoliticalhistory.He hasinventedacompletelynew
and humane meansforthe liberationwarof anoppressedcountry,andpractiseditwithgreatestenergy
and devotion.The moral influence he hadonthe consciouslythinkinghumanbeingof the entire civilised
worldwill probablybe muchmore lastingthanitseemsinourtime withitsoverestimationof brutal
violentforces.Because lastingwill onlybe the workof suchstatesmenwhowake upandstrengthenthe
moral powerof theirpeople throughtheirexample andeducational works.We mayall be happyand

38. grateful thatdestinygifteduswithsuchanenlightenedcontemporary,arole model forthe generations
to come.
Generationstocome will scarce believe thatsucha one as thiswalkedthe earthinfleshandblood.
Lanza del Vastowentto Indiain1936 intendingtolive withGandhi;he laterreturnedtoEurope to
spreadGandhi'sphilosophyandfoundedthe Communityof the Arkin1948 (modelledafterGandhi's
ashrams).Madeleine Slade (knownas"Mirabehn") wasthe daughterof a Britishadmiral whospent
much of her adultlife inIndiaasa devotee of Gandhi.[382][383]
In addition,the BritishmusicianJohnLennonreferredtoGandhi whendiscussinghisviewson
nonviolence.[384] Atthe CannesLionsInternational AdvertisingFestival in2007, formerUS Vice-
PresidentandenvironmentalistAl Gore spoke of Gandhi'sinfluence onhim.[385]
US PresidentBarackObamain a 2010 addressto the Parliamentof Indiasaidthat:
I am mindful thatImightnot be standingbefore youtoday,asPresidentof the UnitedStates,haditnot
beenforGandhi and the message he sharedwithAmericaandthe world.[386]
Obama inSeptember2009 saidthat hisbiggestinspirationcame fromGandhi.Hisreplywasinresponse
to the question'Whowasthe one person,deadorlive,thatyouwouldchoose todine with?'.He
continuedthat"He'ssomebodyIfinda lotof inspirationin.He inspiredDr.Kingwithhismessage of
nonviolence.He endedupdoingsomuchandchangedthe worldjustby the powerof his ethics."[387]
Time Magazine namedThe 14th Dalai Lama, Lech Wałęsa,Martin Luther King,CesarChavez,AungSan
SuuKyi,BenignoAquino,Jr.,DesmondTutu,andNelson MandelaasChildrenof Gandhi andhisspiritual
heirsto nonviolence.[388] The Mahatma Gandhi DistrictinHouston,Texas,UnitedStates,anethnic
Indianenclave,isofficiallynamedafterGandhi.[389]
Global daysthat celebrate Gandhi
In 2007, the UnitedNationsGeneral AssemblydeclaredGandhi'sbirthday2Octoberas "the
International Dayof Nonviolence."[390] FirstproposedbyUNESCOin1948, as the School Day of
Nonviolence andPeace (DENIPinSpanish),[391] 30 January isobservedasthe School Day of
Nonviolence andPeace inschoolsof manycountries[392] IncountrieswithaSouthernHemisphere
school calendar,itisobservedon30 March.[392]