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3. PLANNING
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Forethought" redirects here. For the defunct software company, see Forethought, Inc..
This article's introduction section may not adequately summarize its contents. To comply
with Wikipedia's lead section guidelines, please consider modifying the lead to provide an
accessible overview of the article's key points in such a way that it can stand on its own as a
concise version of the article. (discuss). (December 2012)
Computer consultants give up on automated scheduling and resort to an old-fashioned plan-board
to agree on who does what when.
Planning (also called forethought) is the process of thinking about and organizing the
activities required to achieve a desired goal.
Planning involves the creation and maintenance of a plan. As such, planning is a fundamental
property of intelligent behavior. This thought process is essential to the creation and
refinement of a plan, or integration of it with other plans; that is, it combines forecasting of
developments with the preparation of scenarios of how to react to them.
An important, albeit often ignored aspect of planning, is the relationship it holds with
forecasting. Forecasting can be described as predicting what the future will look like, whereas
planning predicts what the future should look like.[1] The counterpart to planning is
spontaneous order.
Contents
1 Planning topics
o 1.1 Psychological aspects
o 1.2 Neuropsychological tests
o 1.3 Planning in public policy
2 Planning process
3 Types of planning
4 See also

4. 5 References
6 Further reading
Planning topics
Psychological aspects
The Striatum; part of the basal ganglia; neural pathways between the striatum and the frontal lobe
have been implicated in planning function.
Planning is one of the executive functions of the brain, encompassing the neurological
processes involved in the formulation, evaluation and selection of a sequence of thoughts and
actions to achieve a desired goal. Various studies utilizing a combination of
neuropsychological, neuropharmacological and functional neuroimaging approaches have
suggested there is a positive relationship between impaired planning ability and damage to
the frontal lobe.
A specific area within the mid-dorsolateral frontal cortex located in the frontal lobe has been
implicated as playing an intrinsic role in both cognitive planning and associated executive
traits such as working memory.
Disruption of the neural pathways, via various mechanisms such as traumatic brain injury, or
the effects of neurodegenerative diseases between this area of the frontal cortex and the basal
ganglia specifically the striatum (cortico-striatal pathway), may disrupt the processes required
for normal planning function.[2]
Individuals who were born Very Low Birth Weight (<1500 grams) and Extremely Low
BirthWeight (ELBW) are at greater risk for various cognitive deficits including planning
ability.[3][4]
Neuropsychological tests

5. Animation of a four disc version of the Tower of Hanoi.
There are a variety of neuropsychological tests which can be used to measure variance of
planning ability between the subject and controls.
Tower of Hanoi (TOH-R), a puzzle invented in 1883 by the French mathematician Édouard
Lucas. There are different variations of the puzzle, the classic version consists of three rods
and usually seven to nine discs of subsequently smaller size. Planning is a key component of
the problem solving skills necessary to achieve the objective, which is to move the entire
stack to another rod, obeying the following rules:
o Only one disk may be moved at a time.
o Each move consists of taking the upper disk from one of the rods and sliding it onto
another rod, on top of the other disks that may already be present on that rod.
[5][6]
o No disk may be placed on top of a smaller disk.
Screenshot of the PEBL psychology software running the Tower of London test
Tower of London (TOL) is another test that was developed in 1992 (Shallice 1992) specifically
to detect deficits in planning as may occur with damage to the frontal lobe. Test participants
with damage to the left anterior frontal lobe demonstrated planning deficits (i.e., greater
number of moves required for solution).
In test participants with damage to the right anterior, and left or right posterior areas of the
frontal lobes showed no impairment. The results implicating the left anterior frontal lobes
involvement in solving the TOL were supported in concomitant neuroimaging studies which
also showed a reduction in regional cerebral blood flow to the left pre-frontal lobe. For the
number of moves, a significant negative correlation was observed for the left prefrontal area:
i.e. subjects that took more time planning their moves showed greater activation in the left
prefrontal area.[7]
Planning in public policy
Public policy planning includes environmental, land use, regional, urban and spatial planning.
In many countries, the operation of a town and country planning system is often referred to as
"planning" and the professionals which operate the system are known as "planners".
It is a conscious as well as sub-conscious activity. It is "an anticipatory decision making
process" that helps in coping with complexities. It is deciding future course of action from

6. amongst alternatives. It is a process that involves making and evaluating each set of
interrelated decisions. It is selection of missions, objectives and "translation of knowledge
into action." A planned performance brings better results compared to an unplanned one. A
manager's job is planning, monitoring and controlling. Planning and goal setting are
important traits of an organization. It is done at all levels of the organization. Planning
includes the plan, the thought process, action, and implementation.Planning gives more
power over the future. Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do
it, and who should do it. This bridges the gap from where the organization is to where it
wants to be. The planning function involves establishing goals and arranging them in logical
order.
Planning process
Example of planning process framework.
Patrick Montana and Bruce Charnov outline a three-step result-oriented process for
planning:[8]
1. Choosing a destination
2. Evaluating alternative routes, and
3. Deciding the specific course of your plan.
In organizations, planning is a management process, concerned with defining goals for
company's future direction and determining on the missions and resources to achieve those
targets. To meet the goals, managers may develop plans such as a business plan or a
marketing plan. Planning always has a purpose. The purpose may be achievement of certain
goals or targets.
Main characteristics of planning in organizations are:
Planning increases the efficiency of an organization. It reduces the risks involved in modern
business activities. It facilitates proper coordination within an organization. It aids in
organizing all available resources. It gives right direction to the organization. It is important
to maintain a good control. It helps to achieve objectives of the organization. It motivates the
personnel of an organization. It encourages managers' creativity and innovation. It also helps
in decision making. The planning helps to achieve these goals or target by using the available
time and resources. The concept of planning is to identify what the organization wants to do
by using the four questions which are "where are we today in terms of our business or

7. strategy planning? Where are we going? Where do we want to go? How are we going to get
there?..."
Types of planning
There are many types of planning.
Automated planning and scheduling
Architectural planning
Business plan
Comprehensive planning
Contingency planning
Economic planning
Enterprise architecture planning
Environmental planning
Event planning and production
Family planning
Financial planning
Land use planning
Landscape planning
Life planning
Marketing plan
Network resource planning
Operational planning
Regional planning
Site planning
Spatial planning
Strategic planning
Succession planning
Urban planning
See also