APPROACHES USED IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS Qualitative Research Designs https://my.visme.co/render/1454625359/www.erau.edu Slide 1 Transcript This module will focus on qualitative research designs, which fall mostly into the nonexperimental category. Qualitative research is found in nearly all the academic disciplines. Often, this is how a line of inquiry begins. When little is known about a subject, and variables are unknown or a related theory base is undeveloped, a qualitative study helps to identify what needs to be studied that is important. Characteristics of Qualitative Research Designs Share Two Things in Common Five Designs Commonly Used May be arranged by descriptive methodologies Expect to Find Multiple Layers or Facets Studies complexity without simplifying Usually does not try to manipulate any variables Studied in natural settings May use historical records May involve meta-analysis Slide 3 Transcript Qualitative approaches share two things in common. The main interest is on phenomena that are happening now or previously, usually in real-world, or natural, settings. Another aspect is that they attempt to capture and study the complexity of those phenomena. From the outset, qualitative researchers expect to find multilayered, multi-faceted observations and do not try to simplify, or control for, them. So, it is essential that you know what qualitative research entails and what it sets out to accomplish. Typically, there are five recognized qualitative designs that are in use, although the number varies depending on how writers arrange the approaches. For instance, they may separate approaches into descriptive designs, use existing or historical information, or work with a meta-analysis which combines results from several studies. Types of Qualitative Designs Case Study Content Analysis Systematic examination of material for patterns Ethnography Group with common cultureParticular person, program, event Phenomenology Perceptions about particular situation Grounded Theory Develop theory Slide 5 Transcript The names for the most used types of qualitative designs are the case study, which is also known as idiographic research, and studies a particular person, program, or event in depth for a specified time period. An ethnography, which is where the researcher looks, not at an individual, but at a group that shares a common culture over time. A phenomenology study seeks to understand perception among people about a particular situation. Grounded theory study begins with data collected in the field, not from literature, to develop a theory. The final design in use is content analysis, probably one of the most used types of qualitative design, which identifies a body of material from several sources and performs a systematic examination to determine patterns. Now, a closer consideration of the five design approaches helps to understand when a researcher may be served b.

1. APPROACHES USED
IN QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH DESIGNS
Qualitative Research Designs
https://my.visme.co/render/1454625359/www.erau.edu
Slide 1 Transcript
This module will focus on qualitative research designs, which
fall mostly into the nonexperimental category. Qualitative
research is found in nearly all the academic disciplines. Often,
this is
how a line of inquiry begins. When little is known about a
subject, and variables are unknown or a related theory base is
undeveloped, a qualitative study helps to identify what needs to
be
studied that is important.
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
Designs Share
Two Things in Common
Five Designs
Commonly Used
May be arranged by
descriptive methodologies

2. Expect to Find Multiple
Layers or Facets
Studies complexity without
simplifying
Usually does not try to
manipulate any variables
Studied in natural settings
May use historical records
May involve meta-analysis
Slide 3 Transcript
Qualitative approaches share two things in common. The main
interest is on phenomena that are happening now or previously,
usually in real-world, or natural, settings. Another aspect is that
they attempt to capture and study the complexity of those
phenomena. From the outset, qualitative researchers expect to
find multilayered, multi-faceted observations and do not try to
simplify,
or control for, them. So, it is essential that you know what
qualitative research entails and what it sets out to accomplish.
Typically, there are five recognized qualitative designs that are
in use,
although the number varies depending on how writers arrange
the approaches. For instance, they may separate approaches into
descriptive designs, use existing or historical information, or
work
with a meta-analysis which combines results from several

3. studies.
Types of Qualitative Designs
Case Study
Content Analysis
Systematic examination of
material for patterns
Ethnography
Group with common cultureParticular person,
program, event
Phenomenology
Perceptions about
particular situation
Grounded Theory
Develop theory
Slide 5 Transcript
The names for the most used types of qualitative designs are the
case study, which is also known as idiographic research, and
studies a particular person, program, or event in depth
for a specified time period. An ethnography, which is where the
researcher looks, not at an individual, but at a group that shares
a common culture over time. A phenomenology
study seeks to understand perception among people about a
particular situation. Grounded theory study begins with data

4. collected in the field, not from literature, to develop a
theory. The final design in use is content analysis, probably
one of the most used types of qualitative design, which
identifies a body of material from several sources and performs
a
systematic examination to determine patterns. Now, a closer
consideration of the five design approaches helps to understand
when a researcher may be served best with what they
seek to understand. First though, a few words about the context
for a study.
Natural and Contrived Settings
Naturalistic Settings Contrived Settings
Appears similar to the
natural environment of
interest
Validity
Limits manipulation
External validity typically high
Events occur naturally
Allows for selectivity in
variables or conditions
present
Enhances reliability and
internal validity
May be limited within region
studied

5. Generalization is limited
Internal validity low since no
control over variables
Slide 7 Transcript
Qualitative studies are accomplished in naturalistic settings,
which are places where the researcher expects to observe
behaviors or events as they occur naturally. Usually, there is
limited or no manipulation of conditions. The external validity
values are high as a result, since nearly all factors present in
actual settings would be present and broader
generalization can be made. If selection criteria vary, though,
this can limit the ability to generalize findings beyond the
observed setting which means the external validity may be
low. However, for most naturalistic studies, interpretations can
be generalized within the area where observations are made and
where external validity is higher. Reliability is
another matter, though. Since conditions cannot be replicated,
reliability will be low. In some qualitative studies, it is not
possible to observe in natural circumstances, so an
environment is constructed that contains as much as possible
what would be in the natural setting. In this way, as many of
the potential factors or variables are available so the
behaviors will be close to what would otherwise occur. Also,
some of the variables that may complicate the study can be
absent or controlled. This enhances the reliability since
some of the confounding variables may be absent. It also
enhances internal validity but dilutes the external validity
because of the manipulations made.

6. Case Study and Ethnography
Case Study Ethnography
Particular individual or event studied over time Examines entire
group in depth
Data from observations, interviews, records,
audiovisuals
Extended time on site
Provides learning about poorly understood situation
Not able to generalize findings
Takes several months or years
Identifies norms, patterns, beliefs, structures
Participant observer
Can be overwhelming for novice
Slide 9 Transcript
A case study is where a particular individual, program, or event
is studied in depth for a defined period of time. You will find
them in nearly all academic disciplines.
Extensive data is collected and might include observations,
interviews, a variety of documents, past records, and
audiovisual materials. The researcher will likely be on site for
an extended time, taking notes, noting changes, and recording
details about the physical environment and other factors like
social, economic, or historical influences. The
advantages of a case study are to learn more about a poorly
understood situation, or how a situation changes over time as a
result of conditions, which can help generate more
focused hypotheses to study. A limitation, of course, is that the
findings are not very generalizable.

7. While a case study is focused on a singular event, an
ethnography examines an entire group in depth, especially one
that shares a common culture. These studies often run for
several months or years. The focus is on everyday things,
usually about people, to identify norms, patterns, beliefs, social
structures, and cultural patterns including those that
are implicit (that is, not observed directly). This design is used
extensively in cultural anthropology and requires prolonged
engagement in the natural setting. It generally
takes time for researchers to develop relationships with key
individuals who can provide very valuable insights, and
sometimes the researcher serves as participant observer
and becomes immersed in the daily life of the people. This
design requires patience and flexibility. It can be
overwhelming for a novice, who might become distracted by
less
important details.
Phenomenology and Grounded Theory
Phenomenology Grounded Theory
Conscious perceptions that reflect meaning Use data to develop
theory
Uses unstructured interviews extensively
May seem like a conversation
Researchers suspend preconceptions (epochѐ)
Focus is on a process
Data must include perceptions of participants
Early data used to establish categories
Achieve conceptual density

8. Slide 11 Transcript
Phenomenology is about conscious perceptions, especially with
respect to meaning Understanding perspectives that people have
in a particular situation here searchers
understand what an experience is like. The study interest often
comes from a personal experience of the researcher, and the
approach uses unstructured interviews almost
exclusively with a carefully selected sample, usually not of
great size. Listening in one might hear more of what seems like
a conversation, with occasional sidetracks. Researchers
try to suspend preconceptions (known as bracketing or ee poch
eh - epoche) but it presents a very difficult challenge for some.
The goal of the phenomenology study is to
provide a sense that “I understand better what it is like for
someone to experience that.”
Grounded theory approaches seldom have much of a theoretical
underpinning. Rather, the intent is to begin with data and then
develop a theory. Grounded refers to data being
taken from the field rather than the literature. The focus is
usually on a process. Data are from several collection methods,
like interviews, documents, and so on, and like other
qualitative designs must be flexible and likely to morph over
time. A restriction is that data collected must include
perspectives of the people being studied. Speaking of data
collection, this must begin immediately for grounded theory
studies since the researcher has to create categories to classify
the data and then saturate those categories with as
much learning as possible. Ideally, this would include
disconfirming evidence as well and would achieve what
Schramm called conceptual density. There is not a consensus
among researchers about the extent of prior literature review to
perform since it could sway the views of the researcher during
data collection and influence the new theory

9. foundations.
Content Analysis
Detailed and systematic examination
Wide variety of sources used
Focus on particular material to identify patterns
Substantial front end planning required
Attempts as much objectivity as possible
May be part of another type design
Likely to have a quantitative component
Slide 13 Transcript
Content analysis involves a detailed and systematic examination
of particular material to identify themes or patterns. The
sources are varied and include books, newspapers, personal
journals, legal records, movies, television, art, music, videos,
transcripts, blogs, bulletin boards, and just about any other type
of human communication. This design requires a lot of front
end planning by the researcher and a specific research question
right from the beginning. Also, the researcher will attempt to be
as objective as possible by focusing on a specific body of
material, create precise characteristics to examine, break
complex items into more manageable units, and may involve
one or more judges to help determine categories. Sometimes,

10. content analysis might be part of another design, e.g., a
phenomenological study or with mixed methods. Most content
analyses will have a quantitative component, typically
descriptive
statistics.
Making Observations
Qualitative observations
are unstructured
and free-flowing
Strategies to enhance
validity and reliability
Reflexivity – identify researcher
biases and try to minimize
When unable to record
entire period of
observations use
Time samplingFocus may shift as potentially
significant events present Triangulation – multiple forms of
data to identify consistencies
Data and memos – observations
separate from interpretations
Event sampling
Field notes, video capture, and
digital recording used
Individual sampling

11. Seek contradictions – search for
disconfirming evidence
Time on site – extensive data
collection in the field is best
Slide 15 Transcript
Quantitative studies have limited, prespecified focus and
procedures, whereas qualitative studies may use an emergent
design. This is where early data obtained may influence the
kinds
of subsequent data gathered and adjustments are made. Such a
shift would, of course, disrupt continuity in a statistical analysis
but is acceptable here. In this respect, the researcher is a
data collection instrument who can actively, which is to say
during the observation period, discover underlying patterns and
dynamics that affect the type of information gathered.
Sometimes, the researcher may not know what to look for
initially and is guided as the observation period plays out.
Related to this is that the selection of sources from which to
record
or observe information is actually a form of sampling from the
total possible sources available. When not able to use
technology or to record notes, three variant sampling strategies
are
available:
• Time – the researcher may divide the total observation period
into several segments, perhaps with alternating intervals, or
• Event sampling – which, similarly, divides observation
periods but differs by highlighting and recording different
behaviors within each interval, or Individual sampling – which,

12. again, divides time into smaller intervals and this time focuses
on a different individual during each interval segment.
When making observations during a qualitative study, there are
strategies available for enhancing validity and reliability. The
most representative of these are: Reflexivity – which
identifies researcher biases and makes conscious effort to
minimize the effects or influences.
Triangulation is where the researcher collects multiple forms of
data from various sources to identify consistencies or
inconsistencies.
Distinguishing between data and memos – that is, keep
observations, the data, separate from and interpretations or
explanations recorded.
Seek contradictions – the researcher should actively seek
disconfirming evidence to combat biases, which can occur
during the actual data collection experience. Time on site – the
more time actually on site for extensive data collection in the
field is best since it permits more of the variations and variables
to manifest themselves.
Using Existing Data
May include written,
video, audio, electronic,
or image
Content analysis –
existing data to analyze
and interpret
Provides for
unobtrusive observation

13. Cautions to consider
Selective deposit – choice of
documents used among all
available
Archival research –
existing historical
documents include
Newspapers, books, magazines,
public records, government docs
Selective survival – documents
may have been
removed/destroyed
Can limit generalizability of
results
Meta-analysis –
comparisons among
several similar studies
Effect size used less frequently in
qualitative studies
Slide 17 Transcript
As you would expect, existing data means it is already there in
some form and you do not need to create or produce it. The
data may be written in journals or documents, on video,
in some form of audio, within electronic formats, or in images
using various media. This saves the researcher funds which can
be applied elsewhere. Using existing data also allows
researchers to consider information without other active

14. participants having knowledge of what is being examined. But,
there also are some limitations and cautions to be aware of.
These are described in the textbook and refer to selective
deposit, which describes what the researcher chooses to include
in their portfolios taken from all the existing data available.
Clearly this introduces subjectivity in the assessment process.
The second caution is selective survival and means that some
documents may have been removed from the archives
or files because of privacy, security, transfer, or some other
reason such as degraded videotapes. Related to these cautions is
that the strength of generalizing results beyond the
immediate circumstances is limited. There are various ways to
categorize existing data research designs, but three will be
mentioned here. Archival research can be conducted with
any recorded document, such as newspapers, books, magazines,
medical reports, public records, receipts, government data
bases, or historical files. Content analysis, described
previously, differs from archival research in that the
information is analyzed to interpret a designated topic or issue,
rather than just to describe it. Finally, meta-analysis takes
several studies with similar or related questions to compare
their results, particularly when the studies have produced
results that do not agree. In medical research, meta-analysis
sometimes compares the range of confidence intervals and
means. But, it also can be like comparing apples and oranges.
Statistical significance is a cornerstone of quantitative
research. With meta-analysis, the typical statistical measure is
effect size which indicates magnitude of the results as they
apply within a population and is recommended by the
APA to always be reported in a study. Effect size is not widely
used in qualitative studies since it is based on variations in
standard deviations. You are more likely to see meta-
analysis used in quantitative designs, however, they have a
place in qualitative designs as well and are being reported more
frequently in recent studies.

15. Evaluating Qualitative Research
Standards used to evaluate qualitative studies include
Biases and assumptions – identified by researcher as
influencing data
Purposefulness – research question determines types of data to
collect
Rigor – use thorough methods to objectively collect and analyze
data
Open-minded – modify initial interpretations with
new/conflicting data
Completeness – allow time to understand nuances and
complexities
Coherence – multiple data sources converge with consistent
conclusions
Persuasiveness – logic suggests best interpretation that excludes
others
Usefulness – conclusions prompt interventions/improved
understanding
Consensus – participants and scholars agree with explanations
Slide 19 Transcript

16. Collecting data and interpreting meaning is the basis for
qualitative research. To understand how well the research
meets objectives and to assess the worth of a study, guidelines
or
standards might be applied. Some of these are:
1. Purposefulness which focuses on how the research question
drives collection methodologies and analysis of the data
generated. Or
2. How explicit the assumptions and biases are? This is where
the researcher relates any beliefs, values, or assumptions that
might affect data collection and interpretation, or
3. Using rigorous, precise, and thorough procedures to collect,
record, and analyze data, with the researcher establishing
practices to help be as objective as possible, and
4. Being open-minded, that is, demonstrating willingness to
modify interpretations when new information coming in
conflicts with something previously collected, or
5. Completeness – this is where the researcher shows the object
of study in all of the complexity involved, which means
spending as much time as possible in the field to describe
the setting, what occurs, and perceptions among participants so
that all the nuances and facets are captured.
6. The data must hang together in a coherent way so that
multiple sources come together in consistent conclusions and
contradictions can be reconciled.
7. Persuasiveness is about presenting logical explanations, so
the weight of the evidence indicates one interpretation makes
more sense than any others, and
8. When other individuals, like participants in the study and
knowledgeable scholars agree with the researcher’s
interpretation a consensus exists.
9. The last standard is about how useful the conclusions may be
in promoting a better understanding of what was studied,
perhaps enable better predictions about future events,
or allow for interventions that might enhance quality of life.

17. So, that wraps up the review of qualitative research designs and
some of the characteristics with each type. From here you are
on to the discussion and activities, so have a good week
and stay well.
Blank PageBlank PageBlank PageBlank PageBlank PageBlank
PageBlank PageBlank PageBlank PageBlank Page
Lecture: Approaches Used in Qualitative Research Design
View the presentation and listen to the explanations offered.
When completed, reflect on the presentation and write a brief
statement that describes what you found to be an important
aspect of the information and how that might help you with your
research process.
The presentation is also available in accessible pdf format
below.