Running head PROMOTING EQUALITY IN AFRICAN SCHOOLS .docx

Running head: PROMOTING EQUALITY IN AFRICAN
SCHOOLS 1
PROMOTING EQUALITY IN AFRICAN SCHOOLS
8
Promoting Equality in African Schools
Name/Course No.
Tutor`s Name
Institution
Promoting Equality in African Schools
Introduction
The African continent faces a myriad of challenges. The
challenges vary from one place to another but one specific
challenge that's almost unified in the entire continent is the
inequality seen in the girl child access to education. In most
cases, the girl child has been neglected in ensuring that she gets
equal opportunities in African schools. This is because girls
have often found themselves being married off to their suitors at
a tender age in exchange for cows and other material wealth.
Besides that, the girl-child also faces challenges such as
inadequate sanitary pads that would enable them to have an easy
time in class during their monthly menses (Morrell, 2016).

Therefore, this paper highlights the need to support the girl
child in African schools and bring equality inaccessibility of
studies between these two genders.
Description of the Case
There is a need to promote the development of African women
in their continent. This can only be achieved by changing some
perceptions about the role of women in this continent and the
change of some important issues in society. Besides that, the
change needs to be initiated among the girls who still have a
long journey in their lives and thus huge impacts in society
(Van Wyk, 2015). Therefore, I intend to empower the girl-child
in the continent through the provision of equal opportunities for
both genders in their schools, this is to make the girls also have
the ability to compete favorably with the boys. In most cases,
boys have been seen as important individuals in society that
require to get an education while the girls get married or
committed to home chores before being sent off to their suitors.
I believe that the promotion of the development of the African
girl-child is the basic way in which the African continent can be
transformed. There have been issues of gender-based violence
in which women have been the victims due to the issue of
overdependence and need to ensure that they are submissive to
their husbands makes them suffer the brutality without raising
an alarm (Becker, De Wet & Van Vollenhoven, 2015). As such,
with equal opportunities being granted to these girls, there are
chances that they will be equipped with the right kind of
information and knowledge and hence making it easier to
become financially independent and able to advocate for their
rights. This would ultimately, later on, lead to reduced cases of
inequality in the gender.
Besides that, girls can also be given equal opportunities as their
counterparts through the provision of quality drinking water.
This is an area in which most of the girls in this continent spend
most of their time looking for quality drinking water for their
families. Therefore, providing ways in which these girls would
easily acquire quality drinking water this would mean that the

girls have adequate time to study just like their male
counterparts. This can be done by providing gutters for the
harvesting of rainwater, digging of boreholes within the
communities which would make water easily accessible among
the community people.
The provision of quality water to these women in society would
mean that they have been given a certificate for a better life.
They usually spend much of their time to look for water in
which they end up with dirty and dangerous water to their
health and the health of their family members. Therefore, with
water at their disposal, these girls would be able to spend the
majority of their time in school which makes it equal with their
male counterparts who spend most of their time in class.
Additionally, there is also the need to support the girls and the
women in this continent by supporting them in terms of the
provision of security measures. There are many instances in
which women have been subjected to various ways of abuse,
their cases of sexual assault, trafficking, child labor, and even
child marriage (Van Wyk, 2015). Therefore, the provision of
support by preventing such vices among these minors would
automatically result in spending the majority of their time in
class just as their male counterparts. In the end, they all have
the required knowledge and skills to carry on with their daily
activities thus making their lives even better.
It's important that or rather the girl-child in the African
continent is given a chance to acquire education just like their
male counterparts because of the benefits that come with
empowering a woman. Empowering a woman is empowering the
society, as such through the provision of these basic needs that
ensure they waste their time it would culminate into the society
being empowered by the women as they make the lives of the
people in society better.
Application of the Concepts
Poverty is a key factor that plays a huge role in derailing the
success of most of the girls in this society. In this case, the
basic human needs in society cannot be met due to the unlimited

resources in which these people are endowed with (Morrell,
2016). The situation is such that the community lacks some of
the basic commodities such as water which is vital for the
success and development of the community. There must be
appropriate measures put in place to ensure that there is an
effective provision of the services and products required.
The concept of poverty has a direct relation to the promotion of
the development of equality among boys and girls in African
society. Poverty has made it difficult for most of the families in
Africa to access quality drinking water. As a result, this makes
it an important concept in ensuring that there is empowering of
such a society that does not have enough resources required to
provide quality and healthy drinking water that would result in
these girls spending the majority of their time in their studies.
The concept matters to this study as elimination of poverty
mean that these people would be able to acquire the necessary
resources required in their lives thus making the lives of these
girls easier and better.
Poverty in any society leads to struggling of the people that are
found in such a society. The girls spend the majority of their
time seeking water but only end up with dangerous and dirty
water. Therefore, through the elimination of poverty, there is
likely to be easy accessibility to water and other resources that
most of the girls spend the majority of their time seeking to get
to it. Therefore, through the provision of these services, there is
equal opportunity for both genders to participate equally in
education.
Besides that, there is also the concept of mindset. These are the
beliefs that people have on issues such as intelligence and talent
being fixed and cannot be changed at any time (Loots & Walker,
2016). The society is made to believe that certain chores and
duties are inborn and once one is born of a certain gender
he/she must always stick to the chores aligned to such gender.
This concept relates to the issue of promoting the development
of equality in African schools the society expects that the girls
should always take care of their families rather than go to

school. Therefore, their mindset is fixed on the girls needing to
take care of these chores and nothing can be done to change the
situation.
However, with the support and education on society, there is
likely to be changed on the mindset that girls can also carry out
other productive chores and need not waste their time looking
for resources such as water rather than be in class to make their
lives better. The change in mindset would ensure that society
works towards ensuring the easy provision of commodities
without necessarily involving the women and girls that would
execute other duties. As a result, society is likely to be more
productive and progressive.
Besides, another important concept is the theory of minds,
which describes the ability of one to understand oneself and
other people in their lives, their emotions, and needs (Morrell,
2016). In this paper the African society has perceived that the
girl child has no other way but to seek for the resources used by
the family, they spend most of their time looking for water
rather than being in class shaping their destine, they lack basic
commodities such as sanitary pads due to the theory of mind
that majority of the people in the continent have set believing
that it’s not a must that a girl child goes to school. This is an
important concept as its management would ensure that society
changes the poor perceptions that it has on its people.
Connection to Meta-theoretical Assumptions
The need to promote the development of girl-child in the
African continent is also faced with assumptions that have been
made on the girls. For instance, most of the commodities view
girls as assets that would eventually leave their families and
settle in another man`s home (Banks, 2015). Therefore, they use
all means within their reach to ensure that they part their ways
with her as early as possible in exchange for wealth. This makes
it difficult for the empowerment of the girl child to be possible.
This is because it's the people that take care of these girls, their
guardians and parents that spearhead such operations. As such,
there is a need for the change of this kind of mindset and the

poverty level which also contributes towards such acts as
parents view girls as sources of wealth.
Besides that, there is also the assumption that has been made on
the capability of girls being productive in society (Becker, De
Wet & Van Vollenhoven, 2015). It's assumed that girls cannot
have huge impacts on society. As a result, they should be made
to take care of their families, look for waters and execute other
chores within their homes. However, this assumption has to be
stopped for the African people to move ahead on the activities
that engage in. This is because there are various ways in which
successful ladies have been able to help their societies if given
equal opportunities such as those given to the boys. Therefore,
through equity, society has a high chance of being successful in
various aspects.
Conclusion
Africa as a continent is lagging because of the mindset and the
assumptions that the continent has made on their girl-child.
Girls have not been given equal opportunities as their male
counterparts. However, there are also cases of poverty which
have contributed to the situation at hand. Therefore, there is a
need for change, a change that would see the promotion of the
development of equality in African schools with all children of
both genders being given equal chances to acquire basic
knowledge and skills required.
References
Banks, J. A. (2015). Multicultural education, school reform, and
educational equality. Opening the doors to opportunity for all:
Setting a research agenda for the future, 54-63.
Becker, A., De Wet, A., & Van Vollenhoven, W. (2015). Human
rights literacy: Moving towards rights-based education and

transformative action through understandings of dignity,
equality and freedom. South African Journal of Education,
35(2), 1044.
Loots, S., & Walker, M. (2016). A capabilities-based gender
equality policy for higher education: Conceptual and
methodological considerations. Journal of Human Development
and Capabilities, 17(2), 260-277.
Morrell, R. (2016). Making southern theory? Gender researchers
in South Africa. Feminist Theory, 17(2), 191-209.
Van Wyk, S. B. (2015). " It’s hard work to be a girl":
Adolescent girls’ experiences of girlhood in three low-income
communities in South Africa (Doctoral dissertation,
Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University).
Running head: DEVELOPMENT1
DEVELOPMENT5
Promoting development in youths at schools
Student’s name:
Institution:
Date:
Promoting development in youths at schools
This post discusses the various focal areas in fostering positive
youth development in the school settings. Given the current
school personnel workload and the federal policies that tend to

emphasize academic excellence, it will remain to be a goal to
focus on holistic adolescent outcomes and educational outcomes
that will increase the adolescent psychological wellbeing and
general society wellbeing.
Learning institutions should therefore recognize, engage and
sustain the existing and potential resources in their learning
environments and the surrounding communities to develop
youth's competence, confidence, connections, character, caring,
and ability to make positive and significant contributions to
society. One of the critical factors in making the positive youth
development a success includes the schools viewing the efforts
and outcomes via a system-wide approach while entering into
partnerships with helpful stakeholders who have a shared vision
of the positive youth development. Positive youth development
will enable the youths no only to be academic giants but also
have many skills that are useful in other aspects of life, such as
in making positive relationships, facing realities, and setting
realistic goals.
Some of the applicable concepts in the positive development of
the youths include self-regulation, mindsets, and poverty. Self-
Regulation refers to the ability of an individual to control
various aspects of his life, such as decision making, your
emotions, and hence gains a sense of control over his behavior
and experience. The self-regulation theory outlines the process
and components that are vital in deciding on what to think, feel,
utter, and do. The concept of self-regulation is significant to the
youths in enabling them to develop the desired be behaviors
while in the learning u=institutions and outside the schools
through avoiding impulsive behaviors. Through behavioral self-
regulation, the teenagers will be equipped with useful insights
on how they can act in their long-term best interests and which
is consistent with their goals and deepest values. Through this
concept, the teenagers will gain vital skills in acting against
peer influences while choosing to do the right thing despite
feeling otherwise.
Poverty is defined as being in a state in which one lacks the

financial resources to cater to all of his basic needs. In the
concept of poverty, the teenagers will be able to discover that
they can still achieve better results in schools and have a
brighter future despite their current financially distressing
situations. The teenagers will learn to budget within their means
and avoid luxurious lives they cannot afford. Teenagers will be
informed on the ways of avoiding associated poverty issues
such as drug abuse, early marriages, teenage sex, and unwanted
pregnancies and, most importantly, school dropouts. Mindsets
are the specific lay theory in regard to the nature of human
traits. The teenagers are to be taught to avoid having fixed
mindsets, which makes most of them have less control over
their habits makes them being contented with what they have
got even if its poor grades. However, the youths are encouraged
to embrace a growth mindset, which suggests that they can alter
and their traits and increase their ability. The student should,
therefore, be able to avoid helpless responses to failures both in
academics and other aspects of life through having a growth
mindset.
Meta- theoretical assumptions provide a subject of concern
regarding positive youth development as they form a significant
part of the philosophy of science. In this essay, two meta-
theoretical assumptions: nature and/or Nature and the active
and/vs. Passive and their impact on the topic are further
analyzed. The nature vs. nurture assumption argues that the
children's behaviors are, to some extent, determined by their
upbringing and partly through their interactions with nature.
The theory suggests a continuous development whereby the
teenager's behavior encompasses gradual and ongoing changes
throughout their life span. The practices I the child early stages
of childhood development provide the basis for skills and
abilities that are vital for the next steps. The passive vs. active
meta-theoretical assumptions argues that a person can actively
change his behavior with minimal influence from the
environment and at the same time, can become an inactive
recipient form the environmental controls. In this topic, both

assumptions are argued to have the impact of continuous
development on the lives and behaviors of the children. If a
team member had differing opinions, such as claiming that there
is discontinuous development in the children, such differing
points of view would lead to debates which could significantly
lead to the discovery of new ideas and insights which may
change the group's ways of seeing things. Such discussion may
also adversely affect the team activities due to spending of
much time dwelling on the analysis hindering the team form
accomplishing other tasks on time.
In conclusion, promoting development in the youths in schools
is vital to the teens, society and to the state as it enables them
to develop the right behaviors, attitudes, characters, and coping
mechanisms with the realities of life. People should, therefore,
join hands towards promoting positive development in their
teenagers as a means to a brighter future.
Middle Adulthood Unit
Developmental Task of
Middle Adulthood
• Generativity vs. stagnation
• What are we leaving behind, to the
generation that comes next? What is our
contribution, our legacy?
• Generativity. A sense that you’ve
successfully contributed to the world
• Stagnation. A sense of disconnect or

remorse from failure to contribute
2
Middle Adulthood: A Lifespan
Perspective
• Mid-life consciousness
• Reflect on who we are, decisions made to
get here, consequences of decisions
• “Were those good decisions? Did I invest
my time, energy, effort well?
• Mid-life crisis
• Feel like maybe you’re on the wrong track
Perspective
• Paths are more variable
• Best way to understand what’s
going on in development? Know
where they are in family life cycle
• Balance between growth and loss
Perspective

• Shift in how you see your remaining life
• Recognition that time is not limitless
• Goals and priorities may shift
Cognitive Development in
Middle Adulthood
History of Research on Cognitive
Abilities
• Traditional view of development
• Cognitive ability peaks in adolescence/early adulthood,
then declines with age
Abilities
• Cross-sectional
studies suggested
steady declines in
cognitive ability after
age 20-25
Abilities
• Longitudinal studies

suggested gradual
increases until age 70
Abilities
Limits of Cross-Sectional Studies
• Cohort effects
• Older cohort had less education, worse health; were
unfamiliar with standardized tests
• Testing effects (i.e., testing conditions)
• Older cohorts struggle with timed tests, testing pressure
• Remove pressure, time limit à scores improve
Limits of Longitudinal Studies
• Attrition (drop-out)
• Participants with lower
cognitive performance
drop out earlier
Sequential Studies on Cognitive
Development
• Complex findings

• Large cohort effects. Different generations have
different characteristics
• Big picture
• Modest gains in 30, 40, 50-year-olds
• Scores level off in 60, 70-year-olds
• Declines in 70, 80-year-olds
• Results differ by cognitive ability
Crystallized and Fluid intelligence
Crystallized intelligence
• Accumulated knowledge,
skills
• Vocabulary
• Verbal memory
Fluid intelligence
• Ability to reason abstractly,
solve novel problems
Cattell & Horn
Research on Fluid and Crystallized
Intelligence
• Different abilities change at
different rates

• Crystallized intelligence
increases slightly
• Fluid intelligence decreases
slightly
• Mental speed does decline
beginning in middle adulthood
Creativity
What is Creativity?
What is Creativity?
• Creativity. “The tendency to generate or recognize
ideas, alternatives, or possibilities that may be
useful in solving problems… and entertaining
ourselves and others.” (Franken, 1993)
Components of Creativity
1. Divergent thinking. Look at
things from a different
perspective
2. Originality. Novel, unique

3. Functionality. Has value or
serve some function
The Creative Process
1. Preparation.
• The conscious, effortful work: Practice,
study, learn, gather information
2. Incubation.
• The unconscious work: The mind
processes knowledge, information; makes
new connections
The Creative Process
3. Illumination: Insights, “vision”
• ‘Aha!’ moment: Insights generated from
conscious and unconscious processes
4. Revision: Try out and revise
• You’re not done
• May need to refine, revise, or start over
A Glimpse of Picasso’s Process

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uEKumfGP5W8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uEKumfGP5W8
Development of Creativity
• Age trends: Peaks at different ages depending on
domain
• E.g., mathematics: peaks early
• E.g., humanities: peaks late
Personality Development
What is Personality?
• What energizes you more – being at a huge party or a
smaller gathering?
• How much time do you spend looking for your keys?
• Do you like being the center of attention?
• Are you someone who’s willing to try anything once?
• How do you feel about deadlines?
• How are you like all other people?
• How are you like some other people?
• How are you like no other person?

• Personality. “… individual differences in characteristic
patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.” (APA, 2017)
• Roots in
• Nature. Genetics
• Nurture. Cultural and social backgrounds
• Individual. Your particular idiosyncrasies
Trait Theory: The Big Five
Does Personality Change?
How Does Personality Change?
• From 15-50:
• On average, we become less
• Extroverted (social vitality)
• Neurotic
• On average, we become more
• Extroverted (social dominance)
• Agreeable
• Conscientious

• Open to new experiences
• Middle age onward: Relative stability in personality
• Less social vitality
• Less openness to new experience
Why Stability Starting in Middle
Adulthood?
• Possible explanations
• Genetic influences (e.g., temperament)
• Long lasting effects of childhood experiences
• Identity achieved; you’re satisfied
• Maybe people actively create stability
• People seek out experiences that fit with their
personality (so no need to adjust)
• PersonalityèChoice of experienceèReinforcement of
Personality
Unit 9: Middle Adulthood Review
• Generativity vs.
stagnation
• Cognitive development
• Cross-sectional vs.

longitudinal vs.
sequential findings
• Crystallized vs. fluid
intelligence
• Trends over time
• Creativity
• Definition and three
components
• Four steps of process
• Personality
• Definition
• Big 5 components
• Reasons for stability vs.
change
Early Childhood
Developmental Task of
Early Childhood
• Initiative vs. guilt
• Children use their (boundless) energy and
developing motor skills and interests to
take the initiative in trying new things

• Develop sense of purpose
• Key
• Self-regulation. Must learn self-control
Self-Regulation in Early
Childhood
What is Self-Regulation?
• Processes where we manage or modify our
thoughts, emotions, and behaviors
What is Self-Regulation?
• Processes where we manage or modify our
thoughts, emotions, and behaviors
• Many different types of self-regulation
• Emotional, attentional, behavioral, cognitive (thinking,
concentrating, working memory)
‘To Do, or Not to Do’

• Sometimes self-regulation is framed in terms of
• Don’t regulation
• Stop ourselves from doing something that we want to do
• Do regulation
• Do something that we don’t really want to do
Examples of Practicing Self-
Regulation
• Don’t regulation
• Not hitting, not taking someone’s toy, not yelling or
running inside
• Not running away in store
• Do regulation:
• Cleaning up, eating vegetables, going to sleep
Why is Self-Regulation Important?
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QX_oy9614HQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QX_oy9614HQ
• What did you observe the children do to not eat
the marshmallow?

• Why might this ability to ‘delay gratification’ be
important?
• Good self-regulationà Self-control or disciplined
behavior; lower impulsivity
• Aids social development
• Need for healthy social relationships, prosocial behavior
• Need for learning in school
Why is Self-Regulation Hard?
• Motivational system develops first
• Impulses are powerful and present at birth
• Energizes us to ‘approach’ (yum; curiosity) or ‘avoid’ (yuck)
• Includes emotions, fight/flight response
• Self-regulation system takes more time to develop
• Region of brain (prefrontal cortex; PFC) associated with self-
regulation develops more slowly
• The immature PFC is no match for impulses
Where Does Good Self-Regulation
‘Come From’?
• Self-regulation is a “muscle” that we can

exercise
• Practice – repeatedly over time – builds self-
regulation
• Eventually it is internalized and happens without
effort
What Influences the Development
of Self-Regulation?
• Biology (e.g., temperament)
• Parents
• Love: Child wants to comply
• Structure: Rules, limits are clear, consistent
• Autonomy support: Appropriate choices given
• Cognitive factors (e.g., memory)
• Nutrition
• Self-regulation takes energy (you need glucose)
External and Internal Regulation
As we develop,
External regulation à internal regulation
• External regulation = Structure!
• External: Coming from outside the child
• Adults assist in regulating behavior

• Internal regulation
• Child internalizes rules and can do it
themselves
• Still need structure, reminders
Studying Self-Regulation in Early
Childhood
• Observe compliance, delay-of-gratification
behaviors (emerge ~12-18 months)
• Compliance. Going along (or not) with ‘Do’ and ‘Don’t’
commands
High Level of Support Less Support Low Level of Support
Hands-on assistance
Environmental cues
Verbal reminders
Direct supervision
Environmental cues
No prompting, no
assistance
Environmental cues
TIME à
6
Internalization

Emotion Regulation: What are
Emotions?
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xNY0AAUtH3g
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xNY0AAUtH3g
Emotion Regulation: What are
Emotions?
• Rapid appraisals of situations
• Functions:
• Give us important information about a situation
• Energize behaviors
• Communicate to others
What is Emotion Regulation?
• A type of self-regulation where we (consciously or
unconsciously) modify our emotions and/or their
expression
Development of Emotion Regulation
• Emotion regulation develops over 1st year with
caregiver guidance
• Infants are able to express but not control emotions
• By early childhood, we’ve begun learning how to
• Down regulate (calm down extreme emotions)
• Up regulate (cheer up or comfort self)

Why is Emotion Regulation
Important?
• Social consequences
• We can act out emotions in socially appropriate ways
(e.g., meltdown vs. proper expression)
• Allows us to succeed in social environments
• We can get along with friends, peers
Why is Emotion Regulation
Important?
• Cognitive consequences
• Without regulation, emotions can impair learning and
academic achievement
Teaching Children Emotion
Regulation
• Very young children don’t know what emotions are
or what they mean – can be scary and confusing
• Adults can ‘emotionally coach’ children to
recognize emotions, what they mean, and how to
act

Teaching Children Emotion
Regulation
• Help children learn to recognize emotions by
pointing them out
• Help them to see cause of emotion
• “Your sister took your toy, did that make you feel sad or
mad?”
• Accept children’s negative emotions
• Tendency is to avoid/fix/get rid of negative emotions
• Better to help children identify and manage them in
healthy ways
Learning to Regulate Emotions:
The RULER Intervention
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mkZd2VKpFrU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mkZd2VKpFrU
Early Childhood Education
Background
What is school readiness?
• Children having skills they
need to be successful in first

school year
Background
• One-third of children are assessed as not ready to
successfully complete kindergarten-level work
Why Does ‘School Readiness’ Matter?
The achievement gap
• Differences between less
and more advantaged
students persist, widen
• Children from less
advantaged backgrounds
start kindergarten
approximately 2 years
behind their peers
Example: The 30 Million Word
Gap
Why Does ‘School Readiness’ Matter?
• An unsuccessful kindergarten transition and first
year is a strong predictor of

• Academic disengagement, disruption, withdrawal
• Drop-out, irresponsible and deviant behavior
• Long-term adverse outcomes (e.g., unemployment)
A
Solution
: Early Childhood Education
• Research shows that this gap can be closed by
providing early educational opportunities to
children
• Early childhood education (ECE) is any formal
educational program that children participate in
before entering kindergarten
• The goal of ECE is to prepare child for a successful
transition into kindergarten

• A high-quality ECE classroom is ‘child-centered’
• Attuned to child's developmental needs
• ‘Child-centered’ classrooms are evidence-based
• Scaffolds learning…
• Develop secure stable relationships…
• Offers appropriate…
• Structure
• Autonomy support
• Responsiveness
• A high-quality ECE classroom is ‘child-centered’
• Attuned to child's developmental needs
• ‘Child-centered’ classrooms are evidence-based
• Scaffolds learning… Vygotsky and ZPD
• Develop secure stable relationships… attachment theory
• Offers appropriate… parenting dimensions

• Structure
• Autonomy support
• Responsiveness
Immediate Benefits of ECE
• Skills for learning
• Skills for socializing (experiences with teachers,
peers)
• Time to adjust to new context
• Become familiar with structures (routines, rules,
expectations) of school setting
Long-Term Benefits of ECE
• Reduces (or closes) achievement gap for
disadvantaged children
• Reduces many of the adverse consequences of

poverty on child developmental outcomes
Long-Term Benefits of ECE
Economic benefits
• Early intervention programs represent
$2-$16 ‘return on investment’
• Ex: Special and remedial education,
grade retention, high school graduation
rate, crime and incarceration,
employment, earned income (Mervis, 2011)
Ramey & Ramey, 2004; Mashburn, 2014

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NNgp1_B-6c8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NNgp1_B-6c8
Meta-Theories
Handout:
• Sets of assumptions about human nature and
development
What is a Meta-Theory?
• What we look for
• The questions we ask

• The methods we use
• How we interpret
research findings
Meta-Theories
Important because they affect:
1. Human nature
2. Nature and/or nurture
3. Active and/or passive
4. Stability and/or change
5. Continuity and/or discontinuity
6. Universal and/or context-specific

Meta-Theoretical Assumptions
1. Human nature
• Inherently good?
• Inherently bad?
• Blank slate?
2. Nature and/or nurture
• Nature: heredity, genes, maturational processes
• Nurture: environment, experience, learning

3. Active and/or passive
• Passive participants reacting to external forces?
• Active in choosing/shaping development?
4. Stability and/or change
• Stable: early characteristics persist; early
experiences have permanent effects
• Malleable: individuals change in response to
experience
5. Continuity and/or discontinuity
• Quantitative: gradual, incremental

• Qualitative: abrupt, fundamental changes
6. Universal and/or context-specific
• Universal: everyone develops the same way
• Context-specific: development depends on
contexts (e.g., history, culture)
Four Meta-Theories
Maturational Mechanistic
Organismic Contextual
Supplemental Reading:

What is a Model?
• A metaphor used to represent reality
• We use it to structure our understanding of
something
• Each meta-theory has a model associated with it
• Model: “Plant”
Maturational Meta-Theory
• Human nature:
• Genetic – good or bad
• Nature and/or nurture:
• Nature

• Active and/or passive:
• Passive
• Stability and/or change:
• Stability
• Continuous and/or discontinuous:
• Depends on genetic program
• Universal and/or context-specific:
• Universal
Maturational Meta-Theory
• Model: “Machine”
Mechanistic Meta-Theory
• Human nature:
• Blank slate

• Nurture
• Passive
• Change
• Continuous
• Context-specific
Mechanistic Meta-Theory
• Model: “Butterfly”
Organismic Meta-Theory

• Human nature:
• Good
• Nature
• Active
• Change
• Discontinuous
• Universal
Organismic Meta-Theory
• Model: “Tennis match”

Contextual Meta-Theory
• Human nature:
• Both
• Both
• Active
• Both
• Both
• Both
Contextual Meta-Theory

Linking Meta-Theories to Theories
• Ethological theory (John Bowlby)
• Handout: “Development is the product
of biologically-based… programs shaped
by human genetic and evolutionary
history.”
• Human nature: Depends (on genetics)
• Nature and/or nurture: Nature
• Active and/or passive: Passive
• Stability and/or change: Depends (on genetics)

• Continuity and/or discontinuity: Depends (on
genetics)
• Universal and/or context-specific: Universal
Organismic Maturational Mechanistic Contextual
• Learning theory (B. F. Skinner)
• Handout: “Development is the product
of learning from the consequences of
ones’ behavior through operant
conditioning.”
• Human nature: Blank
• Nature and/or nurture: Nurture

• Active and/or passive: Passive
• Stability and/or change: Stability
• Continuity and/or discontinuity: Continuity
• Universal and/or context-specific: Context-
specific
• Cognitive development theory (Jean
Piaget)
• Handout: “Development proceeds
through four stages of cognitive
development.”
• Human nature: Good

• Nature and/or nurture: Nature
• Active and/or passive: Active
• Stability and/or change: Change
• Continuity and/or discontinuity: Discontinuity
• Universal and/or context-specific: Universal
• Bio-ecological systems theory
(Urie Bronfenbrenner)
• Handout: “Development is the
result of reciprocal social
interactions between an active
person and their social partners
in a series of nested contexts.”

• Human nature: Good
• Nature and/or nurture: Both
• Active and/or passive: Active
• Stability and/or change: Both
• Continuity and/or discontinuity: Both
• Universal and/or context-specific: Both
Paper 1:
Reflective
Assessment
Paper 1: Three Parts

1. Me and my development
2. Me and my meta-theory
3. Integrating theories, meta-theories, and
assumptions
Part 1: Me and My Development
1. Who has had a significant influence on your own
development?
• Talk about 2-3 people
• Give specific examples
2. Whose development have you influenced?
• 1 person: Give a specific example

Part 2: Me and My Meta-Theory
• For each of the 6 meta-theoretical assumptions
• State your opinion (i.e., people are active, not passive)
and give a specific example that supports your
experience
• There are some framing questions to help structure
your thinking and writing
Part 3: Integrating Theories,
Meta-Theories, and Assumptions
3.1 Theories liked/disliked
• Choose 2 theories: one liked, one disliked
• Name and define each theory in your own words
• Explain what you like/dislike about it

• Tip: Book may be especially helpful here
• p. 3 of textbook covers ‘theories’
• pp. 12-20 covers multiple theories you could use
• Theories also listed on meta-theories handout
Part 3: Integrating Theories,
Meta-Theories, and Assumptions
3.2 What is my meta-theory?
• What do your preferences on theories tell you about your
meta-
theoretical preferences?
• Connect your preferences to a meta-theory
• “What I like about Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is
that
the individual is active in affecting their own development.”
• “What I dislike about ethological theory is that it says nature

is
running the show and I think nurture plays a role.”
• All things considered, which meta-theory do you like/dislike
the
most?
Submitting the Paper
• Submit online via D2L in
• Word document (.doc, .docx file)
• PDF (.pdf file)
• To submit paper or view rubric, go to Activities à
Assignments à Paper 1
• Late papers: 10% deduction per day for 7 days

Grading Rubric
Questions?
Identifying Your Assumptions
• Please work alone or with a partner
• Start identifying your assumptions
• Work through the 6 assumptions listed in Part 2 of the
Paper 1 Assignment
• Don’t have to go through in order
• Can brainstorm examples
• The point is not to convince or sway your partner; it
is to identify your own assumptions
• Please raise your hand if you have any questions
Big Picture Themes in

Developmental Psychology
Supplemental Reading:
1. Optimal development involves the whole person
over time
2. Development is promoted through person-
centered contexts and interactions
3. People have characteristics that they ‘carry’ with
them into a dynamic present
4. Development occurs through reciprocal
interactions
5. All people face developmental tasks
6. There are many pathways to optimal development
Six ‘Big Picture’ Themes:

1. Optimal development involves the whole person
over time
• Optimal = ‘Best case scenario’ (person is healthy,
thriving, resilient)
Big Picture Themes
2. Development is promoted through person-
centered contexts and interactions
• This means that the environment(s) and the people in it
are attuned to the needs of the developing person
• Examples
• Child-centered parenting

• Student-centered classrooms
Big Picture Themes
3. People have characteristics that they ‘carry’ with
them into a dynamic present
• Individual carries ’suitcase’ of assets and vulnerabilities
• Present consists of multiple interacting contexts
Big Picture Themes
4. Development occurs through reciprocal
interactions between
• An active developing individual
• An active changing context
Big Picture Themes
5. All people face developmental tasks

• We all go through the same basic
developmental stages
• Stages are culturally and historically
relative
Big Picture Themes
6. There are many pathways to optimal
development
• Remarkable capacity for change, recovery, repair
Big Picture Themes
Questions?

Unit 1 Review
• Defined development
• What is development, what develops, when do we
develop, what influences development?
• Compared traditional vs. lifespan views
• 7 propositions of lifespan development
• Examined meta-theories
• 6 assumptions
• 4 meta-theories
• What is your meta-theory? (Paper 1)
• Discussed 6 big picture themes
Unit 4: Family
Parenting
Divorce

Child Maltreatment
Parenting
Introduction to Parenting
• Dimensions of
parenting
• Styles of parenting
• Systems view of
parenting
What Do Children Need?
Skinner, Johnson, & Snyder, 2005
• Examined studies on parenting
dimensions, behaviors beginning in

1940’s
• Identified core caregiving dimensions
Three dimensions of parenting
• Love vs. rejection
• Structure vs. chaos
• Autonomy support vs. coercion
Rejection
Structure
Chaos Coercion
Love Autonomy
What Children Need: Love
• Love dimension
• Responsiveness, warmth, affection
• Time spent together, involvement

• Encouragement, praise
• Hostility, rejection dimension
• Lack of affection, cold
• Harshly critical
• Derision, ridicule, contempt
What Children Need: Love
• Why is love important?
• Worthy of love. Communicates you are a
good person
• Trust. World is a good, safe place; you can
trust others
• Social competence. Enjoy interacting with
others; do so skillfully
• Belongingness. Feeling like we are
accepted and part of a group(s)

What Children Need: Structure
• Structure dimension
• Clear, firm rules, follow-through,
consistency
• High expectations, demandingness (age-
appropriate)
• Guidance, supervision
• Chaos dimension
• Lax rules, inconsistency
• Indulgence, no follow-through
• Lack of supervision
What Children Need: Structure
• Why do children need structure, limits?
• Most important: Develop self-control
• Rules (especially in lieu of self-control)

keeps child and others safe
• Learn to get along with others, not act
impulsively or selfishly (managing impulses
is form of self-control)
What Children Need: Autonomy
• Autonomy dimension
• Freedom to make decisions
• Encourage independence, individuality
• Respect, trust
• Coercion dimension
• Rigidity, pressure, control
• Use of threats, manipulation
What Children Need: Autonomy
• Why is autonomy important?

• Learn to communicate actual preferences, desires
• Make own mistakes and learn from them
• Learn to take initiative, how to make decisions
• Develop own goals, agenda, interests, passions
• Learn own strengths, limits
• Take ownership
Styles of Parenting
Maccoby & Martin, 1983
1. Authoritative
2. Authoritarian
3. Neglectful
4. Overprotective
5. Permissive/indulgent
Styles of Parenting: Authoritative
1. Love. High/attuned
• Responsive, loving, affectionate

2. Structure. High/attuned
• High expectations, appropriate
rules/limits
3. Autonomy. High/attuned
• Appropriate space for choice;
explanations
Styles of Parenting: Neglectful
1. Love. Low/not attuned
• Unavailable, cold, distant
2. Structure. Low/not attuned
• Expectations, rules inconsistent or
non-existent
• Follow-through inconsistent or non-
existent

3. Autonomy. Low/not attuned
• Disinterested
• Inconsistent/fluctuating
Styles of Parenting: Indulgent
1. Love. High/attuned
• Responsive, loving, affectionate
2. Structure. Low/not attuned
• Lax rules; follow-through
inconsistent or non-existent; little or
no supervision
3. Autonomy. High/not attuned
• (Too much) freedom
Styles of Parenting: Overprotective
1. Love. High/not attuned

• Conditional love; warm, affectionate
2. Structure. High/not attuned
• Inappropriately high limits
• Intrusive guidance; parent makes decisions
Styles of Parenting: Authoritarian
1. Love. Low/not attuned
• Cold, insensitive, distant; unavailable
2. Structure. High/not attuned
• Overly harsh, punitive
• Coercive; little/no choice or freedom
Is There Only One Right Way to
Parent?

• Nope - there are many ways
• Not this black and white: Parents likely shift
between or draw upon different parenting styles
Parenting Style Activity
Character Description Parenting Style(s)
Loving and caring;
many rules and
parental guidance;
little room for
independence
Reserved, distant
affection; high
expectations and many
rules; little room for
self-exploration

Loving and caring;
many rules and
parental guidance;
little room for
independence
Overprotective
Reserved, distant
affection; high
self-exploration
Loving and caring;
many rules and
parental guidance;
little room for
independence

Overprotective
Reserved, distant
affection; high
self-exploration
Authoritarian
Easy affection;
reasonable and
explained expectations;
appropriate space for
exploration and
discovery
Carefree expressions of
love; few enforced or
consistent rules; some

support for self-
expression
Easy affection;
reasonable and
exploration and
discovery
Authoritative
support for self-
expression

Easy affection;
reasonable and
exploration and
discovery
Authoritative
support for self-
expression
Indulgent

Manipulative displays
of affection; strict
enforcement of a single
rule; uninterested in
development of self
Loving affection; high
expectations and strict
rules; limited
allowance for
independence
development of self
Overprotective;
neglectful

rules; limited
allowance for
independence
development of self
Overprotective;
neglectful
rules; limited
allowance for
independence

Authoritative;
authoritarian
Potential Long-Term
Consequences
• Most promising outcomes: Authoritative
• Independent, resilient, confident
• Warm, friendly, ‘happy’ (high positive/low negative
affect)
• More skillful in relationships with friends, parents
• Less risk of behavioral issues
Potential Long-Term
Consequences
• Highest risk for maladaptive outcomes: Neglectful
• Poorer management of emotions, behaviors; more
aggressive, hostile, impulsive
• Inhibited, withdrawn; lower social competence

• Adolescence: Higher risk of behavioral issues
Potential Long-Term
Consequences
• Indulgent parenting
• Self-centered, aimless, irresponsible
• Low independence, achievement
• Overprotective parenting
• Low independence, self-confidence; other-directed
• Immature; not ready for real world
• Adolescence: Resistance, rebellion
Potential Long-Term
Consequences
• Authoritarian parenting
• Low independence; other-directed
• Higher anxiety, fearfulness; higher unhappiness
• Lower social competence
• Aggression/bullying

A Note on Variation
• Significant variation in effects of parenting styles
• Effects vary by culture, ethnicity, other contexts
• Example: Authoritarian style predicts higher
academic achievement in Asian- and African-
American youth than authoritative parenting
Developmental Systems View of
Parenting
Parenting
Transactional Model

Parenting
Transactional Model Over Time
Parenting
Transactional Model Over Time
Transactional Model Over Time & Embedded in
Multiple Contexts
Parenting
Parent
Child

Parent
Parent
Child
Parent
Extended Family
Society
Parenting
Summary: Developmental Systems
View of Parenting
1. Parenting is transactional
2. Parenting ‘style’ may develop, change over time
3. Co-parent relationship influences child

4. Parenting shaped by many higher-order systems
5. Extended family is also part of system
6. Biggest risk factor for poor parenting: Poverty
Divorce
Marital Conflict
• Healthy, skillful conflict is okay (and going to
happen)
• Harmful forms of conflict: Arguing, fighting, yelling
• Very hard on children - ESPECIALLY young children
• Enormous amount of data on this
• Results are conclusive enough to view this as a subtle
form of abuse/family violence
What is Divorce?

• Divorce. Legal ending of marriage
• United States has highest divorce rate in world
• Rates increased sharply from 1960 to 1985
• 45% of marriages end in divorce; half involve children
• 67% of divorcees remarry
Divorce is a Process of Change
• Divorce is not a single event; it is a series of
complex (and stressful) events
• Begins with conflict
• Both partners have practical and emotional difficulties
• Psychological stress = Less psychological resources
• Short-term costs: High
• Long-term costs: It depends
How Does Divorce Affect
Children?
IT DEPENDS
• Many factors influence how a child adapts to

divorce
• Child’s characteristics, parent’s characteristics, social
supports, etc.
• Nature of relationship between separated parents
Short-Term Consequences
Short-term is rough on children
• Loss of a parent/parenting unit
• Conflict between parents
• Change in income, resources, supports
• Significant changes, disruptions
• Patterns, routines change
Berk, 2014, p. 274-276
• Parenting styles may change
• May become harsh, inconsistent

• May become lax, inconsistent
• Children react to these changes, disruptions with
anger, frustration, distress
Variations by child characteristics
• Gender differences:
• Harder for males (remarriage harder for females)
• Males à externalizing behaviors
• Females à internalizing behaviors
Variation by child characteristics
• Age differences:
• Younger children often blame
themselves
• Older children may rally; at risk for

being overwhelmed
• Temperament differences:
• ‘Easy’ children: Less likely to be
targets of parent’s anger
• ‘Difficult’ children: More often target
of parent’s anger
Long-Term Consequences
Children are typically resilient to divorce
• Children generally recover well
• There can be lingering (small) effects
• Lower school achievement
• Psychological issues (internalizing/externalizing)
• Effects often persist well into adulthood
• Unclear if effects are due to divorce or events leading to
divorce

Parental
conflict
à Divorce à
Long-term
effects
No parental
conflict
à No divorce à
Long-term
effects
Parental

conflict
à Divorce à
Long-term
effects
Parental
conflict
à No divorce à
Long-term
effects
No parental
conflict
à No divorce à
Long-term
effects

Factors That Influence Effects
1. Adequate financial support
2. Adequate parenting by the custodial parent
3. Adequate parenting by the non-custodial parent
4. Additional social supports
• Children: friends, support-groups
• Parents: friends, family
5. Minimize additional stressors
• Other stressors include moving, changing schools, losing
contact with grandparents, etc.
6. Quality of the child’s relationship with the non-
custodial parent

• NOT the causal factor: Instead, it’s a marker for
• Less parental conflict
• More co-parenting
• Healthy child-parent relationship (before divorce)
• Financial support
• Maturity
Child Maltreatment
Introduction
• Child maltreatment. “Behavior toward a
child which is
• (a) outside the norms of conduct, and
• (b) entails a substantial risk of causing
physical or emotional harm.
• Behaviors...consist of
• Actions and omissions,

• Ones that are are intentional and ones that
are unintentional.”
(Child Trends, 2016, p. 8)
Definitions
• Child abuse. “Words or overt actions that cause
harm, potential harm, or threat of harm.” (CDC, 2016)
• Physical abuse
• Sexual abuse
• Emotional/psychological abuse
• Child neglect. “Failure to provide needs or to
protect from harm or potential harm.” (CDC, 2016)
• Physical, emotional, medical, educational neglect
• Inadequate supervision
• Exposure to violent environments
Definitions

• Physical abuse. Assaults (such as kicking, biting, shaking,
punching, or stabbing) that inflict physical injury
• Emotional abuse. Acts that could cause serious mental or
behavioral disorders, including social isolation, repeated
unreasonable demands, ridicule, humiliation, intimidation,
or terrorizing
• Sexual abuse. “Any completed or attempted
(noncompleted) sexual act, sexual contact with, or
exploitation (i.e., noncontact sexual interaction) of a child by
a caregiver.” (CDC, 2008)
Berk, 2014, p. 220
Rates of Maltreatment
• 3.8 million maltreatment allegations were
investigated
• 686,000 were substantiated
• 78% neglect
• 18% physical abuse

• 9% sexual abuse
• 81.5% of maltreated children were abused by
parent(s)
Child Trends, 2016
Rates of Maltreatment
Maltreatment Differences by Age
Risk Factors for Maltreatment
• 1950’s: Psychopathology (nature)
• 1970’s: Circumstances (e.g., poverty; nurture)
• Current model: Complex interplay of child,
caregiver, and social factors
• Child characteristics

• Parent characteristics
• Community
• Culture
Child characteristics
• Child is premature, sick, or temperamentally
difficult
• Child has other physical, cognitive, or emotional
issues
Parent characteristics
• Self-regulation issues (e.g., struggle with impulse
control)
• Lack of knowledge of child, child development

• Biased thinking about child, their behaviors
• Baby’s crying attributed to bad disposition
• Toddler’s disobedience attributed to stubbornness, lack
of discipline
• Substance abuse
Community characteristics
• Social isolation (lack ‘lifeline’ to others; no one to
turn to)
• Unstable/unsafe, poorly resourced neighborhoods
“Low-income, low education (less than a high school
diploma), unemployment, alcohol and drug use,
overcrowded living conditions, frequent moves, and

extreme household disorganization are common in
abusive homes.” (Wekerle et al., 2007; Wulczyn, 2009; as cited
in Berk, 2012, p. 220)
Poverty
• Poverty. A state of being poor
• Lack of money à less access to resources
• Strongest predictor of child maltreatment (~ 80% of
reported cases occur within poverty context)
• Represents a unique combination of multiple risk
factors
• High stress, lack of sleep (e.g., working multiple jobs)
• Less access to medical, educational, social resources
• Communities are less safe
• … And many more
“The Environment of Childhood
Poverty” Evans (2004)

“Poor children confront widespread environmental inequities.
Compared with their economically advantaged counterparts,
they
are exposed to more family turmoil, violence, separation from
their
families, instability, and chaotic households. Poor children
experience less social support, and their parents are less
responsive and more authoritarian. Low-income children are
read
to relatively infrequently, watch more TV, and have less access
to
books and computers. Low-income parents are less involved in
their children’s school activities. The air and water poor
children
consume are more polluted. Their homes are more crowded,
noisier, and of lower quality. Low-income neighborhoods are
more
dangerous, offer poorer municipal services, and suffer greater
physical deterioration. Predominantly low-income schools and
day
care are inferior. The accumulation of multiple environmental
risks
rather than singular risk exposure may be an especially
pathogenic
aspect of childhood poverty.”

Child Neglect
• Child neglect. “Failure to provide needs or to
protect from harm or potential harm.” (CDC, 2016)
• Physical, emotional, medical, educational neglect
• Inadequate supervision
• Exposure to violent environments
Video: The Science of Neglect
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bF3j5UVCSCA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bF3j5UVCSCA
Overview of Consequences
• Children are harmed by
1. Actions. The things they experience in an

abusive/neglectful environment
2. Omissions. The things an abusive/neglectful
environment prevents them from experiencing
Consequences
Impairs physical, cognitive development
• Physical development
• Affects nervous system, immune systems
• Calibrates stress response system to be over/under-
active
• Cognitive development
• Affects self-concept, academic motivation
• Affects memory, self-regulation skills involved in learning
Consequences
Impairs emotional, social development

• Emotional development
• Affects emotional self-regulation skills
• Depression, anxiety, aggression, other behavioral issues
• Social development
• Social skills: Not learning healthy ways to interact
• Affects the way we perceive and interpret others’
behaviors, which affects own behaviors
Consequences
Long-term risk for
• Anxiety, depression, other psychological disorders
• Poorer social skills, difficulty relating to others
Consequences
Long-term risk for
• Impaired cognitive development
• Executive functioning (working memory, attention, etc.)

• Poor school motivation and performance
• Aggression, violence
• Substance abuse (self-medicating?), eating disorders
• Suicidality and self-harm
• Delinquency, violent crime
Consequences
• Many effects of abuse/neglect are stored physiologically in
the body/brain
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=95ovIJ3dsNk
• “How childhood trauma affects health across a lifetime”:
Nadine Burke Harris, M.D.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=95ovIJ3dsNk
Interventions
• Provision of personal and community resources in
the form of social support, instrumental support,

education
• Ex: Provide parents with knowledge and actionable
skills
• Social skills, specific parenting skills
• Child development education
• Counseling and social services
• Reduce stigma of seeking help
Interventions
• Parents Anonymous
• For parents who have abused children: Daily group
meetings, daily phone calls, regular home visits
• Teach parenting skills; reduces social isolation
• Healthy Families America
• Identifies at-risk families at birth
• 3 years of home visitation
• Improves neglect rates; with cognitive component,

improves abuse rates
Berk, 2014, p. 221-222
Unit 4: Family Review
• Parenting
• Love, structure,
autonomy support
• Five parenting styles
• Long-term
consequences
• Systems critique
• Divorce
• Definition
• Short- and long-term
consequences
• Variations and

influences
• Child Maltreatment
• Risk factors
• Poverty
• Consequences
• Interventions
1
Option 2: Promoting Development
1. Introduction
→ Briefly (~3-5 sentences) describe what your paper will be
about.
5 pts,
~1
paragraph.
2. Describe topic
Summarize the topic, including each of the underlined portions

(listed below) for your chosen topic.
→ Describe whose development you want to promote. Describe
the context in which you want to
promote or optimize development (e.g., home, school). And
explain why you think it is important to
promote development in that context.
40 pts total,
~2+ pages.
3. Apply three concepts from class/textbook
Pick three key concepts from class that relate to your topic and
explore them in more depth.
→ 5 pts . Name and correctly define the concept, in your own
words. Cite your source.
→ 5 pts . Explain how the concept relates to your overall topic
and why it matters.
→ 5 pts . Discuss how the concept can be used to describe
development (what develops), explain

development (why it develops), and/or optimize development
(promote healthy development) in
your topic.
Example. You might use your knowledge about the concepts of
mindsets to consider how to
communicate with young children such that they develop a
growth mindset rather than a fixed mindset;
what impacts might this have on their development?
Example concepts: Self-regulation, mindsets, maternal stress
and nutrition, poverty, attachment,
parenting dimensions, parenting styles, internal working
models, peer influences, divorce, child
neglect, theory of mind, early childhood education, teacher
expectancy effects, intelligence, gender
identity development, play, vocational development; any theory
covered in class or in your book (e.g.,
Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development; Piaget’s theory
of cognitive development).
45 pts (15
points per

concept)
~2+ pages.
4. Connect to meta-theoretical assumptions
How do meta-theories and their corresponding assumptions
inform your topic? Pick at least two meta-
theoretical assumptions (e.g., nature and/or nurture; active
and/or passive; stability and/or change;
universal and/or context specific) and explore them in more
depth.
5 pts. Name and correctly define the assumption. Cite your
source.
5 pts. Explain how the assumption relates to something that
came up in your topic and why the
assumption is/was important in that situation (e.g. did your
topic describe continuous or
discontinuous development? How did that impact your topic?).
5 pts. Describe how something that came up in your topic might
have been different with a different
viewpoint/answer to the same assumption (e.g. if your topic had
an example of continuous

development, how would that example be different if the
development was discontinuous instead?).
You may choose to write about how things would be different if
something/somebody in your topic
had a different viewpoint, or if you had a different viewpoint.
Example. You might connect to assumptions about mindsets or
self-regulation (i.e., your own, your
parents, society) to consider the messages they give and
whether they make it harder or easier to
promote development.
30 pts (15
pts per
assumption)
~1+ pages

2
5. Conclusion
5 pts. Briefly summarize what you discussed in the paper;
5 pts. Note something you learned/ found interesting/were
surprised by/will take away from this
project.
10 pts total,
~1
paragraph
6. Writing Quality
5 pts: Formatting
→ 5-7 pages (without references), 12-point, Times New Roman
font; double-spaced; 1-inch margins.
5 pts: Technical proficiency and professionalism:
→ Proofread. Use full sentences, correct spelling, grammar and
punctuation.
→ The tone of your paper does not need to be highly formal, but
should convey your careful thought

about the topic.
5 pts: Clarity of ideas
→ Use headings to organize sections of the paper and
information within sections.
→ Each paragraph should be about only one main idea.
→ Each paragraph should have a topic sentence explaining that
idea.
5 pts: Attribution of sources
→ For any information that’s not your own experience/opinion
or common knowledge, you must
attribute sources (sources include but are not limited to
interviews, research papers, websites,
lecture slides, textbook).
→ You must restate quotations in your own words. Quotations
should be used as illustrations of your
point; you still need to make the point yourself. While brief
quotations may be used, extensive
blocks of text quoted from another source do not count towards
either the definition requirements
or the page length requirement.
→ Attribute the source of your information in any way that

allows the reader to find the source of the
material on his or her own. You may use any method of citation
that you like. For example, you
could say, “as defined in the lecture slides on parenting…,” or
“as described on the program’s
website (www.hypotheticalprogram.com)...,” or “The study
(Marquez, 2000) found…,” or simply
“My grandmother said…”.
→ If you conduct an interview: It is generally a good idea not to
reveal names or identities of interview
subjects unless you have their permission to do so. Please
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Running head PROMOTING EQUALITY IN AFRICAN SCHOOLS .docx

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