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CHAPTER - I
INTRODUCTION
One of our highest priorities in the world of information security is confirmation that a person
accessing sensitive, confidential, or classified information is authorized to do so. Such
access is usually accomplished by a person’s proving their identity by the use of some means
or method of authentication. Simply put, a person must be able to validate who they say they
are before accessing information, and if the person is unable to do so, access will be denied.
Generally speaking, a system can identify you as an authorized user in one of three ways –
what you know, what you have, or what you are. The most widely used of the three methods
is what we know – passwords or other personal information. A more sophisticated method of
authentication is what we have – smart cards and tokens. The last method is what we are -
biometrics technology.
Biometrics systems can identify users based on either physiological or behavioural
characteristics. Individuals are concerned that security systems be put in place that would
prevent unauthorized access to personal data, and that their identities cannot be stolen and
used by other individuals. At present, biometrics technology holds a great deal of promise
for doing just that, but is not without its limitations and certainly not without its critics.
Biometrics is a field of technology which has been and is being used in the identification of
individuals based on some physical attribute. As funding for research has permitted there has
been an effort by several tech companies to develop standards for hardware and software that
would be used throughout the industry in further development within this area. The
purpose of this paper will be to look at the use of biometrics technology to determine how
secure it might be in authenticating users, and how the users job function or role would
impact the authentication process or protocol. We will also examine personal issues of
privacy in the methods used for authentication; the cost of implementing a biometrics
authentication system; the efficiency of biometrics authentication; and the potential for false
positive or negative recognition of individual users.

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1.1 Definition:
The word “biometrics” comes from the Greek language and is derived from the words bio
(life) and metric (to measure). Biometrics as the technologies used to measure and analyze
personal characteristics, both physiological and behavioural. These characteristics include
fingerprints, voice patterns, hand measurements, irises and others, all used to identify human
characteristics and to verify identity. These biometrics or characteristics are tightly
connected to an individual and cannot be forgotten, shared, stolen or easily hacked. These
characteristics can uniquely identify a person, replacing or supplementing traditional security
methods by providing two major improvements: personal biometrics cannot be easily stolen
and an individual does not need to memorize passwords or codes. Since biometrics can better
solve the problems of access control, fraud and theft, more and more organizations are
considering biometrics a solution to their security problems. However, biometrics is not a
panacea and has some hurdles to overcome before gaining widespread use.
Generally speaking, there are four factors of physical attributes that are used or can be used in
user authentication:
• Finger print scans, which have been in use for many years by law enforcement and other
government agencies and is regarded as a reliable, unique identifier.
• Retina or iris scans, which have been used to confirm a person’s identity by analyzing the
arrangement of blood vessels in the retina or patterns of colour in the iris
• Voice recognition, which uses a voice print that analyses how a person says a particular
word or sequence of words unique to that individual.
• Facial recognition, which use unique facial features to identify an individual.
1.2 History:
The past development of two disciplines, Phrenology and Anthropometry, helped to pave the
way for biometrics. Phrenology, the study of the structure of the skull to determine a person's
character and mental capacity, was founded by Franz Joseph in early nineteenth century
Germany. Gall believed that certain mental characteristics could be aligned with certain
cranial shapes and features. This concept was further advanced by an Italian physician named
Cesare Lombroso who linked the concepts of phrenology with specific regard to criminal

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behaviour, trying to relate behaviour patterns with physical and biological characteristics.
Although long considered a pseudoscience lacking real scientific merit, Phrenology remained
popular, especially in the United States, throughout the 19th century and still has advocates
today. Alponse Bertillon, a late nineteenth French police Captain, advanced the idea of
Anthropometrics, the study of human body measurement for use in anthropological
classification and comparison. A pseudoscience like Phrenology, it was used mainly to
classify potential criminals by facial characteristics. For example, Cesare Lombroso's
Criminal Anthropology (1895) claimed that murderers have prominent jaws and pickpockets
have long hands and scanty beards. Bertillon developed a system of identifying criminals by
multiple anatomical measurements, which was widely used in France at the time and named
after him (Bertillon age). His system was used by police authorities throughout the world,
but then faded when it was discovered that some people shared the same measurements and
based on the measurements alone, could be treated as one.
While developments in Phrenology and Anthropometry took place, interest was increasing in
the areas of finger and hand geometry. In 1823, the Czech Jan Evangelista Purkinje was
studying sweat glands in the hand and realized the grooves and depressions that these sweat
glands opened up into seemed to be unique to each individual. An extremely reliable method
of categorizing and identifying marks in fingerprints was developed by Richard Edward
Henry of Scotland yard in the late nineteenth century. Henry made advancements on a
fingerprinting method first brought forward by Francis Galton in 1892, and conducted
experimental tests in the 1890’s. In the early twentieth century, mainly due to the negative
publicity from the Bertillionage failure in 1903, finger printing became the method of choice
for police around the world. Today, fingerprinting is the biometric method most people
associate when speaking of biometrics.

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CHAPTER - II
ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES
2.1 Technologies for biometric devices:
Now we will try to consider, which technologies can be used for biometric purposes. This
outlook is based on technologies that can be proposed now, based on actual physical
knowledge. It is not possible to predict further development of physics and I will not try to do
it. To make this outlook easier, possible technologies will be divided in areas, according to
the physical method used and than according to the elements or functions of the body, taken
for the recognition: Methods that can be used in biometric devices.
A. Optical technologies:
Such technologies are used in fingerprint, hand shape, face, iris, veins and also in all other
cases, where optical parameters are interesting. Special case is iris and retina recognition –
there is no other possibility to make contact less iris or retina recognition. Another special
case are techniques for remote temperature sensing. This can be done only with infrared
cameras. In all other cases different techniques are possible too.
B. Acoustical technologies:
Presently the only acoustical technologies that are available are used for voice recognition.
Ultrasound technologies are also in use for biometric applications, but on a very limited scale.
Given the proper design approach, ultrasound can be used in many other applications, in
addition to the existing fingerprint recognition devices. Indeed, a much more versatile
implementation of ultrasound scanning for biometric applications has already been
demonstrated in a proof of concept prototype. Subsequent testing indicated the possibility of
using acoustical holography for shape recognition of hand, face and other body parts, as well
as for tracking movements. The resultant technical approach capitalizes upon the inherent
power and capabilities associated with conventional ultrasound technologies that are
currently used in medical applications. It has the advantage of providing a direct 3D
evaluation of biometric attributes, such as fingerprints, palm-prints, bone structure and vein
recognition with analysis of internal structures of the subject’s body (e.g. fingers, hands,
limbs, etc.). Heretofore unprecedented capabilities, such as persistent authentication, liveness

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detection and the fusion of multimodal biometrics using a single core technology is now
possible through ultrasound. Along with these capabilities, it will be possible to achieve user
enrolments approaching 100%, with FAR and FFR approaching zero.
C. Microwaves:
As far as I know, they are not used in biometric devices now, but especially THz- waves can
be used in the future. The ability of these waves to propagate through clothes can allow to use
them for body shape recognition. Microwaves are also used for movement tracking.
D. Capacitive sensors:
Sensors reacting to local capacity changes are used for finger recognition. It is possible to use
capacity sensors for tracking movements.
E. Pressure (tactile) sensors:
Such sensors are used for fingerprint recognition, but also for movement tracking (for
example signature recognition).
F. X- γ- or particle rays technologies:
Their use is not realistic today, because the amount of energy required for techniques would
prohibit their use in biometric devices as too dangerous for people. But such possibility
cannot be excluded in the future. The development of the technology can especially in the
case of x-rays cause, that the use of this technology will be possible. All such techniques can
allow to analyze the internal body structures.
G. Magnetic fields:
Magnetic fields are especially interesting in connection with tomography. It is a technology
that from today’s point of view can be considered as unrealistic, but further development of it
can cause that especially for the investigation of body parts, such as finger or hands the use of
it cannot be excluded. More realistic seems to be the use of specific reaction of man’s body to
changing magnetic fields. Such techniques can be surely considered as realistic, although it is
not easy to tell, if they will be useful.

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H. Electric fields:
Man’s body is surely reacting to electric fields and creating them. Both phenomena can be
used for recognition. Today it is only partially the case in capacitive fingerprint sensors, but
there are much more possibilities that can be used. It is not possible to tell now, if this
possibilities will occur as useful for recognition of people.
I. Chemical emissions:
Each living body produces streams of particles, which can be analyzed from the chemical
point of view. This is the case with odour, and especially with particles that contains DNA or
RNA strains. Disadvantage can be the ease to fool such techniques. But especially odour
detection can be useful for example for tracking purposes (in the applications for the market
number 6).
Body parts or features that can be used for biometric recognition Already used or proposed:
a) Fingerprints or other elements of finger, such as veins inside.
b) Palms, its prints and/or the whole hand (feet recognition would be also possible, although
not very practical in most cases).
c) Signature, measures behavioural attributes, such as pressure, stroke and time.
d) Keystroke, art of typing.
e) Voice.
f) Iris, retina, features of eye movements.
g) Face, head – its shape, specific movements.
h) Other elements of head, such as ears, lip prints.
i) Gait, unique manner of walking, such as pace, width of steps and peculiar gait.
j) Odour.
k) DNA.
l) ECG.

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m) EEG Imaginable today.
n) Body shape recognition.
o) Investigation of internal structure of body parts and its living structures.
p) Analysis of other electrical and magnetic fields, created by man’s body or of its reactions
to such fields.
q)Analysis of face and head vibrations during speaking.
In the case of devices, where authorization (local or remote) is required, it is also necessary to
recognize, if the person, who will make such authorization is really willing to do it. It will
require that such devices must have the ability to recognize additional actions, which can be
caused only by the will expression of the person, wishing authorization. Many possibilities
for such action are existing: Signature; Other specific movements of hand, eye or other body
parts; Voice commands.

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CHAPTER - III
TECHNICAL DETAILS & WORKING
3.1 Finger-Scan Technology
Finger printing or finger-scanning technologies is the oldest of the biometric sciences and
utilizes distinctive features of the fingerprint to identify or verify the identity of individuals.
Finger-scan technology is the most commonly deployed biometric technology, used in a
broad range of physical access and logical access applications. All fingerprints have unique
characteristics and patterns. A normal fingerprint pattern is made up of lines and spaces.
These lines are called ridges while the spaces between the ridges are called valleys. It is
through the pattern of these ridges and valleys that a unique fingerprint is matched for
verification and authorization. These unique fingerprint traits are termed “minutiae” and
comparisons are made based on these traits. On average, a typical live scan produces 40
“minutiae”. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has reported that no more than 8
common minutiae can be shared by two individuals.
Fig:3.1
There are five stages involved in finger-scan verification and identification: fingerprint image
acquisition, image processing, location of distinctive characteristics, template creation and
template matching. A scanner takes a mathematical snapshot of a user's unique biological
traits. This snapshot is saved in a fingerprint database as a minutiae file. The first challenge
facing a finger-scanning system is to acquire high-quality image of a fingerprint. Image
quality is measured in dots per inch (DPI) – more dots per inch means a higher resolution
image. Lower DPI found on the market are in the 300-350 DPI, but the standard for forensic-
quality fingerprinting is images of 500 DPI. Image acquisition can be a major challenge for

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finger-scan developers, since the quality of print differs from person to person and from
finger to finger. Some populations are more likely than others to have faint or difficult-to-
acquire fingerprints, whether due to wear or tear or physiological traits. Taking an image in
the cold weather can have an affect also. Oils in the finger help produce a better print. In
cold weather, these oils naturally dry up. Pressing harder on the platen (the surface on which
the finger is placed, also known as a scanner) can help in this case.
Fig:3,2
Image processing is the process of converting the finger image into a usable format. This
results in a series of thick black ridges (the raised part of the fingerprint) contrasted to white
valleys. At this stage, image features are detected and enhanced for verification against the
stored minutia file. Image enhancement is used to reduce any distortion of the fingerprint
caused by dirt, cuts, scars, sweat and dry skin. The next stage in the fingerprint process is to
locate distinctive characteristics. There is a good deal of information on the average
fingerprint and this information tends to remain stable throughout one’s life. Fingerprint
ridges and valleys form distinctive patterns, such as swirls, loops, and arches. Most
fingerprints have a core, a central point around which swirls, loops, or arches are curved.
These ridges and valleys are characterized by irregularities known as minutiae, the distinctive
feature upon which finger scanning technologies are based. Many types of minutiae exits, a

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common one being ridge endings and bifurcation, which is the point at which one ridge
divides into two. A typical finger-scan may produce between 15 and 20 minutiae. A
template is then created. This is accomplished by mapping minutiae and filtering out
distortions and false minutiae. For example, anomalies caused by scars, sweat, or dirt can
appear as minutiae. False minutiae must be filtered out before a template is created and is
supported differently with vendor specific proprietary algorithms. The tricky part is
comparing an enrolment template to a verification template. Positions of a minutia point may
change by a few pixels, some minutiae will differ from the enrolment template, and false
minutiae may be seen as real. Many finger-scan systems use a smaller portion of the scanned
image for matching purposes. One benefit of reducing the comparison area is that there is
less chance of false minutiae information, which would confuse the matching process and
create errors. Most finger-scan technologies are based on minutiae. Samir Nanavati, author of
Biometrics, Identity Verification in a Networked World states that 80 percent of finger-scan
technologies are based on minutiae matching but that pattern matching is a leading
alternative. This technology bases its feature extraction and template generation on a series of
ridges, as opposed to discrete points. The use of multiple ridges reduces dependence on
minutiae points, which tend to be affected by wear and tear.18 The downside of pattern
matching is the it is more sensitive to the placement of the finger during verification and the
created template is several times larger in byte size—approximately 1,000 bytes versus 250 to
500 bytes.
Before we leave finger-scanning, let’s discuss some of the advantages and disadvantages of
this biometric technology. Finger-scans continue to be the primary means used by law
enforcement agencies for positive identification and are used in the commercial and
government sectors with a good deal of success. Finger-scan technology is proven and
capable of high levels of accuracy. There is a long history of fingerprint identification,
classification and analysis. This along with the distinctive features of fingerprints has set the
finger-scan apart from other biometric technologies. There are physiological characteristics
more distinctive than the fingerprint (the iris and retina, for example) but automated
identification technology capable of leveraging these characteristics have been developed
only over the past few years. The technology has grown smaller, more capable and with
many solutions available. Devices slightly thicker than a coin and an inch square in size are

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able to capture and process images. Additionally, some may see the large number of finger-
scan solutions available today as a disadvantage, many see it as an advantage by ensuring
marketplace competition which has resulted in a number of robust solutions for desktop,
laptop, physical access, and point-of-sale environments. Another advantage of finger-scan
technology is accuracy. Identical matches are nearly impossible since fingerprints contain a
large amount of information making it unlikely that two fingerprints would be identical.
Even with large databases, it is possible to eliminate false matches and quickly reduce the
number of possible matches to a small number because of the high level of data present.
Because of the fact that some Fingerprint Imaging Systems use more than one finger image in
the match process, the match discrimination process is geometrically increased. Fingerprint
technology has another advantage offered by technology; the size of the memory required to
store the biometric template is fairly small.
There are some weaknesses to finger-scanning, most of which can be mitigated. There is a
fraction of the population that is unable to be enrolled. There are certain ethnic groups that
have lower quality fingerprints than the general populations. Testing has shown that elderly
populations, manual labourers, and some Asian populations are more difficult to be enrolled
in some finger-scanning systems. Another problem is that over time, sometimes in as short a
period as few months, the fingerprint characteristics of an individual can change, making
identification and verification difficult. This problem is seen with manual workers who work
extensively with their hands. There are also privacy issues attached to finger-scanning
technologies. Some fear that finger-scans may be used to track a person’s activities. Others
fear that data collected may be improperly used for forensic purposes.
Fig 3.3:-Storage of Master Characteristics

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Finger-scan technology is deployed throughout the world and provides a capable solution.
More commonly seen these days are computer network access and entry devices for building
door locks utilizing fingerprint scanning technology. Fingerprint readers are being used by
banks for ATM authorization and are becoming more common at grocery stores where they
are utilized to automatically recognize a registered customer and bill their credit card or debit
account. Finger-scanning technology is being used in a novel way at a middle school in
Pennsylvania where some cafeteria purchases are supported by a federal subsidized meal
program in which students receive federally subsidized meals and retain the ability to remain
anonymous. Paying with a government meal card at checkout instead of with cash would
identify the student as a program recipient. The solution was for the school to provide
students the option of using a finger-scan peripheral to purchase meals. At the end of each
month, a bill is sent to their parents for payment or to the free food program for
reconciliation. This use of a finger-scan ensures that there is no way to determine whether
their parents or government grants are paying for their meals.
3.2 Facial-Scan Technology
Another biometric scan technology is facial recognition. This technology is considered a
natural means of biometric identification since the ability to distinguish among individual
appearances is possessed by humans. Facial scan systems can range from software-only
solutions that process images processed through existing closed-circuit television cameras to
fully fledged acquisition and processing systems, including cameras, workstations, and
backend processors. With facial recognition technology, a digital video camera image is used
to analyze facial characteristics such as the distance between eyes, mouth or nose. These
measurements are stored in a database and used to compare with a subject standing before a
camera. Facial recognition systems are usually divided into two primary groups. First there is
what is referred to as the ‘controlled scene’ group whereby the subject being tested is located
in a known environment with a minimal amount of scene variation. In this case, a user might
face the camera, standing about two feet from it. The system locates the user’s face and
performs matches against the claimed identity or the facial database. It is possible that the
user may need to move and reattempt the verification based on his facial position. The system
usually comes to a decision in less than 5 seconds. The other group is known as the “random
scene” group where the subject to be tested might appear anywhere within the camera scene.

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Fig 3.4:- Geometric facial scanning
Fig 3.5:- Photometric facial scanning
This situation might be encountered within a system attempting to identify the presence of an
individual within a group or crowd. This situation was evidenced since 11 Sept when security
personnel stated that facial scan recognition technology would be used at a Super bowl game.
Facial-scan technology is based on the standard biometric sequence of image acquisition,
image processing, distinctive characteristic location, template creation, and matching. An
optimal image is captured through a high-resolution camera, with moderate lighting and users
directly facing a camera. The enrolment images define the facial characteristics to be used in
all future verifications, thus a high-quality enrolment is essential. Challenges that occur in the
image acquisition process include distance from user, angled acquisition and lighting.
Distance from the camera reduces facial size and thus image resolution. Users not looking
directly at the camera positioned more than 15 degrees either vertically or horizontally away

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from ideal positioning are less likely to have images acquired. Lighting conditions, which
cause an image to be underexposed or underexposed, can cause challenges. Additionally,
users with a darker skin tone can be difficult to acquire. Select Hispanic, black and Asian
individuals can be more difficult to enrol and verify in some facial-scan systems because
acquisition devices are not always optimized to acquire darker faces. After the issues with
image acquisition are worked out, the process of image processing takes place. Colour
images are normally reduced to a black and white and images cropped to emphasize facial
characteristics. Images are normalized to account for orientation and distance. Images can
be enlarged or reoriented as long as a point between the eyes serves as a point of reference.
The processes of characteristic location can then take place. There are several matching
methods available for facial scans which attempt to match visible facial features in a fashion
similar to the way people recognize one another. Areas of the face not apt to change over
time such as sides of the mouth, nose shape and areas around the cheekbones, distinctive
characteristics most often used in image matching. Areas likely to change over time, such as
ones hairlines are not normally used for verification. Facial-scan technology has its
advantages and disadvantages. One major advantage is that facial-scan technology is the
only biometric capable of identification at a distance without subject complicity or
awareness. This allows police to install facial-scan technology in public places to survey
crowds and for security to accomplish the same at a casino house. This capability also quiets
those who express concern about a biometric that physically touches them or about touching
a device that others may have had contact with. Another advantage of facial-scan technology
is the fact that static images can be used to enrol a subject. This can shorten the time to enrol
a target population compared to an automated Fingerprint Identification system (AFIS),
which can take years to accomplish. The disadvantages include acquisition environment and
facial characteristic changes that effect matching accuracy and the potential for privacy
abuse. Images are most accurate when taken facing the acquisition camera and not sharp
angles. The users face must be lit evenly, preferably from the front. Changes in hairstyle,
makeup or the wearing of a hat or sunglasses may pose a problem during the verification
process. Facial-scanning technology has a poor record in verifying a subject who has had
plastic surgery to alter their appearance. The fact that a biometric facial scan can take place
without the knowledge or consent of a subject, raises privacy concerns among many. Two
facial-scan deployments in Florida have met with public objections: one aimed to prevent

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crime in a shopping district and one aimed to catch criminals at the 2001 Super Bowl. Facial-
scan technologies have unique advantages over all other biometrics in the areas of surveilling
large groups and the ability to use pre-existing static images. Its disadvantages include the
falsely non-matching folks when subject appearances change during verification. For
implementations where the biometric system must verify users reliably over time, facial-scan
can be a very difficult technology to implement successfully.
3.3 Retinal-Scan Technology
Retinal-scan technology makes use of the retina, which is the surface on the back of the eye
that processes light entering through the pupil. Retinal Scan technology is based on the blood
vessel pattern in the retina of the eye. The principle behind the technology is that the blood
vessels at the retina provide a unique pattern, which may be used as a tamper-proof personal
identifier. Since infrared energy is absorbed faster by blood vessels in the retina than by
surrounding tissue, it is used to illuminate the eye retina. Analysis of the enhanced retinal
blood vessel image then takes place to find characteristic patterns. Retina-scan devices are
used exclusively for physical access applications and are usually used in environments that
require high degrees of security such as high-level government military needs. Retina-scan
technology was developed in the 1980’s, is well known but probably the least deployed of all
the biometric technologies. Additionally, retina-scan technology is still in a prototype
development stage and still commercially unavailable.
Fig:-3.6

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Retina-scan technology image acquisition is difficult in that the retina is small and embedded,
requiring specific hardware and software. The user positions his eye close to the unit’s
embedded lens, with the eye socket resting on the sight. In order for a retinal image to be
acquired, the user must gaze directly into the lens and remain still, movement defeats the
acquisition process requiring another attempt. A low intensity light source is utilized in order
to scan the vascular pattern at the retina. This involves a 360 degree circular scan of the area
taking over 400 readings in order to establish the blood vessel pattern. This is then reduced
to 192 reference points before being distilled into a digitized 96 byte template and stored in
memory for subsequent verification purposes. Normally it takes 3 to 5 acceptable images to
ensure enrolment. Because of this, the enrolments process can be lengthy. Enrolments can
take over 1 minute with some users not being able to be enrolled at all. It seems the more
that a user is acclimated to the process, the faster the enrolment process works. After image
acquisition, software is used to compile unique features of the retinal blood vessels into a
template.
Retina-scan technology possesses robust matching capabilities and is usually configured to
do one-to-many identification against a database of users, however, this technology requires a
high quality image and will not enrol a user unless a good image is acquired. For this reason,
there is a moderately high false reject rate due to the inability to provide adequate data to
generate a match template.
Retina-scan technology has its advantages and disadvantages. Among its advantages are its
resistance to false matching or false positives and the fact that the pupil, like the fingerprint
remains a stable physiological trait throughout one’s life. The retina is located deep within
one’s eyes and is highly unlikely to be altered by any environmental or temporal condition.
Its resistance to false matching is due to the fact that retinal scans produce patterns that have
highly distinctive characteristics, sufficient to enable identification. Well-trained users find
retina scan capable of reliable identification. Like fingerprints, retina traits remain stable
throughout life.
Disadvantages include the fact that the technology is difficult to use, users claim discomfort
with eye-related technology in general and the fact that retina scan technology has limited
uses. Enrolments require prolonged concentration requiring a well-trained and motivated
user. Retina-scan enrolments take longer than both iris-scan and fingerprinting. Users claim

17. 17
discomfort with the fact that they must position their eye very close to the device. Users
commonly fear that the device itself or the light inside the device can harm their eyes in some
way. Many also feel that this retina scans are invasive in that the inability to use the retina
can be linked to eye disease. Retina scan has limited uses normally deployed in high
security, low volume physical access situations in which inconveniencing users is an
acceptable cost of heightened security. Retina scan technology is not apt to become a widely
deployed technology any time soon. Other biometrics can provide most if not all the benefits
of this technology without the problems. But never discount technology and its advances
over time. If future technology allows for retina scanning being easier to use and allow users
to enrol from a greater distance from the imaging device, its future will be bright.
3.4 Voice Recognition
 It is identification of a person from characteristics of voice.
 Characteristics like voice pitch, Speaking style, pauses etc.
 Each voice recognition system has two phases:
• Enrolment:-The speaker's voice is recorded.
A number of features are extracted to form a voice print.
• Verification
A speech sample or "utterance" is compared against a previously created voice print.
Fig:-3.7

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3.5 Signature Recognition
 Signature verification analyzes the way a user signs her name.
 Signature measures (dynamic)
 Speed
 Pressure
 Handwriting Style
Fig:-3.8
 Two types of digital handwritten signature authentication:-
 Static: - Comparison between one scanned signature and another scanned signature, or a
scanned signature against an ink signature using advance algorithms.
 Dynamic: - Data is captured along with the X, Y, T and P Coordinates of the signor from
the signing device. To create a biometric template from which dynamic signatures can be
authenticated

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CHAPTER - IV
APPLICATIONS & CASE STUDY
4.1 Applications
Reading currently published papers and information about biometrics, one can think that the
main reason for applying biometric solutions is security. This perspective is supported by
politicians, spreading the message that biometric technologies can help in the fight against
terrorism, help locate criminals, etc. This is not fundamentally wrong. Indeed, if automatic
devices for identity recognition were more prevalent in locations such as airports, police
stations and other areas that are sensitive or involve high concentrations of public activity,
they would surely make the life of criminals and terrorists much more difficult. However,
there are many reasons to believe that biometrics will change the life of people in near future
mostly because its use will be much more convenient than other techniques in use today for
individual identity authentication. This is already apparent today, especially in connection
with applications such as physical and logical access control, transportation, and also in the
financial industry. In this presentation I will try to specify new possible markets, with
emphasis on markets that will – from my point of view – have the largest impact on future
societies:
A. Authentication:
It is reasonable to expect, that in a relatively short time, all personal documents will contain
some form of biometric data. Moreover, in time, we could expect that all such documents will
no longer be needed, because, in every instance where this type of authentication would be
necessary, biometric readers will be connected to the location via network. This would allow
a comparison with stored data to be used in lieu of documentation.
B. Access and attendance control:
In the relatively near future, biometrics will certainly gain increased acceptance in all kinds
of access and attendance control applications. We can expect to see biometrics used for these
applications in homes, offices, computers, machines, devices, etc. In fact, this will be
probably the largest market for biometric technology in terms of the amount of devices
installed. However, for the most part, the use of these devices will only replace existing

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access control methods and technologies, providing increased convenience and security.
There will be no need to carry keys, identity cards, personal documents, etc. Furthermore,
this implementation of biometrics will add to the overall security solution: precluding the
possibility of theft or unauthorized use of equipment/technologies. Biometric devices will
offer new quality to security solutions, but not necessarily new market opportunities or
potential.
C. Travel control:
For a variety of reasons, there is an increasing requirement to have people travelling via
planes, ferries, and even trains to be individually registered, with interim checks at multiple
locations. Today these requirements are being driven mostly by security concerns, visa
regulations and other such reasons. And, because the amount of people travelling is already
large and predicted to increase at significant rates, all organizations involved in the
management and control of mass transportation industries are very interested in the
rationalization and automation of necessary procedures. This is especially the case in
International Civil Aviation Organization. The pressure caused by the growing number of
passengers is surely one of the largest reasons for the introduction of biometric passports,
visas and other controls/documents. This organization recommends very clearly, that
“Contracting States should incorporate biometric data in their machine readable passports,
visas and other official travel documents, using one or more optional data storage
technologies to supplement the machine readable zone, as specified in Doc 9303”1
D. Financial and other transactions requiring authorization:
In applications having to do with money it is already apparent, that money in physical form
(bank notes and coins) is being replaced more and more by virtual forms of financial
transactions – digital transactions via data base entry. Today this happens in form of credit or
bank cards, pocket electronic money, etc. However, it is clear that, in most cases, the physical
card is not important, because money has an owner and can be 1
http://www.icao.int/cgi/goto_m.pl?/icao/en/download.htm#Misc directly connected to a
person. Spreading of biometric authentication in the economic sector (i.e. banking and trade)
will decrease the need for physical objects, such as cards – since virtual money can be
directly connected to a person (or to the legal person). This will result in a significant change

21. 21
both in the behaviour of people, but also in the abilities that governmental organizations will
have in their surveillance of money movements (financial transactions). I would expect two
possible developments in response to this situation. First, the attitudes of people can be
against the sole use of virtual money or they can also try to change the tax and economic
systems to allow them to live exclusively with virtual money. The second development, or
solution, will evolve over a longer period of time, but is significantly better. That is, the
possibility to authorize all legal transactions through biometric mechanisms will make many
of these operations much easier and more convenient.
E. Remote voting (authorization):
Perhaps the most important change in the society will result from the creation of an entirely
new market for biometric devices that I call remote authorization. The merging of existing
and future networking developments with biometric solutions will allow people to have the
opportunity to authorize a wide range of transactions (e.g. voting, purchasing, accessing,
decision-making authorizations, etc.) via the network, from remote locations. No longer will
they be required to personally present at a given location in order to authenticate a specific
action. Indeed, this is a capability that is partially possible today. However, the viability of
remote authorization on a large scale, such as public elections, will not be realistic until
appropriate biometric solutions are operating without the major shortcomings that plague
existing biometric solutions. From my perspective, it will be necessary to develop new, more
robust and capable devices. However, the same devices can also be used for many others
purposes, such as computers accessories, access control devices, etc. Even so, it is certain that
the existing devices that are in use today cannot provide the degree of accuracy necessary to
recognize a person whose biometric identity is only available through a distributed network.
The risk of betraying them through identity theft is much too large. However, after more
accurate, reliable and cost-effective devices are developed that are not constrained by
shortcomings associated with existing technologies, the potential for authenticating remote
transactions, such as voting (decision making) can drive major changes in all democratic
societies – that is, the idea that direct democratic participation by the public can be realized
on a large scale and work at low cost. Necessary democratic decisions can be made
practically every day at minimal cost, even in large societies. The possibility of low cost
remote voting by the public will not only open up the potential for increased participation, but

22. 22
also for increased frequency in voting activities. It is only speculation today, but I would
think that this perspective can lead to some of the largest changes in democratic societies – all
facilitated by the introduction of accurate, reliable, high speed biometric technologies that
enable remote authentication (voting, et al.) at minimal cost. The corresponding changes in
political systems and power structures will provide the potential to have a more
representative democracy. In association with changes in banking and money transfer
techniques remote voting and authorization can also significantly influence economy and tax
system: the control of money transfers will be easier, it will be also easier to compete within
the “black economy”, but this can also result in people with a much stronger interested in
controlling politicians regarding the questions of spending taxes and lowering the cost
incurred by the operation of their governments. The possibility to authorize any transaction
remotely will surely cause additional changes in other transactions that require such
authorization, which currently implies a personal contact. This is also something that will
have impact on life in the near future – it will minimize, or eliminate the need for many
personal contacts. Such operations will be easier and can be done automatically (by machines
– without clerks operating them, as it is done today).
F. Use of automatic working devices:
With the help of biometrics it will be easier to track the actions of user of any devices and
machines, adapt their functions to his needs and to demand his liability for actions caused. I
assume that this can slowly change many areas of life and create a large market for devices
that are able to recognize their users and react according to their needs. The development of
such machines began already, some devices are working, other are proposed as ideas: The
main goal of this development is the creation of machines able to recognize their user or
people doing something in their vicinity. This feature can be very important for work in
factories, offices, hospitals, for use of cars, home appliances, etc. In all such cases it may be
important or convenient, that the machine “knows” who is using it (or try to do it, but
shouldn’t). This allows automatic adaptation to the needs of people, but also tracking of their
actions and reacting in the case of misuse. Such a feature means naturally, that actions of
people will be associated by machines, that can be more useful, more convenient to use, but
also allows to control, eventually improve the actions of people. These kind of biometric
functions do not require (in most cases) a very high degree of secure recognition, but will

23. 23
require techniques, that are called today multimodal biometrics: face, voice, gait and habits
recognition and probably much more. It is already visible today that such functions will be
implemented in many devices, because of the convenience, that they are offering. In
industrial environment the importance of their use will grow with the percentage of automatic
devices. Their use will also offer significant advantages: quicker reaction to the user for
example in the form of establishing the environment that suits to the person, actual using the
device. It can be a seat that is adjusting its position to the needs of the user, but also the
computer desktop, loudness of the speaker, etc. This offers not only a convenience, but also a
time gain: adjusting such functions requires some time that must be not lost, if automatically
done by the machine. It allows also implementing such functions for correction of specific
errors, often made by the user, use of shortcuts that can be adjusted individually. Broad use of
such technologies will also support the development of automatic shops and other facilities
that can be now operated without employees. I think, that this kind of devices will be
developed slowly, with growing amount of functionality and in the future will cause, that
many machines will be able to recognize the needs of their users automatically, becoming
more and more able to serve people in the similar way as live servants.
G. Action control:
At the last place I would specify a market that can be seen as a part of previous ones but it
has special features and can require specific devices: In the case of potentially dangerous
devices it is necessary or would be good to control the use of them - to prevent that
unauthorized people can use them or to track, who has used them in a specific situation. This
is the case with cars, that shouldn’t be used by people without driving license or drunken,
with dangerous machines, that must be used by people with appropriate knowledge, a special
case are weapons: it would be very good if every weapon could be used only by authorized
person. This would make the use of plundered weapons impossible, but also allow to track,
who has used a specific weapon for a crime. This market is specific, because biometric
devices for action control must have special features: in the case of weapons they must react
in real time (probably quicker than 0.1 second). In practically all cases they must be
integrated in such elements as handles, triggers, steering wheels. It is surely not possible for
me to specify all possible markets for biometric devices, which can emerge in the future.

24. 24
4.2 Case Study:
A brief history of identity cards in the UK:
The former Labour government’s proposals for identity cards were not the first instance of an
identity program in the UK. Historians note that ID cards were a reality well before former
Home Secretary David Blunkett’s pursuit of them. During both the First and Second World
Wars, Britain introduced a form of national identity card. Agar (2005) explores these
experiences and their relevance to the more recent proposals for the NIS. According to Agar,
the first ever national identity card and population register in the UK was a failure. It was
introduced during the First World War as a means of determining the extent of the male
population in the country. Existing government records were considered incomplete and
ineffective for the purposes of developing a policy for conscription. Once the count had been
completed and the government knew how many men were available to serve, political interest
in national registration and identification cards waned, and the system was soon abandoned.
27 However, as Agar notes, the promise of a national identification system was not forgotten
by the civil service, who during the Second World War reintroduced the idea of identity
cards, primarily as a way of identifying aliens and managing the allocation of food rations.
Crucial to the operation of the second National Register was its intimate connection to the
organisation of food rationing. In order to renew a ration book, an identity card would have to
be produced for inspection at a local office at regular intervals. Those without an identity
card, would within a short period of time no longer be able, legally, to claim rationed food.
This intimate connection between two immense administrative systems was vital to the
success of the second card - they were not forgotten by members of the public - and provides
one of the main historical lessons. (Agar 2005) As identity cards became a facet of everyday
life, they started being used for additional purposes (a phenomenon negatively referred to as
‘function creep’), including identity checks by police officers. This use continued even after
the war had ended. Eventually, liberal-minded citizens began questioning these practices and,
in 1950, a man named Clarence Willcock disputed the police’s routine check of ID cards.
Willcock’s legal challenges were not successful, but in the case’s written judgment Lord
Goddard (the Lord Chief Justice) criticized the police for abusing identity cards. And by 1952
Parliament had repealed the legislation that made national identity cards a reality in the UK.
As many observers have noted, including some civil society groups (Privacy International

25. 25
1997), the civil service has since been regularly captivated by the 28 idea of re-introducing
national identity cards in the UK, with the aim of solving a diversity of policy problems,
ranging from streamlining tax administration to ‘fixing’ immigration, among others. By the
early 2000s they had tried again. In 2002, the Labour government, under Prime Minister
Tony Blair, proposed a new national ‘entitlement card’ scheme. This proposal was then re-
branded as a national ‘identity card’ scheme in 2004. Following failed attempts to pass the
legislation, as well as a general election in the UK (in which the Labour party was again
victorious), Parliament passed the Identity Cards Act 2006 on 30 March, which enabled the
first national identity card program since the Second World War. However, this new Scheme
was different from previous ones in several ways. The proposals were for a system of
unprecedented size and complexity, comprising a centralized National Identity Register
(NIR) (the electronic database on which the population’s identity data would be held), the
collection and recording of over 50 pieces of personal information from individuals, and the
issuing of identity cards and passports based on a new technology called “biometrics”.
Moreover, a number of features distinguished this Scheme from those in other countries.
These features included the extensive use of biometrics both for enrolment (to ensure that no
individual was entered onto the Register more 29 than once) and verification; the proposed
use of a single identification number across government and the private sector (Otjacques et
al. 2007); and an ‘audit trail’ that was expected to record details of every instance that an
identity was verified against information stored on the Register.4 The successful
implementation of the Scheme, therefore, would have required technological expertise in the
development of large scale, highly secure databases, advanced computer chip technologies
for ID cards, sophisticated data collection mechanisms for the ‘biographical footprint’
checking during the enrolment process, system integration skills to combine all the different
aspects of the Scheme, and specialist skills in biometric enrolment and verification. The
government’s program for identity cards went through various transformations after the Bill
became law. The configuration of the NIR, for example, underwent several changes. In its
original conception, the NIR was to be a brand new, central store of data. This changed in
December 2006 when the Identity and Passport Service (IPS) – the sub-department of the
Home Office responsible for implementing the Scheme – released its Strategic Action Plan
and set out a revised database schema for the Register. The idea was to separate the
biographic, biometric, and administrative information. This requirement for a personal audit

26. 26
trail would prove to be particularly controversial amongst activists, who viewed it as a
dangerous tracking device. 30 store them on different databases. The stated reasons for this
segregation were to improve security and make use of “the strengths of existing systems”
(IPS 2006c, p.10). However, some argued that this change was a poorly disguised attempt to
reduce costs. The government’s proposals for ID cards went through various other changes
over the course of Scheme’s lifespan, primarily motivated by concerns about managing costs
and achieving observable successes. I will return to this discussion in chapter 5, focusing in
particular on the history of biometrics in the Scheme, as these are the main focus of the
analysis. For now it suffices to observe how impressive and audacious the government’s
plans were for the Scheme and biometrics. The collection of multiple biometrics, including
fingerprints and irises, from tens of millions of citizens and foreigners was a project that had
not been undertaken before as part of a national identity system. The plans for real-time, on-
line biometric identification against a centralized, government-managed database were also a
major innovation. While other countries already operated their own national ID systems, the
proposed use of these biometrics, in this way – and on this scale – was something that had not
been attempted before. Before outlining the structure of the research thesis, I want to provide
a brief overview of the wider social and political context in which the debates on, and 31
activities for, the National Identity Scheme took place. This discussion exposes some
important external factors that affected the trajectory of discourses in the case.

27. 27
CHAPTER - V
CHALLENGES & ISSUES
5.1 Biometrics and Privacy Issues
There are two ways to examine this concern among users. One has to do with the actual steps
necessary to authenticate the individual user, and the other with the overall concern for
privacy and how unique identifiers will be used.
Face recognition and retinal scans are areas that have the potential for making users feel very
uncomfortable when used for the purpose of authentication. We tend to think of this
technology in terms of the ability of a system to match a photograph or the eye to a particular
individual, and indeed that is the premise. However, in order to do this, the system may
require an individual to come in very close contact with a camera or a scanner during the
authentication process. Some people find this method of authentication too intrusive of their
personal space. Although this method of authentication feels very intrusive to some, it is not a
major concern for the majority of users.
The majority of expressed concerns relate to privacy issues of the individual user.
Specifically, users are concerned with how and where information is stored; who can access
it; how it can be used; and the reliability of its usage. These concerns are certainly valid for
persons who view biometrics technology in its most broad sense, but are not as valid when
applied to user authentication. The difference is in how this technology is used. For the
purpose of authenticating an individual user, the system does not try to determine the user's
identity – only to confirm it. It will only allow access by a user to a particular application or
network when a match is confirmed. The method of storage is also different from an actual
finger print or photograph that might be on file. For user authentication purposes, data is
stored as a mathematical representation that cannot, in and of itself, recreate the original
image.
Storage of unique identifiers is also a concern to some individuals. Information can be stored
locally which provides for easier access and control, and lessens the concern about network
attack. Another method of storage is centralization of data, which can make the information
more vulnerable to outside attack. Smart card storage of data is another method of storage,

28. 28
and puts the information within the control of the user. While this may feel more
comfortable to the individual, it poses a number of security risks and should not be used by
itself for authentication purposes when accessing sensitive, confidential, or classified
information. Interestingly enough, laws in some countries require that the information be
stored on tokens or smart cards.
5.2 Biometrics Efficiency
Biometrics technology is without a doubt a more efficient way of authentication than the
more common use of pass words, smart cards, or a combination of the two. Potentially, the
user would not have to remember a password or a series of passwords to access information.
Passwords also have expiration dates that require new assignment of passwords and more
work for technical support staff. Businesses, corporations, and medical providers have found
that too many times users cannot remember their pass words, and trying to navigate through a
series of steps to access needed information becomes cumbersome and time consuming.
Technical support staff can be kept busy providing instruction to individual users who have
difficulty with the technology associated with even some of the more basic procedures of
signing on or logging on to a particular application or network.
Biometrics is a promising technology that is being touted as the solution to these problems.
In systems that use single sign-on, this particular technology would be a very efficient way to
authenticate the user. You save time and resources when you have “the ability to authenticate
just once and be properly recognized.” This approach “consolidates multiple user identities
into a single identity that can be used everywhere. That means each user has access to
multiple networks and applications after logging in once.” More and more businesses and
corporations are recognizing the efficiency of such an application. In hospital settings for
instance, there is more and more interest in using biometrics for user authentication to assure
the confidentiality, privacy, of patient information.
There is also a down side to the question of efficiency in the use of biometrics in the
authentication process. Research has shown that no system is perfect and biometrics in its
present stage of development is no exception. Although false positive and negative
identification will be discussed as a separate security issue, it also has implications to the user
who needs to sign-in or log on and is locked out because the system does not recognize the

29. 29
user as being legitimate. When this occurs, time can be lost both by the individual user and
the technical support staff in identifying and rectifying the problem(s).
When different products were tested to determine how securely and efficiently they could
authenticate users, varying results were obtained. For instance, face recognition systems
could be fooled by the use of a mask. With some systems tested, it was necessary to increase
them confidence levels to prevent unauthorized access. The downside according to the
researchers was that "an increase in the certainty threshold translated into a longer
authentication process and an increase in the frequency of false rejections." This would
decrease some of the benefits related to efficiency, but would not be a compelling reason to
discount its overall benefits. What the biometric industry is working toward is a "complete
replacement for your password and cards." While this statement was not directly related to
user authentication, it certainly applies. Companies involved in research and development
would indeed like to develop a system that completely replaces passwords and cards while
insuring the integrity of sensitive data and information.
5.3 Biometric Security Issues
Although there has been substantial research related to security issues there is still more to be
done. We have mentioned some of the security issues previously as they relate to privacy for
the individual user as well as the efficiency of biometrics in user authentication. A more in-
depth examination would indicate that there are areas that warrant concern. For instance, we
need to understand how vulnerable data are to theft or abuse; how the data are to be retained
to optimize the security of the data; whether the information can be tampered with; and how
much of an error factor in the authentication process is acceptable.
In an article published in PC Magazine (on line) in February 1999, biometrics security was
examined. Benchmark testing results of finger print recognition, face recognition, and voice
recognition were reviewed. Efforts were made to determine how secure the factors were in
authenticating users by subjecting products to various test scenarios. Finger print recognition
proved to be the most secure of the products subjected to the testing and there was no success
in any of the efforts made to fool the device.
Face recognition systems could be fooled with a mask at the default settings, but as the
threshold levels were increased to above 96 percent confidence, no system tested allowed

30. 30
entry. As previously stated, legitimate users were locked out when the higher threshold level
was used.
Only two voice recognition products were tested and one allowed an unauthorized user to get
in. However, the testing result of that particular product is somewhat questionable. They did
not use the microphone voice crypt recommended for the test because it was not in stock.
A biometrics integration and consulting firm known as International Biometrics Group has
worked with the private sector, with government, and with medical professionals in
evaluating various biometrics technologies. They have conducted comparison testing in
fingerprint, facial recognition, iris recognition, and voice recognition. One of the systems
evaluated was the face recognition system developed by a corporation in Burlington, Ontario.
When tested, their system had a 0 percent False Acceptance Rate and a 3.1 percent False
Negative Rate. This rate of failure of a system to authenticate authorized users may be an
acceptable rate for some but not for others. Clearly it would depend on your job function as
to how problematic this might be, and how much time would be lost when this occurs. This
same corporation has an exclusive license for the use of a very sophisticated technology
known as Holographic Quantum Neural Technology that is to be used in future face
recognition technology.
The International Biometrics Group has also evaluated the effectiveness of Iris and Retinal
scan technology. This technology is not new and has been in use for approximately (15)
fifteen years. Testing of products indicate that retinal scans are not easily fooled. Although it
would be difficult to replicate the retina, it is possible to gain unauthorized access by such an
act. In one discussion about retinal scans, it was mentioned that removal of the eye would be
another way to breach security. Both of these risks would be effectively eliminated by using
a thermal scanner that measures heat. This type of scanner is often used with the fingerprints.
Iris scans are also a very effective way of authenticating a user, but there are issues which
affect this particular technology. For instance, the eye must have a certain degree of lighting
to allow the camera to capture the iris. There is potential for failure when enough light is not
available. We have to remember that in real world applications of any technology,
environments in which work is performed can be very different and in some cases make a
particular method of user authentication contraindicated. Lighting issues notwithstanding,

31. 31
the iris scan technology is viewed as a very reliable method of authentication when subjected
to testing.
Biometrics technology does not in and of itself protect against internal or external attacks in
user authentication systems. In order to guard against such attacks, steps should be taken to
protect authentication information. Systems that store biometrics data and credentials should
do so in encrypted format by using a Public Key Infrastructure. Audit logs should also be
kept with a high degree of detail required. Such logs should be able to detect if a user does
something that is questionable, and that would compromise security. Standards should also
be in place that would prevent one person from compromising the system’s ability to identify
a user who has committed an inappropriate act. Finally, security is enhanced when the
software that performs the authentication function is not located at the users work station.
The data should be entered at the workstation, but then passed on to a secure server for
authentication. This decreases the possibility that the data can be tampered with.
5.3 Biometrics and Job Function/Roles
When using biometrics technology, or any other technology for the purpose of verifying a
user's identity, it is important to understand that not everyone within an organization or
department needs access to all information. While biometrics is considered the most reliable
form of user authentication, we must remember that user authentication is complex,
especially when applied to a network where one person may need to have access to various
applications or systems.
People within organizations who need access to sensitive, confidential, or classified
information will need the strongest form of authentication - three-factor authentication. This
level of authentication will necessitate use of passwords, smart cards or tokens, and personal
identifiers. Those who need to have rapid access to a particular application or system might
need to use a smart card or token. A password may be the only authentication needed for
those with minimal security needs.
A person's specific job duties or work environment will also impact user authentication. For
example, in a manufacturing environment where noise levels are high or heavy glovers are
being worn voice scans or finger print scans would not be appropriate. The point is this -

32. 32
there is a need for flexibility in any authentication protocol that can accommodate different
workplace constraints.
5.4 Biometrics and Cost
As biometrics technology moves from research and development to implementation in the
market place, cost to users of the technology has to be a concern. All of the issues related to
Y2K meant that many organizations, corporation, and government entities had to expend a
major portion of their Information Management budgets to upgrade their systems prior to the
year 2000. A security evaluation may reveal user authentication as one of the vulnerable
areas needing to be upgraded. Biometrics technology may be considered as a solution to
stronger user authentication in such a scenario. Most products are designed to integrate with
existing systems without having to replace all of the existing hardware and/or software.
Certainly any upgrades would not require the kind of capital expenditures associated with
Y2K.
One of the advantages to using biometrics technology for user authentication is its low cost
with finger print technology costing as low as $100.00. However, the cost of using a retina
scan device can be $2,000.00 - $2,500.00 and puts it at the other extreme of the cost
spectrum. This has proven to be one of the factors that make this type of technology less
attractive to most potential users, even though it is highly reliable.
One has to also factor in the cost of not making a change to biometrics technology in
calculating help desk time for users who simply have forgotten their passwords, and this
happens a lot. According to one source, such calls can cost “upwards to $35 a shot.” (8)
Other cost factors for technical support staff include reassigning passwords that have expired
when the system does not assign the password for the user. There is also a cost factor if
passwords are stolen and there is a breech in security. Stolen passwords can result in loss of
money and while biometrics technology may not completely solve all of the cost related
problems, it will certainly decrease it.

33. 33
CHAPTER - VI
CONCLUSION & FUTURE SCOPE
6.1 Why biometrics – possible future markets:
Reading currently published papers and information about biometrics, one can think that the
main reason for applying biometric solutions is security. This perspective is supported by
politicians, spreading the message that biometric technologies can help in the fight against
terrorism, help locate criminals, etc. This is not fundamentally wrong. Indeed, if automatic
devices for identity recognition were more prevalent in locations such as airports, police
stations and other areas that are sensitive or involve high concentrations of public activity,
they would surely make the life of criminals and terrorists much more difficult. However,
there are many reasons to believe that biometrics will change the life of people in near future
mostly because its use will be much more convenient than other techniques in use today for
individual identity authentication. This is already apparent today, especially in connection
with applications such as physical and logical access control, transportation, and also in the
financial industry. In this presentation I will try to specify new possible markets, with
emphasis on markets that will – from my point of view – have the largest impact on future
societies.
6.2 Conclusion:
There seem to exist more disadvantages than advantages for using biometric authentication
systems. This is one reason why such systems are not yet widely used. But the advantages
mentioned above are so important and people want to benefit from them that the disadvantes
will be more and more reduced in the future. However, some sort of trade-offs, like between
the FA rate and the FR rate will always need to be made.
The discussion above shows that biometric authentication is an interesting topic that a lot of
research is going on in this area and that it can be used for secure systems despite all
disadvantages. At the moment it is recommended to combine biometric authentication with
any other authentication technology. Such multi-factor authentication systems are always
more secure and it is also common practice to use combinations of different authentication

34. 34
methods. ATMs require for example a PIN and a bank card with additional authentication
information saved on a chip.
When talking about biometric data questions about the privacy of personal data come up
automatically. This paper has not considered this topic but there are many article dealing with
these concerns. It is a difficult topic but it is obvious that biometric authentication systems
have to store the biometric samples in a secure way and it has 11 to be ensured that such data
cannot be used otherwise. The best would be if biometric data is kept under the control of the
person to which it belongs. This could be done for example by saving the biometric sample
only on a smart card which is used in combination with the biometric in an authentication
process.
To sum up it can be clearly said that the usage of biometric authentication will increase more
and more in the future. This will be supported among other things by the steady improvement
of the technologies and the reduction of the prices for hardware and software. Biometric
authentication can and probably will be used in many areas, for example ATMs, access to
Personal Computers, PDAs and mobile phones, DRM systems, access to buildings and cars
and many more we can’t even think about.

35. 35
REFERENCES
1. Julian Ashbourn, “Biometrics: Advanced Identity Verification”, London: Springer -
Verlag, (2002), page no. 5.
2. Robert Todd Carroll, “The Skeptics Dictionary: Phrenology”.
3. Robert Todd Carroll, “The Skeptics Dictionary: Anthropometry”.
4. Samir Nanvati, “Biometrics: Identity Verification in a Networked World”, (2002)
5. Biometrics, Aidan Dysart
http://www.zdnet.com/pcmag/features/biometrics/bench.html
6. The Challenge of User Authentication
http://www.ankari.com/whitepapers.asp
7. NMAS Implementation scenarios
http://developer.novell.com/research/appnotes/2001/july/01/a0107015.html
8. Benchmark Test
http://www.zdnet.com/pcmag/features/biometrics/bench.html
9. Body may be key to foolproof ID
http://www.usatoday.com/life/cyber/tech/ctc447.html