2.1 Placement of Students in Special Education As discussed in Chapter 1, public schools must provide special education services to students in what the Individualized Education Program (IEP) team determines to be the least restrictive environment (LRE) based on student progress each year. For most students with disabilities, this means receiving instruction in the general education classroom, a practice often referred to as inclusion. The IEP team has a variety of placement options, and the team makes decisions about placement based on the individual student, not based on the student's disability. The team considers the student's strengths and needs and places the student in the settings that can provide the best possible instruction. (See Figure 2.2). The team may decide to place the student in his or her local public school, where the setting might be a general classroom, resource classroom, or self-contained classroom. Some students are placed outside the local school, in a separate school, residential facility, private school, correctional facility, or home or hospital. Figure 2.2: Placement Options of Special Education Students A student's IEP team can choose from many placement options. The team, however, must always try to place the student in the least restrictive environment (LRE) The Concept of Inclusion IDEA 2004 mandates that unless the IEP team decides that another placement would be more appropriate, students with disabilities should receive their education in the same school they would attend if they did not have a disability. The student's educational program should be as similar to the educational program of students without disabilities as is reasonable. In an inclusion setting, students with disabilities are instructed alongside peers without disabilities for some or all of the school day. In some classrooms, a general education and special education teacher teach together (i.e., they are co-teaching). In other classrooms, a special education teacher may "push in" at various points during the school day to help provide instruction with the general education teacher. This is often referred to as a push-in arrangement. Another option is to "pull out" the student with a disability to provide instruction in a resource setting. This is referred to as a pull-out model. Whether the school uses co-teaching, push-in, or pull-out models, all require strong communication and collaboration between the general education and special education teachers, as well as with any other teachers for the student. Constant progress monitoring toward meeting the student's IEP goals is also required. Inclusion can provide valuable opportunities for students to access and benefit from being in a general education environment (Florian, 2010). However, this arrangement is not appropriate for all students with disabilities. Some students who would benefit from small group instruction and intensive support may need to receive instruction outside the g ...

1. 2.1 Placement of Students in Special Education
As discussed in Chapter 1, public schools must provide special
education services to students in what the Individualized
Education Program (IEP) team determines to be the least
restrictive environment (LRE) based on student progress each
year. For most students with disabilities, this means receiving
instruction in the general education classroom, a practice often
referred to as inclusion.
The IEP team has a variety of placement options, and the team
makes decisions about placement based on the individual
student, not based on the student's disability. The team
considers the student's strengths and needs and places the
student in the settings that can provide the best possible
instruction. (See Figure 2.2).
The team may decide to place the student in his or her local
public school, where the setting might be a general classroom,
resource classroom, or self-contained classroom. Some students
are placed outside the local school, in a separate school,
residential facility, private school, correctional facility, or home
or hospital.
Figure 2.2: Placement Options of Special Education Students
A student's IEP team can choose from many placement options.
The team, however, must always try to place the student in the
least restrictive environment (LRE)
The Concept of Inclusion
IDEA 2004 mandates that unless the IEP team decides that
another placement would be more appropriate, students with
disabilities should receive their education in the same school
they would attend if they did not have a disability. The student's
educational program should be as similar to the educational
program of students without disabilities as is reasonable.
In an inclusion setting, students with disabilities are instructed

2. alongside peers without disabilities for some or all of the school
day. In some classrooms, a general education and special
education teacher teach together (i.e., they are co-teaching). In
other classrooms, a special education teacher may "push in" at
various points during the school day to help provide instruction
with the general education teacher. This is often referred to as a
push-in arrangement. Another option is to "pull out" the student
with a disability to provide instruction in a resource setting.
This is referred to as a pull-out model.
Whether the school uses co-teaching, push-in, or pull-out
models, all require strong communication and collaboration
between the general education and special education teachers,
as well as with any other teachers for the student. Constant
progress monitoring toward meeting the student's IEP goals is
also required.
Inclusion can provide valuable opportunities for students to
access and benefit from being in a general education
environment (Florian, 2010). However, this arrangement is not
appropriate for all students with disabilities. Some students who
would benefit from small group instruction and intensive
support may need to receive instruction outside the general
classroom to be successful.
The practice of inclusion, although mandated by law, is debated
in education (Obiakor, Harris, Mutua, Rotatori, & Algozzine,
2012). On one hand, inclusion produces schools that are
respectful and equitable to all students (Obiakor et al., 2012).
Expectations for all students remain high as all students are
held to the same standards or expectations, and students in
special education learn to be more independent (Sun, 2007).
Inclusion can also help students with disabilities become friends
with students without disabilities, and students without
disabilities can learn to be more accepting of others (Copeland
& Cosbey, 2008; Litvack, Ritchie, & Shore, 2011). Students
with disabilities also learn from their peers, and often the peers

3. benefit from learning alongside the student with a disability
(McMaster, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2007). Additionally, general and
special education teachers may benefit from collaborating and
picking up on each other's teaching strategies (Burstein, Sears,
Wilcoxen, Cabello, & Spagna, 2004).
On the other hand, some argue that student expectations are
lessened and higher-performing students learn less because
teachers focus more on lower-performing students (Litvack et
al., 2011). Another view is that students with disabilities may
be better served in specialized settings by specialized teachers.
Many teachers, from both general and special education, feel
unprepared to teach in inclusion settings (Smith & Tyler, 2011).
Administrators must provide support for inclusion and
collaborative practices in order for inclusion to be effective
(Crockett, 2002; Tankersley, Niesz, Cook, & Woods, 2007).
Schools also need to develop and maintain district- and school-
wide best practices and appropriate training for teachers. As
highlighted in the following sections, inclusion issues may vary
depending upon the grade level of the student.
Early Childhood Inclusion
Part B of IDEA 2004 requires that public school systems
provide special education services to students as young as 3
years old. Preschool students should receive their education in
the LRE to the maximum extent appropriate, as determined by
the student's IEP, and preschool teachers should monitor the
progress of students to determine whether students are on track
to meet long-term goals (Raver, 2004). Instruction for preschool
students focuses on both academics and behavior, and should be
as "naturalistic" as possible (i.e., instruction should be
embedded within play or social activities and follow prompts
from the child) (Wolery & Hemmeter, 2011).
The difficulty with early childhood inclusion, however, is that

4. many districts operate preschools exclusively for students with
disabilities. These districts do not have programs in place for
students without disabilities, so preschool students with
disabilities cannot be placed in their LRE alongside preschool
students without disabilities. Thus, sometimes school districts
place preschool students with disabilities in private preschool
programs or programs offered by other school districts, and the
districts compensate the programs accordingly.
In order for a private preschool to participate, the preschool
program must be licensed by a state agency and be nonsectarian.
The private preschool must ensure that the teachers and staff
can follow the student's IEP and provide appropriate
supplementary aids and services.
Elementary Inclusion
Inclusion can be very effective for elementary students
identified with or without a disability (Burstein et al., 2004).
For students with disabilities, inclusion provides greater access
to the general education curriculum and the learning
opportunities that come from learning alongside a
heterogeneous mix of students. The classroom expectations in
an inclusion setting may be higher; therefore, students may
make larger strides toward meeting long-term goals if they
receive proper instructional support.
In an inclusion model, the general education and special
education teachers must collaborate on some level, so all
students benefit from receiving the best instruction these
teachers can offer. Teachers who use co-teaching will be able to
better respond to student needs and behaviors. This is
particularly important for early childhood and lower elementary
classrooms, where social and behavior objectives are an integral
part of class instruction.
Elementary students who need additional support may receive

5. pull-out services, which might consist of additional time with a
special education teacher or specialist in a small group or
individualized setting. The ultimate purpose of such services is
to help the student achieve grade level expectations and meet
long-term IEP goals. If the pull-out programming does not
prove effective, the IEP team might recommend a student
receive the majority of instruction outside of the general
classroom.
Secondary Inclusion
Inclusion at the secondary level provides similar academic and
behavioral benefits to those found at the elementary level.
Additionally, adolescents are generally more aware of the social
stigma that can accompany special education, so inclusion
alleviates the need to pull out students and can sometimes
protect their anonymity. Teachers must employ proper
accommodations and modifications to ensure success for
students with disabilities (Duvall, 2006).
The IEP team determines the LRE at the secondary level. Some
high school students may be enrolled in a "study skills" class
taught by a special education teacher. This class can help
students with learning essential skills for success, especially for
classes that are more lecture-based or independent study. The
study skills class can also help students with homework or other
assignments. If students with disabilities demonstrate success
with their courses, special education services may be pared back
to prepare students for college and career transition.
The Role of the IEP Team in Placement
The placement of students with disabilities is determined by the
student's IEP team and is based on the student's IEP goals. The
placement should be to the LRE in which the student can
participate in the general curriculum to the maximum extent
appropriate.
The IEP team must make placement decisions based on the

6. needs of each individual student. In other words, the school
cannot have a plan for how all students with a given disability
receive their education. For example, a school cannot say that
all students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) must go to a
special school; for some students with ASD, that would not be
an appropriate placement and would be in violation of the LRE
for an individual student.
The IEP team also needs to consider the students without
disabilities in the general classroom. If a student with a
disability would disrupt the general classroom to the extent that
the behavior would significantly affect the learning of all the
other students, the IEP team might decide upon an alternate
placement for the student. The alternative placement must still
allow the student to participate in the general curriculum to the
maximum extent appropriate.
General Classroom Placement
A general classroom is the typical classroom setting for all
students, and it is where most receive their instruction. (Please
note that in this book, "general classroom" describes the student
population in the classroom and not the actual layout of the
school building.) Most general classrooms are divided by grade
level (e.g., fifth-grade classroom), but some classrooms may
include students from multiple grades (e.g., Chemistry 2).
The teachers in general classrooms, the "general" or "regular"
teachers, follow the school, district, or state's general
curriculum. General curriculum includes any instruction or
activity that takes place during the school day. The general
curriculum is not limited to teaching from textbooks but
includes all assessments, additional classes (e.g., art, music, and
physical education), lunch, recess, assemblies, field trips, any
materials (e.g., textbooks), media (e.g., films), and almost any
other activity that students without disabilities participate in
during school hours.
Most students with disabilities who participate in general

7. classroom instruction are diagnosed with the "mild" or "high-
incidence" disabilities. These categories include specific
learning disabilities, emotional or behavioral disorders,
Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and speech
and language impairments. Students with other disabilities (e.g.,
ASD, intellectual disabilities, visual impairments, and hearing
impairments) may also spend a considerable amount of time in
the general classroom.
Students with disabilities who spend time in the general
classroom may use supplementary aids and services as outlined
by IDEA 2004 to participate in the general curriculum. These
aids and services might include a special education teacher or
aide, special education training for a general education teacher
(see the discussion of collaboration and co-teaching later in the
chapter), behavior intervention plans (see the later discussion of
classroom management), and assistive technology.
Students who receive instruction in the general classroom are
often presented with accommodations and/or modifications of
the general curriculum.
Accommodations
If a student participates in the general classroom with only
slight changes or variations from the classroom program, the
changes are referred to as accommodations. An accommodation
affects how a student accesses classroom material and is an
alteration that enables a student to perform or participate in
activities similar to those of students without disabilities. It
may be a change in the way a student interacts with classroom
material, participates in the classroom, or responds to classroom
content, but an accommodation does not change the content
taught in the general classroom. Accommodations may be
decided by the IEP team; the student's teachers may also choose
appropriate accommodations for specific classes or assignments.

8. Table 2.1 provides examples of common accommodations for
students with disabilities.
Table 2.1: Examples of Common Accommodations
Accommodation
Description
Break time
A student is given a break during lengthy assignments or activit
ies. A student may also
complete an assignmentover multiple days (instead of during on
e sitting).
Calculators
A student may use a calculator to perform complex calculations.
Carrel
A study carrel (either purchased or homemade) can help elimina
te distractions.
Classroom setup
A student sits at a desk close to the front of the room to be near
the teacher and the board
and away from distractions such as windows or hallways.
Color coding
Using different colors for specific categories or purposes can he
lp organize class material such
as file folders.
Extra time
Students are given extra time to complete assignments or activit
ies. If the student is to receive
extra time forassessments, this must be written into the student's
IEP.
Graphic organizers
A graphic organizer helps organize important information in a v
isually pleasing way.
Handwriting
Students are allowed to write in manuscript (if cursive is requir
ed) or vice versa.
Headphones

9. When working independently, a student may wear headphones t
o block out extraneous noise.
Highlighting/underlining
A student develops a system for drawing attention to important i
nformation.
Large font
Materials can be prepared in a larger font (or a font with easier
readability).
Lighting
The lighting in a classroom can be altered for a student to make
it brighter or duller.
Manipulatives(concrete examples)
Hands-
on materials help students understand concepts in mathematics a
nd science.
Notes
Giving the student a printed copy of a lecture can be more usefu
l than requiring the student to
take her own notes or copy from the board.
Oral response
A student can respond orally instead of writing an answer.
Partners
Students can be assigned to be partners to work on classroom as
signments. Each partner
takes on a specificrole. (Partner A reads aloud while Partner B h
elps sound out difficult words.)
Quiet area
A student can go to a quiet, relaxing place, such as a bean bag c
hair, if he needs a break.
Reminders
A number line or alphabet attached to the student's desk can hel
p students with numbers and
letters.
Schedule
A schedule helps students organize their school day.
Scribe

10. A scribe can transcribe a student's oral words.
Timer
A timer helps a student understand how much time they have to
work before the next class
or task.
Tracking sheets
Tracking sheets help students monitor their own academic progr
ess or behavior.
Many students with disabilities may use assistive technology as
an accommodation. Assistive technology is any item,
equipment, or product that increases or improves the student's
interaction with classroom material. Assistive technologies do
not necessarily have batteries or computer hardware. Hundreds
of items can count as assistive technology, including:
Book easel
Dictation machine
Dictionary
Enlarged text
Handheld magnifier
Multiplication table
Pencil grips
Picture schedule
Post-it notes
Raised writing paper
Tape recorder
Text-to-speech or speech-to-text software
Walker
Wheelchair
The purpose of accommodations is to give students with
disabilities a greater chance of success in the general classroom;
accommodations are not meant to give the student an unfair
advantage. Accommodations are intended to "level the playing
field," and should not change the evaluation of a student's work.
The student is still expected to learn the same content as a
student without a disability.

11. Several of the accommodations listed above may also benefit
students without disabilities. For example, working with
partners may force all students to be responsible for reading and
comprehending a history text. For elementary students, having a
number line will help all who are just learning their addition
and subtraction facts and cannot immediately recall the answers.
Study carrels may encourage all students to focus on their work
and not be distracted by other students.
Accommodations should be determined on an individual basis.
For some students, one accommodation is all that is necessary.
For others, multiple accommodations will be put into place.
Modifications
A modification, unlike an accommodation, changes the
classroom content for the student with a disability. Typically, a
student will work on a similar skill as students without
disabilities, but the expectations will be different. (Note that the
expectations will not necessarily be less than those for students
without disabilities; merely different.) As with
accommodations, there is no "one size fits all" approach, and
modifications should be determined on an individual basis. The
IEP dictates when modifications are appropriate and how they
will be implemented.
Table 2.2 describes common modifications for students from
preschool through high school.
Table 2.2: Modifications
Modification
Description
Example
Altered content
A student works on content that is similar to thegeneral curricul
um but different or easier.

12. Instead of working on multiplication offractions, a
student works on identifying numerators and
denominators.
Altered grading
The grading of an assignment is altered to allow forsome mistak
es.
Instead of requiring a perfect score (10/10)to
demonstrate spelling competence, the teacher will
accept 8/10 or 9/10 as ademonstration of proficiency.
Altered work
A different type of assignment is allowed.
Instead of writing a traditional science fairreport, a
student is permitted to compile anotebook of their
experiments and outcomes.
Breaks in an assignment
An assignment is broken into smaller, moremanageable chunks.
A project on a unit about the Civil War is broken into
four smaller assignments.
Lower-level reading
A reading assignment is provided at a lower grade level.
Instead of reading a seventh-grade bookabout the
Civil Rights movement, a studentmay read fourth- or
fifth-grade materials about the same topic.
Reduced reading
The reading load for an activity is reduced.
A teacher paraphrases a 15-paragraphscience text into
five paragraphs with pictures and diagrams.
Shortened assignment
Fewer items or passages are required on an assignment.
A student completes 10 double-digitcomputation
problems with regroupinginstead of 20. A student
only works on odd-numbered questions for a
homework assignment.
Time
A student receives extra time or an activity isuntimed.
On an assessment, a student is permitted to work

13. "time and a half." Instead of having 30minutes to
complete the assessment, the student is given 45
minutes. On anotherassessment, a student is allowed
to work foras long as he or she needs.
Importance of the Resource Classroom
A resource classroom is a place for students to receive special
education instruction and supportive services. Students may
come to a resource classroom to receive additional support
(e.g., learning to read, completing geography homework,
practicing speech skills) with a special education teacher, aide,
or therapist. The resource classroom may be an actual
classroom, or it could be an office or conference room. Though
less desirable, resource instruction can even occur at a desk in
the library or an unused table at the end of a hallway. The
student still spends some, if not most, of the school day in the
general classroom, and only comes to the resource classroom to
receive specialized instruction.
Instruction in a resource setting capitalizes on evidence-based
practices for students with disabilities. The teacher designs
instruction that fits the needs of the individual students—both
to meet their IEP goals and continue to make progress with the
general curriculum. The instruction may be provided in small
groups or on an individual basis, and may be provided by a
special education teacher or aide. Specialists such as speech and
language pathologists, physical therapists, or school
psychologists may also provide instruction.
Most students who participate in instruction in the resource
classroom do so on a regular schedule. Some students may come
to the resource room once a week. Other students may receive
special education instruction for only 20 or 30 minutes each
day, and still others may spend considerably more time in a
resource setting (e.g., 90 minutes each day).

14. Self-Contained Classroom Placement
A small set of students with disabilities who attend their local
public school receive all of their academic instruction in a self-
contained classroom. The curriculum in a self-contained
classroom is markedly different from the curriculum in a
general classroom. A special education teacher or specialist
familiar with working with students with disabilities provides
all instruction. Often, this instruction is remedial and may vary
significantly from the curriculum in the general classroom.
Remedial instruction reviews or reteaches important concepts
and procedures that students may have not learned originally.
Students in a self-contained classroom may participate in
physical education, music or art classes, or extracurricular
activities with students without disabilities, but their academic
instruction occurs outside of the general classroom (Kleinert,
Miracle, & Sheppard-Jones, 2007).
A self-contained classroom setting is typically reserved for
students with moderate to severe or low incidence disabilities
who would have extreme difficulty with learning the general
curriculum. Some examples might be students with intellectual
disabilities, traumatic brain injury, autism, or multiple
disabilities. Most students with severe disabilities require
highly specialized instruction and support provided by special
education teachers and trained specialists.
Placements Outside the Local School
Another small percentage of students with disabilities may best
be served outside the local public school. For students with
disabilities that require highly specialized instruction or care,
the school district may have the option of sending the student to
a separate school. These schools usually focus on the education
of students with specific disabilities, and the schools employ
the appropriate aides, therapists, specialists, and teachers to
provide a FAPE to the students. For example, some school
districts have schools focusing on teaching students with

15. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Another example might be a
separate school for students with Emotional Disorders (ED).
If the separate school is run by the school district, the district
must provide transportation to and from the school for each
student. Some separate schools are run by private organizations.
Parents may choose to send their child (and pay for it on their
own) to the school, or a school district may pay to send a
student to the private school if the district does not have
appropriate resources to educate the student.
The IEP team decides whether this option is better than
placement in the student's local school. They consider the
possibility that separate schools (e.g., specialized schools) can
provide students with additional resources and programs that
local schools may not be able to provide. However, while
students may benefit tremendously from an education in a
separate school, they will have little interaction with students
without disabilities.
Another option for placement is a private school. Though not a
common practice, a school district may pay to send a public
school student to a private school if it finds that the private
school is the only option. More frequently, parents or guardians
will opt to send their child to private school and pay for it out
of their own pockets.
Private schools do not receive educational funds from the
federal government, so they do not have to follow IDEA 2004
guidelines. If the school receives any federal funds, perhaps
through a reduced and free lunch program, the school does have
to follow IDEA 2004 guidelines. Private schools without a
religious affiliation must adhere to Section 504 guidelines,
because Section 504 protects the civil rights of people with
disabilities except for religious organizations and private clubs.

16. Some parents decide to enroll their student in a private school
that offers specialized programs for students with disabilities
(most often learning disabilities and behavior disorders).
Private school students may sometimes be sent to public schools
because the local public schools have more special education
resources than the private school. Other parents feel that private
schools do not provide as many special education services as
their children need.
A residential facility may be publicly or privately funded to
provide special services and programs to students with a
specific disability. For example, many states run residential or
day schools for students with low-incidence disabilities,
including schools for the blind or deaf. Most students come and
live at these schools while they are receiving their education.
If the schools are state-funded, they may be available at low or
no cost to students. If a school district decides the school is the
best placement for the student, the school district would pay for
the student's education. Sometimes the schools are hours away
from a student's home, though, which puts a burden on families.
A correctional facility is a place where students receive
educational services as they are spending time away from home
after committing a violation or crime. Students in the
correctional facility may or may not have disabilities, but if the
student had an IEP before entry to the facility or program, the
facility must follow the student's IEP with regard to educational
programs. Some researchers report the percentage of students in
correctional facilities who have disabilities may be as high as
90% (Zhang, Hsu, Katsiyannis, Barrett, & Ju, 2011).
Students may also receive their education in a hospital setting
or home setting. This arrangement usually applies to sick
students with disabilities whose treatment interferes with their
ability to attend school. It might be put in place if a student will
miss at least one month of school. The student's local district is

17. responsible for making arrangements.
Many children's hospitals have their own teachers who develop
and implement instruction for students during lengthy hospital
stays. Hospitals may arrange for students to receive tutoring
while in the hospital, and some students may be taught at home
(by trained teachers) if it is impossible for the student to attend
school.
2.2 Instructional Approaches for Special Education Students in
the General Classroom
When students with disabilities receive their education in a
general classroom or resource setting, collaboration must occur
between general and special education teachers. Some teachers
may participate in co-teaching, whereas other teachers will
merely collaborate and provide instruction separately. In the
field of special education, several approaches have emerged as
effective teaching practices for students with disabilities.
Collaboration
With the movement toward inclusion, many special education
teachers spend less time in self-contained classrooms and more
time in general education settings (Eisenman, Pleet, Wandry, &
McGinley, 2010). Special education teachers who work with
special education students in general classrooms often have not
received training in how to be an effective teacher using the
collaborative push-in mode. General classroom teachers, in
turn, often are not quite sure how to relate to push-in teachers
(Wiggins & Damore, 2006).
Additionally, newer graduates who have received instruction
about the push-in collaboration model may find themselves
completing teaching assignments with older teachers who are
using less effective methods. Further, push-in teachers often
take on the role of helping keep students on task or providing
specific help with class work, but may function more as aides
than collaborators. When both teachers work together, however,

18. collaboration benefits all the students in the classroom and the
teachers improve their teaching skills (Simmons, Carpenter,
Dyal, Austin, & Shumack, 2012).
The following strategies can often be successfully adapted to
help special education and general classroom teachers
collaborate more effectively (Eisenman et al., 2010; Jones,
2012; Wiggins & Damore, 2006):
Be sure to communicate. Regular communication is essential to
make sure everyone is using his or her time wisely. General
education teachers are busy people. They will have looked at a
student's IEP, but they have lots of responsibilities and often do
not make working on IEP goals a priority. That is where the
special education teacher comes in. The special education
teacher can share goals for his students with the classroom
teacher, and describe the specific activities his students should
engage in. The general teacher can then share her thoughts and
concerns. The two teachers might not always agree, but if both
are putting concern for their students first, they should be able
to come to an agreement about how to best manage their time in
the classroom.
Have a plan. An effective push-in teacher will need more of a
plan than to just "help the classroom teacher." She will need to
plan specific learning activities for the special needs students in
the classes she is pushing in to. Doing so can involve more
work than teaching a class on one's own, because the teacher
will have to take the classroom teacher's plans and ideas into
consideration. The push-in teacher may find that one effective
method is to work with a student or a small group of students in
the rear of the classroom on basic skills while the rest of the
class does other things. The special education teacher can also
walk a student, step by step, through an assignment that the rest
of the class is doing independently. Sometimes, especially in
the younger grades, teachers can involve the entire class in
some of the planned activities; for example, activities to

19. improve concentration or hand-eye coordination for special
needs students are likely to be helpful for all the students.
Make sure you're both on the same side. Classroom teachers
often worry that activities of push-in special education teachers
will pull time away from their own planned curriculum. One
way to minimize this fear is to share responsibilities. The push-
in teacher can teach the classroom teacher how to include
special education activities even in his absence. Another
strategy is to divide the class into small groups: The regular
teacher works with one group, the special education teacher
works with another, and the other groups work independently.
While this means the special education teacher may actually
work with the special needs students for only part of the time,
doing an activity that directly relates to the students' needs is
much better than randomly helping out. As a tradeoff, the
regular teacher can incorporate more activities that work for the
special needs students into all his or her teaching.
Think positively. All teachers involved in collaboration should
respect one another and focus on the positive collaboration
outcomes for students. If all teachers are working from a similar
plan, the collaboration will likely work well.
Increasing communication, creating a plan, making sure both
teachers are on the same side, and thinking positively will go a
long way toward ensuring the success of an effective push-in
arrangement. The key is to know the students and put them first.
As a professional, take your responsibilities seriously, and put
your time to good use.
Co-Teaching
An arrangement in which the classroom teacher and the special
education teacher share responsibility of planning, teaching, and
evaluating the class is called co-teaching (Sileo & van
Garderen, 2010). A type of collaboration (Fenty, McDuffie-
Landrum, & Fisher, 2012), co-teaching is becoming a more
popular model because of mandates from NCLB that require
students with disabilities to participate in the general

20. curriculum (Friend, Cook, Hurley-Chamberlain, & Shamberger,
2010). In an established co-taught classroom, it should be
difficult to determine who is the general education teacher and
who is the special education teacher. The teachers in the
classroom should consider themselves equal, and they should
plan and deliver instruction together (Wilson, 2008).
Co-teaching instruction can be delivered in a variety of ways.
The teachers need to decide which arrangement is best, based on
the content of the lesson and the needs of the students.
The following are possible co-teaching arrangements (Forbes &
Billet, 2012; Friend et al., 2010):
One teaches, and one observes. This arrangement allows for one
teacher to observe a student or students without disruption to
the lesson. Observations can be used to check student progress
or to answer questions about student academic performance or
behavior.
One teaches, and one drifts. One teacher is responsible for
teaching the lesson while the other teacher walks around the
classroom and provides assistance to various students. This may
be the most common co-teaching model, as it is easy to
implement and requires little coordination between the two
teachers in the classroom. While this arrangement is easy to
implement, some of the other arrangements make better use of
co-teachers' time, abilities, and strengths.
Parallel teaching. The teachers divide the class into two groups
and deliver the same lesson, at the same time, to each group.
This arrangement is beneficial because each teacher has fewer
students to instruct, probably fewer behavioral disruptions, and
more time to answer individual student questions.
Station teaching. The teachers divide the students into groups.
One teacher teaches a lesson to one group while the second
teacher teaches a different lesson to the other group. The
teachers then switch groups and repeat the instruction for the

21. other group. This arrangement is beneficial when there are
several parts to a lesson and it does not matter if students learn
one part before another part. Station teaching can also play
upon teacher strengths or preferences. For example, a teacher
who enjoys teaching mathematics can teach the math portion of
a lesson twice.
Alternative teaching. The teachers divide the students into a
large group and a small group based on student strengths and
need for instruction. One teacher teaches the larger group while
the other teacher teaches the smaller group. The smaller group
may work on a different lesson or a similar lesson taught at a
different level than the big group. This arrangement allows for
teachers to tailor instruction for each group.
Team teaching. In this arrangement, both teachers teach at the
same time. The teachers play off one another so that the
teaching is like a conversation. Students can benefit from this
arrangement because two teachers may be able to provide better
instruction than one teacher alone.
Both co-teachers should consider the class to be "their" class.
All the students are "their" students; there are no students who
are "yours" or "mine." Co-teachers need to plan and teach
together in order for co-teaching to be effective. Co-teachers
also need to have the appropriate training to ensure a positive
co-teaching experience (Bouck, 2007). School districts should
provide professional development workshops on co-teaching
methods and also provide co-teachers with shared planning time
during the school day.
Evidence-Based Practices
As you learned in Chapter 1, the passage of No Child Left
Behind (NCLB) and the reauthorization of IDEA in 2004
emphasize the use of evidence-based practices by highly
qualified teachers in the classroom. An evidence-based practice
is an instructional technique or program that has been validated
by research. When a technique or program is first introduced,
researchers test it, usually in school settings, to see if it is

22. beneficial for improving student learning or behavior. Many
times, the validation is conducted using a treatment group and a
no-treatment control group (much like a science project). If a
technique or program demonstrates favorable results for
students who use it over the students in the no-treatment control
group, the technique or program can be deemed "evidence-
based."
The push to use evidence-based practices in the classroom is
important for several reasons. First, if an evidence-based
practice worked for most (if not all) of the students during
testing, the practice is highly likely to benefit other students.
Second, teachers do not waste precious teaching time when
using an evidence-based practice. They do not have to develop
their own programs and spend months or years determining
whether their programs help students. With an evidence-based
practice, teachers are guaranteed at least a good starting point
for instruction for students.
Teaching Approaches in Special Education
Many teachers wonder how to provide instruction in the general
classroom to students with a wide variety of academic needs.
This is especially true when students with disabilities are placed
in the general education classroom to participate in the general
curriculum. Three popular teaching approaches often discussed
in special education include explicit instruction, differentiation,
and Universal Design for Learning (UDL). These are broad
approaches to designing instruction; the more specific evidence-
based practices associated with each approach can be starting
points for teachers.
Explicit Instruction
Explicit instruction, or direct instruction, is one of the
hallmarks of special education (Archer & Hughes, 2011).
Explicit instruction is not a specific program but an approach to
teaching students with disabilities. With explicit instruction,
teachers provide instruction that is straightforward—they

23. explain and practice concepts and procedures with students until
students understand the material. Elements of explicit
instruction can be used to teach any subject at any grade level.
When a teacher uses explicit instruction, he or she provides the
student with a series of scaffolds to support the student's
learning. Scaffolds are different levels of teacher support. With
scaffolded instruction, the teacher plays a central role at the
beginning of the student's instruction, and that role lessens as
the teacher gradually turns over ownership of the learning to the
student. Put simply, at the beginning the teacher shows the
student what to do. Then, the teacher and student practice
together. Finally, the student is able to do the work
independently.
Over the last 20 years, explicit instruction has been proven as a
beneficial instructional strategy for students in preschool,
elementary, middle, and high school as they learn reading,
mathematics, writing, and the content areas (e.g., Rupley, Blair,
& Nichols, 2009; Spencer, Goldstein, & Kaminski, 2012;
Taylor, Mraz, Nichols, Rickelman, & Wood, 2009; Witzel,
Mercer, & Miller, 2003). For example, Witzel et al. (2003)
determined that middle school students who learn algebra using
explicit teacher instruction along with conceptual practice with
math manipulatives (i.e., math tools students can touch and
move around) outperformed students who did not receive
explicit algebra instruction.
Archer and Hughes (2011) have outlined 16 elements of explicit
instruction. The following list explains each element and
provides examples showing how to use them to provide fraction
instruction at fourth grade for a student with a learning
disability.
Teach critical content. Teachers should focus on providing
instruction on skills, strategies, vocabulary, concepts, and rules

24. that are important for success in school. Before teaching about
fractions, the teacher should introduce the terms numerator and
denominator and give the student concrete examples of the parts
to a whole. The teacher could use fraction circles to
demonstrate the vocabulary terms
Teach sequentially. Teachers need to teach students easier skills
first and check for understanding of these easier skills before
moving on to more difficult skills. For example, the teacher
should teach addition of fractions with like denominators before
teaching addition of fractions with unlike denominators.
Teach in small chunks. Teachers need to break down complex
tasks into smaller chunks. Teachers should break the chunks
into steps and teach students each of these steps. When teaching
subtraction of fractions with unlike denominators, the teacher
should first teach and work on finding common denominators.
She would perhaps spend a few lessons on listing and
identifying the least common multiple of the denominators.
Then, the teacher would spend a few lessons teaching how to
change the numerator when finding common denominators.
Finally, the teacher would teach the student how to subtract
fractions with like denominators.
Teach an organized lesson. Teachers should design a lesson that
is focused on a particular skill, strategy, or concept, and this
lesson should not have digressions. When teaching addition of
fractions, the teacher should focus on addition of fractions, and
not focus on solving word problems or geometry problems.
Start each lesson with a goal statement. Teachers should be
direct with students about the content of the lesson. One might
say, "Today we'll work on finding common denominators. When
we work with two fractions, common denominators mean both
denominators are the same. Finding common denominators is
important for addition and subtraction of fractions."
Review prior knowledge before each lesson. Teachers should
pick skills relevant to the lesson at hand and review these skills
before beginning the lesson. This review of skills should be
brief; this is not a time for reteaching. Review the vocabulary

25. terms of numerator and denominator before discussing common
denominators.
Use step-by-step demonstrations. With explicit instruction, the
teacher models a concept or skill for the student in a step-by-
step manner. Nothing is left to chance. Teachers are encouraged
to use a "think-aloud" technique during their demonstration.
Teachers should demonstrate ("I do"), practice with the students
("We do"), and then allow students to demonstrate their learning
("You do"). When teaching subtraction of fractions, a think-
aloud might sound like this. "We are subtracting 7/8 minus 2/8.
First, I look at the denominators to make sure they are the same.
8 is the denominator of 7/8. 8 is also the denominator of 2/8.
Are the denominators the same? (Yes.) The denominators are
the same. So, now I can subtract the numerators. What's 7 minus
2? (5.) 7 minus 2 equals 5. So, I write 5/8. 7/8 minus 2/8 equals
5/8."
Use concise language. Teachers should be consistent with
vocabulary and terminology so students have a clear
understanding of the content. When demonstrating subtraction
of fractions with like denominators, the teacher should be
consistent in vocabulary choices, and always refer to the
numerator as the numerator rather than switch from numerator
to top number to part.
Use examples and non-examples. Teachers should provide
examples so students know when to apply a skill, strategy, or
rule. Teachers should also provide non-examples (i.e., examples
that do not apply under certain circumstances) so students learn
when a skill, strategy, or rule does not work. For example, after
initial instruction on multiplication of fractions, the teacher
should also ask the students to work on problems involving
addition of fractions so they understand when to find common
denominators (i.e., addition) and when common denominators
are not necessary (i.e., multiplication)
Teach with guided and supported practice. Once teachers
introduce a skill or concept (using a step-by-step
demonstration), they need to provide the student with multiple

26. opportunities to practice. Initially, the teacher and students
work together, with the teacher providing lots of support by
reminding the students of the steps necessary to complete the
problem. After a student demonstrates success with this guided
practice, the teacher would provide the student with
opportunities to practice while the teacher is still available to
provide immediate feedback. For example, the teacher may ask
students to solve five multiplication fraction problems on a
worksheet while the teacher walks around the classroom and
provides feedback as necessary.
Ask students for frequent responses. The teacher and student
should be engaged in a dialogue. The teacher should constantly
engage the student in the lesson by asking questions, responding
to student questions or comments, and requiring active
participation. An example of dialogue might be: "Today, we're
going to compare fractions to decide which fraction is greater.
Look at these two fractions. Read them with me. (4/6, 1/6.) We
can easily compare fractions when the denominators are the
same. What's the denominator of 4/6? (6.) What's the
denominator of 1/6? (6.) Are the denominators the same? (Yes.)
The denominators are the same. So, let's now look at the
numerators. To find the greater fraction, let's look for the
numerator that is more. Which is more, 4 or 1? (4.) So, which
fraction is greater? (4/6.) Yes. 4/6 is greater than 1/6. Say that
with me. (4/6 is greater than 1/6.)"
Monitor student progress. Teachers constantly monitor student
responses and questions to determine whether students are
learning the concept or skill of the lesson. If a student seems
confused or is struggling with a concept, the teacher needs to
make an immediate response and change the lesson to help the
student with misconceptions or misunderstandings. The teacher
continually asks questions of the student and monitors their
written work. If the student is struggling with finding common
denominators for addition problems, the teacher would not
move to subtraction problems until the student is solving
addition problems with at least 80% mastery.

27. Provide feedback. Teachers need to constantly respond to
students' responses with affirmative and (when necessary)
corrective feedback. The feedback should be specific. The
teacher might say, "I like how you multiplied the numerators
and then multiplied the denominators."
Teach at a brisk pace. Teachers should deliver instruction at a
brisk pace to ensure they do not lose the students' attention.
(Sometimes, teachers may think they need to speak slower and
take more time when delivering a lesson for a student with a
disability, but this is not necessarily the case.) When instruction
is delivered at a brisk pace, students have to constantly pay
attention to the teacher in order to answer teacher questions and
follow the lesson. The teacher might say, "Let's think about
denominators. What's a denominator?" The teacher allows for a
3-second pause before calling on a student volunteer. "That's
right, Jesse, a denominator tells us how many parts are in the
whole. What's a whole?" The teacher continues in this manner.
Make connections for students. Teachers need to show students
how certain skills or topics relate to one another. Students may
not always make these connections themselves. When
introducing subtraction of fractions with unlike denominators,
the teacher should point out how much of the process is similar
to addition of fractions. Once the student finds the common
denominator, the only difference is subtracting the numerators
instead of adding.
Provide practice. Practicing a skill over time is referred to as
distributed practice. Teachers should give students opportunities
to practice a skill over time because it helps students retain and
practice skills they have learned previously. By practicing skills
again and again, the students memorize the procedures and
concepts. Teachers should also provide students with multiple
opportunities to practice all the skills the student has learned,
which is known as cumulative practice. Cumulative practice
provides students with the opportunity to practice a variety of
skills at one time. The teacher may provide distributed practice
on multiplication of fractions by doing a practice activity of 10

28. problems every other Friday, and cumulative practice by
assigning a weekly practice worksheet that includes addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division problems with whole
numbers and fractions.
Differentiation
In instruction based on differentiation, the classroom teacher
alters the delivery and content of instruction for students based
on each student's learning profile (i.e., how the student learns
best), readiness level, and interests (Tomlinson, 2001) (Figure
2.5). The teacher accepts that all students are individuals and
that each individual requires a different approach to instruction.
Unlike explicit instruction, which was developed to help
teachers of students with disabilities, the principles of
differentiation were formulated to help general classroom
teachers meet the needs of all students (Tomlinson, 2001). Like
explicit instruction, the principles of differentiation can be used
to teach any subject at any grade level.
Figure 2.5: Readiness, Interest, and Learning Profile
In differentiated instruction, teachers need to know the
individual readiness levels, interests, and learning profiles of
their students. When thinking about readiness, for example,
teachers should consider the background, knowledge, maturity,
and skills of the student for learning a specific topic.
Because the instruction is designed with an individual student in
mind, differentiated instruction can be a viable approach to
teaching students with disabilities (Dee 2011; Tomlinson,
2001). Students with disabilities have an Individualized
Education Program that warrants that the teacher design and
deliver instruction for the individual student, and differentiated
instruction provides a framework for this individualization.
Differentiated instruction is based on several principles
(Tomlinson, 2001):

29. Provide high-quality curriculum. Teachers need to understand
what students are expected to know as part of a curriculum, and
teach with the end in mind. Teachers should reflect upon what
is most important for students to know, understand, and be able
to do. Students should learn the strategies and skills necessary
to understand big ideas and concepts.
Continually assess students. Teachers need to constantly assess
students in a variety of ways. First, teachers should assess
student readiness before beginning a new unit. If any skills need
reteaching, teachers can determine this from the readiness
assessment. Teachers should also assess student interests so as
to play upon these interests during the unit. As teachers provide
instruction, students should be assessed informally (e.g.,
questions during instruction, journal writing, observations, exit
cards) and formally (e.g., quizzes, tests). After a unit, students
should demonstrate their learning through an assessment or
authentic learning task (e.g., writing a play about the Civil
Rights movement).
Assign respectful tasks. Students should be engaged in work
that challenges them, interests them, and is worthwhile.
Students may work on different types of assignments or
activities, based on their readiness and interest, but each of
these assignments or activities should be meaningful to them.
Differentiated instruction is not easier work for some students
and harder work for other students. Students should have some
choices during lessons in terms of how they will learn material
and demonstrate their knowledge of material.
Build community. Teachers should foster a classroom
environment that is welcoming and safe for all students.
Students should accept and support one another.
Use flexible grouping. Teachers need to use different types of
grouping in the classroom to differentiate instruction to best fit
the needs of the group. Some possible groupings include small
groups, partners, or whole class. In small groups or partners,
students may be grouped with students similar to or different
from them.

30. Teach up. Teachers should have high expectations for all
students. Each student in the classroom should be working at a
challenging level (for the student), and the teacher should
provide scaffolding to ensure success in the classroom.
Note that differentiated instruction provides more of a
framework for organizing the classroom and the lessons than an
approach to how to teach students with disabilities. For more
direction on how to teach, teachers may want to refer to the
elements of explicit instruction discussed previously.
Universal Design for Learning
Similar to differentiation, Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
is not a "one size fits all" approach to teaching; instead, it
emphasizes the needs of individual students and adjusts
instruction accordingly. As such, UDL principles can benefit
not only students in special education, but all students
(Jiménez, Graf, & Rose, 2007).
UDL is based on the concept of universal design in architecture,
which strives to make structures accessible to people with
disabilities. A building or structure that is universally designed,
for example, may have ramps, elevators, automatic doors, and
signs in Braille. The passage of the Americans with Disabilities
Act in 1990 mandated that all public buildings incorporate
elements of universal design for accessibility.
UDL makes educational opportunities accessible to all students,
similar to a public library being accessible to all library
patrons. UDL has three guiding principles: (1) use multiple
means of representation, (2) use multiple means of action and
expression, and (3) use multiple means of engagement (Stockall,
Dennis, & Miller, 2012). These principles come from research
on how the brain receives and interacts with information
(Evans, Williams, King, & Metcalf, 2010).
Researchers suggest that the brain has three networks:

31. recognition, strategic, and affective. The recognition network
deals with the "what" of learning and affects how students
organize information that they see, hear, and read. The strategic
network deals with the performance of tasks and allows students
to show what they are learning. The affective network deals
with "why" students engage in a lesson and allows them to be
motivated and interested in what they are learning. The
principles of UDL encourage teachers to engage these three
brain networks by presenting content in different ways,
allowing students to present what they have learned in different
ways, and allowing students to engage in the content in
different ways.
Like differentiated instruction, UDL provides a framework for
planning instruction for a variety of students in a classroom.
UDL, however, does not provide information on how to teach
students with disabilities. The elements of explicit instruction
are better suited for helping the teacher determine how to teach
students with disabilities.
Classroom Management
No matter what teaching approach is used, effective classroom
management is a prerequisite to effective instruction. Classroom
management is the general term for everything a teacher does in
the classroom to ensure that instruction occurs efficiently.
Classroom management involves how the teacher plans the
school day (e.g., when students will work on language arts or
when students will go to art class), how the teacher delivers
instruction so that all students pay attention and have the
opportunity to learn, how the teacher arranges the classroom
(e.g., desks are placed in rows rather than in groups), and how
the class transitions from one activity to another (e.g., how
students come into the classroom after lunch and get ready for
science instruction). Classroom management is essentially the
ability to consistently set and reinforce expectations that enable
all students to learn.

32. The first step to ensure adequate classroom management is to
give explicit directions for everything students should say and
do. Next, reinforce behavior fairly and consistently. To these
ends, teachers should develop a plan for how they will manage
their classroom that includes classroom organization and
procedures, rules, consequences, and positive incentive systems.
Room Organization
How a classroom is organized can facilitate efficient transitions
between and during learning activities. The placement of
student desks and seats is an important factor in organization
that determines a teacher's ability to move fluidly throughout
the lesson and address student behavior/participation (see
Figure 2.6 for one example). Students should be able to see the
teacher at all times without having to strain. Good organization
also facilitates classroom routines and procedures for common
student needs, such as lining up, passing out papers, and
locating materials.
Figure 2.6: Classroom Organization
This first-grade classroom has students sitting in groups at
tables. All students in the group can see the board without
having to turn their chairs around. The teacher also has a
learning rug for whole-class activities, such as reading a story
or watching a science experiment. Teachers should create a map
of their classroom, similar to this one, as part of their classroom
management plan.
Classroom Rules
Classroom rules should be few, clear, concise, positive, and
written in student-friendly language (Figure 2.7). They should
be applicable to every learning activity and remain the same all
year. The consequences of breaking rules should be age-
appropriate, be meaningful for students, and be scaffolded in a
way that students receive warnings before facing consequences
(e.g., staying in the classroom during recess or for afterschool
detention). Rules should be handled fairly, consistently, and in

33. a way that maintains student dignity.
Figure 2.7: Classroom Rules
Rules vary from classroom to classroom but should remain
positive—for example, "Walk" is more effective than "Don't
run." Children remember better what they are supposed to do
than what they are not supposed to do.
IDEA 2004 set forth guidelines for the discipline of students
with disabilities. First, schools cannot suspend students for
more than 10 days. If the student should be suspended for more
than 10 days, the IEP team needs to meet to determine whether
the behavior that brought on the suspension was a manifestation
of the student's disability or whether improper implementation
of the student's IEP led to the student's behavior. If the student's
behavior and disability are connected, the IEP team must
conduct a Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) and design
a Behavioral Intervention Plan (BIP). The FBA helps determine
when and why a student behaves in certain ways, and the BIP is
a proactive plan for avoiding negative behaviors. IDEA 2004
does state that students can be suspended for up to 45 days
without an IEP team evaluation if illegal drugs or weapons were
part of the student's violation or if the student threatened or
caused serious bodily injury.
Positive Behavior Support
All students—with and without disabilities—respond well to a
positive classroom reward system. Positive Behavior Support
(PBS) is a system that rewards and reinforces appropriate
student behavior. PBS can be implemented school-wide or
classroom-wide. With PBS, a school or classroom establishes a
positive environment with well-established rules so that
teachers can focus on delivering instruction. PBS is not a
packaged program; PBS is more of a framework for classroom
management.

34. This system can be particularly effective for students with
emotional or behavior disorders or ADHD. When the behavior
of students with disabilities interferes with their academic
performance, an FBA is conducted and a BIP developed (see
Chapter 4 for a discussion of this assessment and plan). The
BIP, and indeed any classroom management plan, must be
implemented consistently in a manner that teaches and
reinforces the desired behavior with students.
2.3 Collaboration Between Home and School
In designing teaching methods and environment, the input of
family members of students with disabilities can be invaluable
(Edwards & Da Fonte, 2012). Parents or guardians often have
very useful information on instructional strategies and support
that have been successful for their child in the past. Strong
communication and collaboration between educators and
parents/guardians are critical to ensure that students are
receiving the most support possible (Whitbread, Bruder,
Fleming, & Park, 2007).
The annual IEP meeting is a required interaction between the
home and school, but contact should not be limited to this time.
Rather, it should occur frequently throughout the year. The
special or general education teacher should make initial contact
with parents or guardians and facilitate ongoing communication
about the student's progress. When parents or guardians and
teachers work together, the relationship is beneficial for
everyone involved, especially the student.
2.4 Assessment of Students in Special Education
All schools are mandated by NCLB and IDEA 2004 to include
students with disabilities in school-wide assessments. Teachers
want to have effective classroom management programs in place
in order to deliver effective instruction so that, among other
outcomes, students perform successfully on assessments.
Most students in special education will participate in the regular
assessments, but with accommodations. Modified or alternate

35. assessments are possible, but NCLB dictates that no more than
2% of students with disabilities can take a modified or alternate
assessment (Fuchs, Seethaler, Fuchs, & Hamlett, 2008).
Typically, the IEP team determines which assessment (i.e.,
regular or modified) is appropriate for the student (Salend,
2008; Thurlow, Lazarus, Thompson, & Morse, 2005).
Assessment Accommodations
If a student requires accommodations during an assessment, the
accommodations must be outlined on the student's IEP. If the
accommodations are not listed on the student's IEP, the student
is not permitted to use the accommodations during an
assessment. Common accommodations for assessments include
the following (Bielinski, Ysseldyke, Bolt, Friedebach, &
Friedebach, 2001; Rieck & Wadsworth, 2005; Schulte, Elliott,
& Kratochwill, 2001; Thurlow et al., 2005):
Additional time (e.g., "time and a half" or untimed)
Items read aloud
Breaks during testing
Calculator
Larger print/answer bubbles
Multiple choice instead of constructed response
Scribe dictates answers
Testing in small group or individual setting
Typewritten essay
Modified/Alternate Assessments
When it is not reasonable for a student with a disability to
participate in the standard assessment, even with
accommodations, a modified or alternate assessment can be
used. Typically, students with disabilities that are significant
enough to mandate substantial modifications to a grade level
assessment are allowed to take a modified or alternate
assessment, but this must be no more than 2% of all students in
the school district, as mandated by NCLB. Portfolios of a
student's work are often used to demonstrate student knowledge.

36. A portfolio is a collection of student work; it can be paper-
based (e.g., an essay or worksheet), video-based, or anecdotal
(e.g., teacher observation of student performance). Rating scales
based on classroom observations or audio or video recordings of
a student's performance can also be created and assessed.
Government spending 500 Total profit 550
Private consumption expenditure 1000 Wages and salaries 900
Total investment 650 Benefits 250
Exports 150 Rent 400
Imports 50 Production subsidies 50
Indirect taxes 150 Depreciation of capital 50
1- Using the above data, Calculate the gross national product
through income in billion dollar :
2- According to the previous data, calculate the gross national
product by outcome in billion dollar:
3- If the function of consumption x= 100 + 0.8L, and the
investment(i) = 100 billion, answer the following:
A- By using the function, the consumption when L = 1000
billion dollar:
B- calculate the Average (inclination )mileage of consumption
when income L = $ 1000 billion:
C- What is the balanced income of this simplified economy? By
using function of consumption:

37. Government spending 500 Total profit 550
Private consumption expenditure 1000 Wages and salaries 900
Total investment 650 Benefits 250
Exports 150 Rent 400
Imports 50 Production subsidies 50
Indirect taxes 150 Depreciation of capital 50
1- Using the above data, Calculate the gross national product
through income in billion dollar :
2- According to the previous data, calculate the gross national
product by outcome in billion dollar:
3- If the function of consumption x= 100 + 0.8L, and the
investment(i) = 100 billion, answer the following:
A- By using the function, the consumption when L = 1000
billion dollar:
B- calculate the Average (inclination )mileage of consumption
when income L = $ 1000 billion:
C- What is the balanced income of this simplified economy? By
using function of consumption:
Inclusion Chart
Inclusion Age Range
Instructional Focus and/or Options
Benefits Specific to Age Group
Possible Issue’s to Consider

38. Early Childhood Inclusion
Elementary Inclusion
Secondary Inclusion